2018

Learning Material

Sugeng Hariyanto

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 TABLE OF CONTENTS

Chapter 1: Definition of Translation and Translation Models

Chapter 2: Translation Equivalence
Chapter 3: Linguistic-Based Translation Theories
Chapter 4: Translation Principles, Methods, and Strategies
Chapter 5: Word-Level Equivalence
Chapter 6: Above-Word Level Equivalence
Chapter 7: Grammatical Equivalence
Chapter 8: Meaning, Message and Style
Chapter 9: Translation Errors

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 CHAPTER 1
TRANSLATION AND TRANSLATION MODELS

(taken from Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2018. Practical Theories of Translation)

Nowadays, the word “translation” may refer to three things (Munday, 2001: 4-5). It
can refer to the general subject field, the process and the product. The first, translation can
be seen as a field of study. As a general subject field, translation is a discipline which
concerns itself with problems raised by production and description of translations (Lafevere
in Shuttleworth and Cowie, 1997: 183). When talking about definition of translation, experts
usually focus on translation as a process. And therefore, usually the experts propose a
model of translation.

Translation as a process

According to Brislin (1976: 1) translation is a general term referring to the

transfer of thoughts and ideas from one language to another, whether the language is in
written or oral form, whether the languages have established orthographies or not; or
whether one or both languages is based on signs, as with signs of the deaf.

Source text (ST) Target text (TT)

in source language (SL) in target language (TL)

Another expert, Wilss (1982: 3), states that translation is a transfer process which
aims at the transformation of a written source language text (SLT) into an optimally
equivalent target language text (TLT), and which requires the syntactic, the semantic, and
the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of the source text. Syntactic
understanding is related to style and meaning. Understanding of semantics is meaning
related activity. Finally, pragmatic understanding is related to the message or implication of
a sentence. This definition does not state what is transferred. Rather, it states the
requirement of the process. From this definition, translation process is seen as more
complicated.

Newmark (1991: 27) defines the act of translating very briefly. It is the act of
transferring meaning of a stretch or a unit of language, the whole or a part, from one
language to another.

Many translation experts propose their definitions of translation based on their

ideas, whether translation is seen as a process or a product. According to Brislin (1976: 1),
who sees translation as a process, translation is a general term referring to the transfer of
thoughts and ideas from one language to another, whether the language is in written or oral

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form, whether the languages have established orthographies or not; or whether one or both
languages are based on signs, as with signs of the deaf. Similarly, according to Wills (1982:
3), translation is a transfer process which aims at the transformation of a written source
language text (ST) into an optimally equivalent target language text (TT), and which requires
the syntactic, the semantic and the pragmatic understanding and analytical processing of
the source text. While according to Hartmann and Stork (in Bell, 1991: 6), translation is the
replacement of a text in one language by a representation of an equivalent text in a second
language. Seeing it as a product, Dubois (in Bell, 1991: 5) sees translation as the expression
in another language (or target language) of what has been expressed in other (source
language), preserving semantic and stylistic equivalences.

Catford’s Model of Translation

Everybody acknowledges that translating involves producing a text in a language

based on another text in another language. Yet, many experts have different opinions in
how translation actually or should proceed in its actual course and how it should be seen.
Catford (1965: 20), for example, states that translation may be defined as: “the replacement
of textual material in one language by equivalent textual material in another language (TL)”.
This idea can be illustrated with a simple representation below. Here translation is only a
transcoding process. Transcoding presupposes that there is one-to-one correspondence
between form, code and message of the ST and that of TT (Dunne, 2006: 107). See Figure
1.1.

Figure 1.1. Translation as a Transcoding Process

Nida’s Model of Translation

Nida and Taber (1982: 12) see translating as a process of reproducing in the receptor
language the closest natural equivalent of the source language message, first in terms of
meaning and secondly in terms of style. In other words, translation is a transfer of meaning,
message, and style from one SLT to the TLT. In the order of priority, style is put the last.
Here the things to reproduce (transfer) is stated, message.

The second theory of translation that uses ideas from linguistics is Nida’s (1964,
1969). He applies Chomsky’s ideas in building his translation theory. Chomsky’s generative-
transformational grammar examines language at two levels: deep and surface levels. The
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meaning in the deep level is embodied in basic structures called kernel sentences. Then,
with transformational rules, these basic structures are transformed into surface structures
in the surface level. He applies the Transformational Grammar idea to translation, viewing
translation as a process of analyzing, transferring, and restructuring. ‘Meaning’ always
comes prior to ‘form’ (Nida, 1993:22). See Figure 1.2.

Figure 1.2. Nida’s Model of Translation

In this model, ST surface structures (ST sentences) are analyzed to identify linguistic
kernel structures. In this kernel level message is transferred into receptor language before
being transferred to the TL surface structure. Thus, the translator transfers the message into
the TL in this deep level and restructures it into the TT. Such a model is also called a
meaning-based translation model (Dunne, 2006: 108). Further, his definition of translation is
“Translating consists of reproducing in the receptor language the closest natural equivalent
of the source-language message, first in terms of meaning and secondly in terms of form.”
The ultimate aim is, then, an equivalence where the effect of the natural TT on the TT
readers is the same as the effect of ST to the ST readers. This is what he calls dynamic
equivalence. This is contrasted to formal equivalence which searches for similarity of TT to
ST in terms of the form and content of the message (Nida, 1964, Nida and Taber, 1969).
With this theory, Nida directs attention to the effect of translation on the TT readers, away
from word-for-word and sense-for-sense translation. Therefore, it can be said that in his
translation theory, he draws on linguistics ideas to explain the process but on pragmatic
ideas to illustrate the ultimate goal of translation.

Nida’s ideas seem to have influenced Newmark (1981, 1988). Realizing that
equivalent effect on TT readers is illusory, he proposes two types of translation, namely
semantic and communicative translation which is comparable to formal and dynamic
equivalence (Munday, 2001). He describes it as follows:

Communicative translation attempts to produce on its readers an effect as

close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original. Semantic
translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic
structures of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of
the original (Newmark, 1981: 39).

What is new in Newmark’s perspective is that literal translation is not contrasted

against communicative translation or any other translation methods. For him, literal
translation is the best approach if equivalent effect can be maintained. Thus, literal

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translation may exist in semantic and communicative translation. Different from Nida,
Newmark does not propose any model of how translation proceeds, and he does not talk
about the effect of TT on TT readers. In other words, he pulls translation back into the realm
of linguistics. Newmark (1991: 27) defines the act of translationg as transferring the
meaning of a text, from one language to another, taking care mainly of the functional
relevant meaning.
His translation model can be simply represented as follows:

SL Text TL text

Comprehension Formulation

Figure 1.3. Newmark’s model of translation

In the comprehension stage, a translator should consider a lot of things as a text is

influenced by several aspects which may be different among languages. See the picture
below. There are many opposing forces that influence the translation process.

Figure 1.4. The dynamic of translation

And remember, Newmark emphasize a functional translation which he terms as

“communicative translation”. He considers two types of translation: semantic and
communicative, although he states that the majority of texts require communicative rather
than semantic translation. Communicative translation is strictly functional. Semantic
translation is linguistic and encyclopaedic and is generally the work of one translator.

He works with three propositions:

 "the more important the language of a text, the more closely it should be
translated";

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  "the less important the language of a text... the less closely it needs to be
translated";
 "The better written a text, the more closely it should be translated, whatever its
degree of importance..."

In a text there are many types of meaning and the translator has to choose the
most important meaning to transfer to another language. (Read about meaning in another
chapter).

Larson’s Model of Translation

Another meaning based translation model is proposed by Larson (1984) but in less
elaborate accounts from linguistic perspective. The model consists of discovering the
meaning, by analysis, in the source text and re-expressing the meaning in the target text of
the target or receptor language. The model is illustrated in Figure 1.3.

Figure 1.5. Meaning-Based Translation Model by Larson

Translation, for Larson (1984: 3), then, “consists of studying lexicon, grammatical
structure, communication situation, and cultural context of the source language text,
analyzing it in order to determine its meaning, and then reconstructing this meaning using
the lexicon and grammatical structure which are appropriate in the receptor language (TL)
and its cultural context.”

From the above charts, we can see that all processes involve “understanding
(comprehending) the source text”. The comprehension is obtained through series of
analysis. The analysis can be on the word meaning, sentence structure, the purpose of the
text, the tone of the text, etc.

Tick the correct box below about text analysis in translation and transaltion process.

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 Statement Yes No

A translator should do a reading activity to know the content of the

text before translating.

A translator should analyze the purpose of the text before

translating.

A translator should analyze the syntax (sentence structure) used in

the text before translating.

A translator may change the syntax of a sentence in the TL text (so

it is not the same of the original syntax in the SL).

A translator should analyze the tone of the text (e.g. friendly,

ironical, funny, etc.), formality degree of the text, etc. before
translating.

A translator can know the the tone of the text (e.g. friendly,
ironical, funny, etc.) and formality degree of the text by analyzing
the vocabulary and syntax used in the text.

A translator need not understand the readers of the TL.

A translator may adjust a text to suit the readers of the TL.

Translation methods

There are many translation methods. Different experts propose their own ideas.
Newmark (1988) also proposes some translation methods. He mentions the difference
between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes that, "[w]hile
translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for sentences
and the smaller units of language". Further discussion on translation procedures will be
presented in another chapter.

Newmark (1988) draws these methods as a continuum from one end that
emphasizes the Source language (SL) and the target language (TL). Look at the picure below.
Emphasizing SL means that the translation tries to maintain the characteritics of SL text. In
contrast, emphasizing TL means that the translation tries to adjust the tartget text so that it
reads natural like an original text in TL.

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 Figure 1.6. Translation methods by Newmark (1988)

Below are the translation methods according to him.

1. Word-for-word translation: it is a translation in which the SL word order is preserved and

the words translated singly by their most common meanings, out of context.

A beautiful lady = seorang cantik wanita

2. Literal translation: it is a translation in which the SL grammatical constructions are

converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical words are again translated
singly, out of context.

A beautiful lady = seorang wanita cantik

3. Faithful translation: it attempts to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original
within the constraints of the TL grammatical structures.

4. Semantic translation: which differs from 'faithful translation' only in as far as it must take
more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text.

5. Adaptation: it is the freest form of translation, and is used mainly for plays (comedies)
and poetry; the themes, characters, plots are usually preserved, the SL culture is
converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten.

6. Free translation: it produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original.

7. Idiomatic translation: it reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort
nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in
the original.

8. Communicative translation: it attempts to render the exact contextual meaning of the

original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable and
comprehensible to the readership (1988b: 45-47).

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Exercise:

Read the following text.

Packaging is the manufacturer’s last chance to seduce the customer. In today’s highly competitive
marketplace, many products are almost identical. So branding is not enough. A producer has to
differentiate. One of the decisions is to create unique packaging to communicate the difference that
makes a product the best choice. More than that, many purchasing decisions are made at the point of
sale. In addition, because most stores are self-service, your product is alone on the shelf, surrounded
by its competitors. Exactly your product should be attractive, effective and distinctive.

1. Translate the sentnces below using word for word translation method and literal
translation method.

Word-for-word literal
One of the decisions is to create
unique packaging to
communicate the difference that
makes a product the best choice.

2. Translate the sentence below using free translation method and adaptation.

Free translation adaptation

One of the decisions is to create
unique packaging to
communicate the difference that
makes a product the best choice.

3. Analyze the text based on the purpose, tone of text, and syntax. Underline the words
that according to you need special attention.

4. Translate the text into Indonesian using the best way based on the result of analysis.

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 CHAPTER 2
TRANSLATION EQUIVALENCE
(taken from Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2018. Practical Theories of Translation)

In linguistic-based translation theory, the concept of “equivalence” is one of the main points
as translating is basically producing the target text that is equivalent with the source text.
The word “equivalent” or “equivalence” means “similar” or “having the same or similar
effect.” Equivalence is the similarity between a word (or expression) in one language and its
translation in another.

Example:

 English: I like the book.

 Indonesia: Saya suka buku itu.

The two sentences are equivalent. Equivalence exists in the relation of the two sentences.
The Indonesian sentence can be said as the translation of the English sentence as there is
equivalence among them.

Types of Equivalence according to Nida

According to Nida, there are two types of equivalence, i.e. formal equivalence and dynamic
equivalence. Formal equivalence 'focuses attention on the message itself, in both form and
content'. Therefore, the translation tries to adhere to the SL text as closely as possible in
terms of language (vocabulary) and structure and also meaning. The text tends to be
translated literally.

Dynamic equivalence is the "quality of a translation in which the message of the

original text has been so transported into the receptor language that the response of the
receptor is essentially like that of the original receptors" (Nida, 1969). It is based on “the
principle of equivalent effect”. In this sort of translation the emphasis is on the “dynamic
relationship” between message and receptor. To achieve such equivalence, a translator is
free to use his/her own words/expression. According to Catford such translations is also
called ‘free' translation.

According to Nida, formal equivalence translation is source-oriented and dynamic

translation is target oriented. Formal equivalence would naturally keep close to the original
in the usage of words, grammatical units and meanings. In contrast, it is said that dynamic
equivalence is target oriented as it pays attention to the TL receptor. Nida himself defines a
dynamic equivalence translation as “the closest natural equivalent to the source-language
message”. A translation is ‘natural' when it blends seamlessly with the receptor language

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and culture. There should be no unfamiliar sentence constructions, strange expression, etc.
in dynamic equivalence translation. Therfereo, adjustments at the levels of grammar and
lexicon is needed.

Types of Equivalence according to Albrecht Neubert

According to Neubert, translation equivalence should be seen as a semiotic category

consisting of semantic, syntactic, and pragmatic components. Semantic equivalence is the
top priority after which comes syntactic equivalence. Semantic equivalence means meaning
equivalence. Syntax equivalemce means sentgence structure equivalence. For these two
categories, equivalence is related to the relation between words and the things or ideas
referred to. Pragmatic equivalence is related to the people who do the activities.

Example:
 English: I have a flower.
 Indonesian: Batang saya punya.

The two sentences are not equivalent in terms of semantic and syntax.

Example:
 English: You are the apple of my eye.
 Indonesia: Engkaulah yang paling kusayangi.

The two sentences above have pragmatic equivalence.

Types of Equivalence according to Koller

Koller (1979/1989) indetifies five types of equivalence: (a) denotative, (b)

connotative, (c) text-normative, (d) pragmatic, and (e) formal equivalence. First, denotative
equivalence is related to equivalence of the reference a word or text. This is the equivalence
of the signified, to put in in Sausurrean term. The linguistic unit related to this kind of
equivalence is lexis or words. This can be studied by comparing the vocabulary of source
language and target language.

The second type, connotative equivalence, refers to the sameness of the association of
the words in the source language and target language. These words are usually near-
synonyms. Koller also calls this as ‘stylistic equivalence’. The word “ambition” in English and
“ambisi” in Indonesian are not connotatively equivalents since they bring abot different
associations in the corresponding readers. However, they have formal equivalence. To
discuss this kind of equivalence, one can study the formality level, social usage, geographical
origin, stylistic effect, frequency, vocabulary range, or emotion evoked by words (Munday,
2008: 48).

Third, text-normative equivalence is related to the the use of words or expression in the
same context or text type. A word in English is said to have text-normative equivalence with
a word in Indonesian if the two words are the appropriate words used in the same context
or text type. This can be studied from the usage of the words or expression in certain

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communicative function or text types. Fourth, pragmatic equivalence, or ‘communicative
equivalence’, is related to the same effect created by the words in the source text and the
target text. This is the effect which is comparable to the effect attained by Newmark’s
communicative and Nida’s dynamic translation. This can be researched by studying
communicative purpose or condition within certain context and readership.

Finally, formal equivalence is related to the text form and aesthetics. This is related to
the sameness of the signifier. This is like Nida’s formal, Newmark’s semantic equivalence. As
the rendering of forms are notable in the translation of expressive text type, this equivalent
is also called ‘expressive equivalence’ by Koller. This can be studied by observing the
translation of rhyme, metaphor and other expressive forms.

Level of Equivalence
One interesting idea on equivalence is presented by Baker (1992) in her book In
Other Words. She proposes a typology of equivalence. She identifies five levels of
equivalence in translation: (a) at word level equivalence, (b) above-word level equivalence,
(c) grammatical equivalence, (d) textual equivalence (thematic and information structure;
cohesion), and (e) pragmatic equivalence.

Within “at-word level equivalence” Baker discuses the equivalence of lexical

meaning, semantic field and lexical sets. Next, above-wod level equivalence refers to the
equivalence of collocation and idioms and fixed expressions. Here collocation and idioms
that have the same or similar meaning and similar form in the target language should be
used to gain equivalence. If similar collocation is not available in the target language, new
collocation can be created (Baker, 1992:52). If such idioms are not available, look for the
ones with similar meaning and different form. Finally, when the later are not available,
paraphrase can be used (Baker, 1992:72-77).

In “grammatical equivalence”, she reminds that grammatical rules may vary across
languages and this may create problems for translators. Thus, to achieve grammatical
equivalence a translator does not have to use similar grammar of the source language.
Sometimes it even urges translator to omit or add certain information in the target text to
compensate the difference in grammatical rules. Remember that in Indonesian, there is no
unique linguistic aspects for tense, voice, person, gender, etc. as grammatical aspects that
English has.

Within “textual equivalence” refers to the similarity of the quality of the text in the
target language. Textual equivalence here refers to the equivalence between a SL text and a
TL text in terms of information and cohesion.

For the “pragmatic equivalence”, she points out the need for equivalence in terms
of coherence, presupposition, and implicature. A translator needs to put across the implied
meaning in the target text as the role of the translator is to recreate the author’s intention
in another culture that would be well understood by the target audience.

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Exercise:

Read the following text. And do the instruction.

Packaging design is used to capture customers’ attention as they are shopping or glancing
through a catalog or website. This is particularly important for customers who are not
familiar with the product and in situations, such as those found in grocery stores, where a
product must stand out among thousands of other products.

1. Analyse the text for the purpose and degree of formality.

2. Underline the group of words that are taken as one unit in finding its equivalence in
the TL. The example is “packaging design”.

3. Translate the text into Indonesian and underline the equivalent unit of the ones you
underline.

4. What kinds of equivalence do you have?

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 CHAPTER 3
LINGUISTIC-BASED TRANSLATION THEORIES
(taken from Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2018. Practical Theories of Translation)

The theoreticization of the act of translation has been done from the time of Cicero and
Horace (Hodges, no date). However, the theory developed fast during the second half of the
20th Century starting with the theory of Nida, Catford, and other theoretician. Different
experts also identify and categorize these theories differently. For the sake of simplicity and
in line with the purpose of this book, the theories are classified into two main categories
here: language-as-a-sign-system translation theories (structural-linguistic-based theory) and
language function and communication translation theories (functional linguistic theory,
pragmatics, etc.).

LINGUISTIC-BASED
TRANSLATION
THEORIES

Language-as-a-Sign- Language Function

System Translation and Communication
Theories Translation Theories

A. Language-as-a-Sign-System Translation Theories

As it is suggested by its name, language-as-a-sign-system translation theory draws on

the theories of structural linguistics. The main point of discussion of these theories is
linguistic equivalence on word level up to text level. According to Hodges (on line), the
theories drawing on the structural linguistics are represented by the work of Roman
Jakobson, Eugene Nida, Newmark, Koller, Vinay, Darbelnet, Catford, and Leuven-Zwart. The
language-as-communication theories can be detected in the works of Katharina Reiss, Holz-
Manttari, Vermeer, Nord, Halliday, Julianne House, Mona Baker, Hatim, and Mason. These
are the linguists who, according to Hodges, are the most prominent theoreticians
representing the linguistic schools. Following this list, the main translation theories from the
above experts are reviewed briefly here.

De Saussure introduces the term langue and parole about a language. It is said that
language has two facets: langue (linguistic system which is fairly stable) and parole (the real
utterance produced in the language). Linguistics is the study of langue (fairly stable linguistic

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system). Structural linguistics is an approach to language and language study based on the
concept that language is a system of signs. The sign has two interrelated elements, namely
‘signifier’ and ‘signified’. The ‘signifier” is a means (sound or written code) that represents
the idea or concept (called ‘signified’).

This idea of sign system was initiated by De Saussure in 1916 and soon impacted
language studies in USA and Europe. Many linguists then developed ideas based on this
basic concept. In USA, for example, we can see the ideas of Bloomfield and in Europe those
of Roman Jakobson who adapt structural analysis into disciplines beyond linguistics,
including translation. Here we start reviewing translation linguistic-oriented translation
theory from the ideas of Roman Jakobson.

Roman Jakobson

Roman Jakobson is the first structural linguist to talk about translation. His ideas are
written in an article entitled “On Linguistic Aspects of Translation” published in 1956. He
believes that meaning is with the signifier and not in the signified. According to him, there
are three types of translation, namely intralingual, interlingual and intersemiotic translation.
Intralingual translation is the rewriting of meaning in one same language. The form can be
rewording, paraphrasing, summarizing, or other form of re-expression in the same language.
Interlingual translation is the rewriting of meaning in another language. This is what we
generally call translation nowadays. Finally, intersemiotic translation is the re-expression of
meaning from a written text into a different system of meaning or form, e.g. from a novel
into a movie.

This is Jakobson's discussion about equivalence in interlingual translation that places

him among the translation theoreticians from structural linguistics. First of all, he bases his
idea on Saussure's idea of signifier and signified. Signifier is a name or a word, and the
signified is the object or concept referred to by the signifier. But, the relation between the
sigfinier and the signified is arbitrary. The signifier 'tree' for example, represent the the
object 'tree' in the real world. As it is known, every language may have different
grammatical rules and lexical form (words). Therefore, a concept in one language can be
reworded in other language with possibly different meaning. In other words, translation can
be done with no really equivalent meaning.

He states that ordinarily there is no full equivalent between words in different

languages. For example, the word "keinginan" in Indonesian is not fully equivalent with
"ambition" in English. The semantic field of the words is different across the two languages.
Therefore, according to Jakobson, interlingual translation involves substituting the entire
message, not the meaning of individual word (code-unit) in another language (Jakobson,
1959/2000).

For Jakobson, this meaning is actually universal; it is the linguistic rules and
terminology which are not the same across languages. Therefore, the main point in
translation is how to re-express the meaning in a different language with different
grammatical rules and terminology or lexicon. His famous statement is “equivalence in
difference is the cardinal problem of language and the pivotal concern of linguistics.” For

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him, equivalence in meaning is not the problem. All language can render semantic meanings
expressed in other language. The problem is how the other language re-expresses the
meaning in different obligatory grammatical and lexical forms (Munday, 2000:37). In other
word, the translator faces a problem if the grammar and words used in the source text have
no equivalent in the target language. However, using a componential analysis, any word can
be substituted. To translate the word "menggendong", for example, a translator can analyze
the semantic component and describe the result in an English phrase “carry on the back”.
Other ways to substitute such words is by using ‘loan words’ and ‘neologisms’. To
compensate the absence of equivalent structure in the target language, the translator can
substitute the entire message, not the structure of the source text.

Thus, for Jakobson, all texts and linguistic forms can be translated, except poetry
because in poetry form expresses sense, in which ‘phonemic similarity is sensed as semantic
relationship’ (Munday, 2000: 37). It does not mean that poetry cannot be translated at all.
To translate poetry, creative transposition is required, not only componential analysis that is
needed (see Munday, 2000: 37).

Eugene Nida

Nida’s theory of translation draws on Chomsky’s ideas. One of the famous Chomsky’s ideas
is deep structure and surface structure. Deep structure is the meaning and representation in
the brain. And surface structure is its representation in the actual speech. Some
transformational rules transform the deep structure into a surface structure. Chomsky’s
idea about this is succinctly summarized by Munday (2000: 40) into the following:

(1) Phrase-structure rules generate an underlying or deep structure which is

(2) transformed by transformational rules relating one underlying structure to another

(e.g. active to passive), to produce

(3) a final surface structure, which itself is subject to phonological and morphemic
rules.

Thus, the deep structure “John marries Marry” can be transformed into “John marries
Marry” or “Marry is married by John.”

According to Nida and Taber, as kernel is the 'basic structural elements out of which
language builds its surface structures', it is also the basic elements of message in a text for
translation. By reversing the model, Nida (and Taber) illustrate the process of translation as
follows:

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 Figure 3.1. System of Translation (Nida, 1969)

It can be seen in the picture that the surface structure (A) of the ST is analyzed into basic
elements of the deep structure (X). These basic elements of the deep structure are
transferred into the target language’s basic elements of the deep structure (Y). These deep
structures are restructured into the surface structure of the target language (B).

The basic elements of the deep structure are derived from the source text surface
structure by a reductive process called back transformation by analyzing using four types of
functional class of generative transformational grammar. The four types of functional class
are (a) events, (b) objects, (c) abstracts, and (d) relationals. Events are often performed by
verbs and objects by nouns. Abstracts refer to quantities and qualities, including adjectives.
Finally, relationals include gender, prepositions and conjunctions.

Nida (1964a) gives the following examples of two different constructions with the
preposition of.

1) Surface structure: will of God

Back transformation: B (object, God) performs A (event, wills)

2) Surface structure: creation of the world

Back transformation: B (object, the world) performs A (event, creates)

The translation is successful, according to him, if the target text conveys the meaning
or message of the original in 'complete naturalness of expression' and elicits an equivalent
response from the target text reader as the source text does from the source text reader.
Because the most important thing is the effect elicited, meaning is prioritized over style. The
criticism is the subjective aspect of his model (e.g. how is "equivalent response" to be
measured) and his strong orientation towards the target text readers.

In addition to this model, Nida also introduce the concept of formal equivalence and
dynamic equivalence.

Nida (1964a) states that formal equivalence focuses attention on the message itself,
in both form and content . . . One is concerned that the message in the receptor language
should match as closely as possible the different elements in the source language (Nida
1964a: 159). He further states that dynamic, or functional, equivalence is based on what

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 17

Nida calls ‘the principle of equivalent effect’, where ‘the relationship between receptor
and message should be substantially the same as that which existed between the original
receptors and the message’ (Nida 1964a: 159). Further discussion on this can be seen in
another chapter “Translation Equivalence” in this book.

Peter Newmark

Newmark’s theory of translation can be briefly presented as “semantic translation”

and “communicative translation”. This is in response to Nida’s formal and dynamic
equivalence. One of the reason for Newmark to criticize the formal-dynamic equivalence is
that the illusory nature of equivalent effect. No one can know the expected effect of the
text written in an ancient time and none can predict the effect of the target readers in the
future time (Munday, 2000: 44).

For Newmark (1981: 39), Communicative translation attempts to produce on its

readers an effect as close as possible to that obtained on the readers of the original.
Semantic translation attempts to render, as closely as the semantic and syntactic structures
of the second language allow, the exact contextual meaning of the original.

The difference between semantic translation and literal translation lies on the
respect of context. Semantic translation respects the context in rendering the source text.
Literal translation does not respect the context. Both, however, tries to maintain the
semantic and syntactice structure as closely as possible. In communicative translation, on
the other hand, the emphasis is on the rendering of the similar effect on the readers.
Semantic translation is oriented in the source text writer, but communicative translation
focuses on target text readers. So the translation is smoother, simpler, and clearer as
compared to semantic translation.

In addition to the distinction of translation into semantic and communicative

translation, Newmark also presents several translation procedures (see the chapter on
Translation Principles, Methods, and Strategies). In addition to that, literal translation is
seen as the best for semantic and communicative translation if the equivalent effect is
obtained.

Viney and Darbelnet

One of the bases for Viney and Darbelnet’s theory is Saussurean linguistics (Fawcett,
1997: 34). They make use of the concept of langue/parole, signifier/signified, the structure
of language in the level of grammar, lexis and message, the textual and situational level.

According to Vinay and Darbelnet (1958/1995: 21), the translation unit is not a word
as an individual signifier. Rather, a translation unit is ‘the smallest segment of the utterance
whose signs are linked in such a way that they should not be translated individually because
translators focus on the semantic field rather than formal properties of the words (Vinay
and Darbelnet, 1958/1995: 21). Hatim and Munday (2004: 18) state that they attempt to
equate unit of translation to ‘unit of thought’ and ‘lexicological unit’. The three (unit of

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 18

translation, lexicological unit, unit of thought) are said to convey the same thought, but with
different emphasis as seen from different points of view. A unit of translation is a
lexicological unit containing grouped lexical elements that form a unit of thought. The
French lexicological unit "simple soldat" contains “simple” and “soldat”. Although it has two
lexical elements, it forms one unit of thought, i.e. a soldier of the lowest military rank, or
“kopral” in Indonesian.

In relation to words within a text, there are three types of units of translation: (a)
simple unit, (b) diluted unit, and (c) fractional unit. Simple unit contain one single word. See
the example below:

SL: I have five books.

TL: Saya mempunyai lima buku.

In the example, each word is a unit of translation that can be translated individually
with no sentence structure change required.

Diluted unit of translation contains several words to form a lexicological unit as the
unit expresses a single idea. See the case of “simple soldat” above. Finally, fractional unit of
translation consists of a fraction of a word. For the unit “re-“ in the word “re-express”. The
translator is still aware that the word “re-express” comprises “re” and “express”.

The other legacy of Vinay and Darbelnet is translation techniques (borrowing,

calque, literal translation, transposition, modulation, equivalence, and adaptation) which
can be seen in another chapter of this part.

J.C. Catford

Catford introduces the terms formal correspondence and textual equivalence and
also translation shift. Formal correspondent, according to Catford, is ‘any category (unit,
class, structure, element of structure, etc.) which can be said to occupy, as nearly as
possible, the 'same' place in the 'economy" of the TL as the given SL category occupies in the
SL." (Cartford, 1965: 27). Thus, the word “door” in English is the formal correspondent of
the word “pintu” in Indonesian because the word “door” plays the same role in English as
the word “pintu” plays in Indonesian. Therefore, formal correspondence is related to
comparison and description of the language systems, not with specific ST-TT pairs which are
related to textual equivalence (Hatim and Munday, 2004: 27). Textual equivalent is any TL
text or portion of it which is equivalent to a certain SL test or portion of it. (ST and TT are the
parole and categories of linguistic units are the langue.)

Any deviation from the formal correspondence in the target text as a result of
translating process is called translation shift. In other words, translation shift occurs if the
translation equivalent in a TT is not the formal correspondent of the respective words of the
source text. However, we should be aware that translation process may result in shifts and
in non-shifts. A shift can be obligatory (called servitude) if the system of the TT requires it, or
optional (called option) if the shift is done for non-obligatory reason, such as stylistic or
other reasons. See the following example of shift:

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 19

 ST: No smoking

TT: Dilarang merokok

A translation shift occurs here; the translation equivalent “dilarang merokok” is not
the formal correspondent of “No smoking”, which should be “tidak merokok”. “Dilarang
Merokok” is called textual equivalence. Thus, translation can be done through formal
correspondence and textual equivalence. Either way, translation does not transfer meaning,
but replace the source language meaning with target language meaning because the two
equivalent utterances in ST and TT do not have exactly the same meaning (Fawcet, 1997:
54-55).

Further Catford categorizes the translation shifts into two main shifts: level shift and
category shift. A level shift occurs if a SL item at one linguistic level has a TL translation
equivalent at a different linguistic level. The example is below.

ST: She is walking alone

TT: Dia sedang berjalan sendirian

In the example above, the “-ing” (a bound morpheme) is translated into a lexicon
(free morpheme) ‘sedang’.

Next, a category shift occurs if the translation of a word or phrase is deviating from
its formal correspondence in the target text. Category shifts are further classified as
structure shifts, class shift, unit-shift, and intra-system shift. Below is the short description
of each of the shifts.

(a) Structure shift involve mostly a shift in grammatical structure. In other word, it is the
changing of word sequence in the TLT. See the example below:
ST: Your order has been sent via express courier service.

TT: Kami telah mengirim pesanan Anda dengan layanan pengiriman kilat.

In this example, there is a shift from passive voice into active voice sentence
structure.

(b) Class shift occurs when the translation equivalent of SL item is a member of a
different class from the original linguistic item class. It is the shift from one part of
speech in SLT to another part of speech in TLT. See the example below.
ST: We had a very nice talk.

TT: Kami berbicara sangat menyenangkan.

In the example above, the noun “talk” is translated into a verb “berbicara”.

(c) Unit-shift occurs if the translation equivalent of a unit at one rank in the SL is a unit
at a different rank in the TL. It is a shift from one linguistic unit (e.g. word) in SLT into
another linguistic unit of a different hierarchical position (e.g. phrase). The linguistic
units may be sentence, clause, group, word, or morpheme. See the example below.
ST: son

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 TT: anak laki-laki

In the example above, the original word unit “son” is translated into a phrase (anak
laki-laki).

(d) Intra-system shift is a shift within a language system. In this case, SL and TL have
formal correspondence, but the translator chooses a non-corresponding term in the
TL. For example, “rabbits” actually can be translated into “kelinci-kelinci” because
the plural form of a noun in Indonesian can be created by repeating the noun;
however, the translator chooses “kelinci” instead of “kelinci-kelinci” in TLT. See the
sentence example below.
ST: This is the place for rabbits.

TT: Ini tempat untuk kelinci.

If we think over about the various theories under the structural linguistic influence,
we notice that they start from the source language or source text and how the source text
can be transferred into a target text equivalently. The main topic of discussion is equivalent.
They are about how to create an equivalent text based on the features of the source text
with or without considering the features of the target text.

However, translation in real life is not about the text only. It is about the
communication which is helped by the translation. Therefore, theoretical approaches to
translation which consider the aspects of communication are needed. Here comes the
importance of identifying language-function and communication translation theories. The
departure point from the language-as-a-sign-system is the concept of language function in
communication. Word, sentence, utterance, and text are all “form”, “significant” (signifier)
which relates to the concept or meaning which is termed “signifie” (signified). On the other
hand, language function is not related with this linguistic sign. This is an extra-linguistic
concept. This is about communication purpose.

B. Language-Function and Communication Translation Theories

What I mean by language function and communication translation theory is the one
drawing on the ideas from language functions in relation to communication. A protion of
this theory is also called functionalist theory of translation (Munday, 2001). The theories
include the ones of Reiss, Snell-Hornby, Holz-Manttari, Verneer and Nord. The category of
Language-Function and Communication Translation Theory here covers these ideas and
beyond, including Julianne House, Mona Baker, Hatim, and Mason.

Functionalist approaches in general believe that the function of a text in the target
culture determines the method of translation. In the previous discussion, we see that
linguistic-based approaches see that the source text determines the nature of the target
text. Now let’s start discussing Language-Function and Communication Translation Theory
from functionalist approach theory.

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Katahrina Reiss

Reiss bases her theory on Buhler’s idea on language function. According to Buhler
(1965), language can fulfill three types of function, i.e. representational function, connative
function, and expressive function. A representational function is served by language signs
(text, utterance, sentence, etc.) when they refer to objects and facts in the real world.
Second, a conative function is fulfilled when they appeal to the readers or hearers and
influence their behaviours. Third, an expressive function is met when they express the inner
state of the speaker. This can be seen in the illustration below.

Figure 3.2. Buhler’s three language functions

Based on this, Reiss (1971) identifies the three text types which are restated again in
1977. If the text serves the representational function, it is classified as informative text. If
the text fulfills the conative function, the type is operative text. Finally, if the text serves the
expressive function, the type is expressive text. In addition to these three text types, Reiss
(1977/89) mentions “audio-medial texts”. This is a text which has music, visual images, etc.
to help serving the other three functions. The example is film or spoken TV advertisement.

Nothing is always neat in this life. Not all texts are of one single function. There is a
possibility that in translating a text, a translator adopt more than one method as the text
type is a combination type. Reiss is aware of it. And Chsterman (as quoted by Munday,
2008: 73) illustrates this phenomenon well in the following figure.

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 Figure 3.3. Text types and varieties (from Chesterman, 1989)

In the figure, we can see that reference workl is fully informative text, as poem is
expressive text and advertisement is operative text. The hybrid or combination text types
include any other text in the picuture. Thus tourist brochure is a text that is equally
informative, expressive and operative. Meanwhile, official speech is a text which is equally
expressive and operative, but not so informative as compared to tourist brochure.

These different text types, according to Reiss, require different translation strategies
or methods. These different types of methods are the means to achieve equivalent text
function. (Thus, according to Pym (2010), Reiss is also in the equivalence translation
paradigm. 1) See the table below:

Table 3.2. Functional characteristics of text types and links to translation methods
(developed by Munday (2001: 74) based on Reiss (1971)).

1
Pym (2010) identifies 5 translation studies paradigms: equivalence, purposes, descriptions, uncertainty, localisation and
cultural translation.

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 These methods of transiting the texts can be seen in the last two rows of Table 3.2. It
can be seen there as follows (quoted from Munday (2008: 73-74). Pay attention that the
translation methods are difference from what Newmark (1988) proposes.

(1) The TT of an informative text should transmit the full referential or

conceptual content of the ST. The translation should be in ‘plain
prose’, without redundancy and with the use of explicitation when
required.

(2) The TT of an expressive text should transmit the aesthetic and

artistic form of the ST. The translation should use the ‘identifying’
method, with the translator adopting the standpoint of the ST
author.

(3) The TT of an operative text should produce the desired response in

the TT receiver. The translation should employ the ‘adaptive’
method, creating an equivalent effect among TT readers.

(4) Audio-medial texts require what Reiss calls the ‘supplementary’

method, supplementing written words with visual images and
music.

In addition to proposing translation methods, Reiss (1971: 54–88) as quoted by

Munday (2008: 74) also proposes a series of intralinguistic and extralinguistic instruction
criteria to assess the adequacy of a translation: (1) intralinguistic criteria which includes
semantic, lexical, grammatical and stylistic features; and (2) extralinguistic criteria which
includes situation, subject field, time, place, receiver, sender and ‘affective implications’
(humour, irony, emotion, etc.).

Although ‘semantic criteria’ is mentioned first, it is not always the main priorities for
all types of texts. This is surely a top priority for informative text, but not for expressive text.
Operative text, on the other hand, should be translated in a way that makes extralinguistic
effect a top priority. • Thus, these two sets of instruction criteria are related and their
relative importance varies depending on the text type

Holz-Mänttäri

Holz-Mänttäri draws on action theory and communication theory in building his

translation theory. From the action theory, we know that an action means doing something
intentionally. Thus, translation must be initiated and done. Translation is a communication
action. Communication means sending information from one party to another. In Holz-
Mantarri's theory this party is person in particular culture.

Further, based on the communication action theory, Holz-Mantarri identifies the

roles in the translatorial action: the initiator (the person who needs the translation); the
commissioner (the person that contacts the translator); the source text producer (author);
the target text producer (the translator or translation agency); the target text user (e.g.
teachers in the case of text book transaltion or business owner in the case of product

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documentation) and the target text recipient, (e.g. students in a target user's class or the
product end users).

The main pointy here is translation should fulfill its original purpose and deliver the
message optimally. Translator is the message carrier and a specialist for the target culture.
He should translate the message in a manner that the target recipient understands it as fully
as the sender did in their culture.

Vermeer, Reiss, Nord (Skopos Theory)

Vermeer and Reiss take the previous ideas on text function as well as the
translational action model to develop what is known as the skopos theory. The difference in
focus here is that the ST is the point of departure and the skopos refers to knowing why an
ST is to be translated and what the function of the TT will be. Skopos theory focuses on the
purpose of the translation, which determines the methods and strategies of translating,
which are employed to produce functionally adequate result (Munday, 2001: 79).

Skopos theory is within functionalism. This theory emerged in Germany (Hatim,

2001: 73). Skopos idea relies on key concepts in pragmatics that is intention and action.
There are two important skopos rules:

Skopos rule 1: Intention is determined by its purpose.

Skopos rule 2: purpose varies according to the text receiver.

Translator decision is governed by textual and contextual factors. One of the

contextual factors is audience design which accounts for the way a target text is intended to
be received. This will affect the translation strategies selected by the translator.

Target text must be produced with the given purpose in mind and that translation
will function well when shaped by a particular purpose. Three major kinds of purpose are
already recognized: communicative (to inform), strategic (to choose which translation
method is suitable), and general purposes (wheN the translator performs the translation)
(Hatim, 2001: 74). Such purposes cannot be equally important. The success or failure of a
translation is ultimately decided whether it can be interpreted successfully by the targeted
recipient in a manner that is consistent whit what is expected of it (Hatim, 2001: 75)

In skopos theory, the success or failure of translation is often mentioned as success

or protest. Success means definitely success in transferring the text function and protest
means failure. A successful translation elicits no protest from the target recipient. No
protest means the message received in the manner intended and/or expected. Thus,
intention is related with function. Intention is judged by the writer of source text and the
function is judged by receiver (Hatim, 2001: 75). Success of a translation is measured in
terms of harmony of content and intention. Content means content of message. Intention
means intention of producer or translator (Hatim, 2001: 75). There are two kinds of textual
coherence: (a) intra-textual coherence and (b) intertextual coherence. Here intra-textual
coherence is more important. (Hatim, 2001: 76)

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 As a matter of fact, text only contains information offer. Thus, a text may mean
many different things to many receivers (Hatim, 2001: 76-77). Therefore, the target readers
must be taken into account. Katharina Reiss and Hans Vermeer also state that a text is an
information offer made by a producer to a recipient, and subsequently, a translation is a
secondary information offer (which imitates the former) to a member of a target culture.

By the way, who decides the skopos or purpose of translation? The skopos is
determined by: the client who initiates the translation, translation brief, types of
translation, etc. (Munday, 2001: 77)

There are several principles claimed to be skopos rules by Reiss and Vermeer (1984,
in Munday, 2001: 79). The rules are as follows:

1. A translatum or target text (TT) is determined by its skopos.

2. A TT is an offer of information in a target culture and target language (TL)
3. A TT does not initiate an offer of information in a clearly reversible way.
4. A TT must be internally coherent.
5. A TT must be coherent with source text (ST).
6. The five rules above stand in hierarchical order, with the skopos rule
predominating.
According to Munday (2001: 79), rule 3 is particularly interesting in that it suggests
that the TT is not necessarily clearly 'reversible'. According to Munday, citing Nord and
Schaffner (Munday, 2001: 81), there are some criticisms of skopos theory. They are as
follows:

1. The skopos theory seems to be valid only for non-literary text. Literary texts are
considered either to have no specific purposes and/or to be far more complex
stylistically.

2. Reiss and Vermeer’s theory consider different text-type approach and cannot be
combined.

3. Skopos theory does not pay sufficient attention to the linguistic nature of the ST; even if
the skopos is adequately fulfilled, the “equivalence” of stylistic and semantic level of
individual segments may not be adequate.

Related closely to skopos approach is text analysis prior to translating. Nord, one of
the proponents of Skopos Theory, states that the elements of text analysis are; (a) the
importance of the translation commission (translation brief), (b) the role of ST analysis, and
(c) the functional hierarchy of translation problems (Munday 2001: 82-83). These points are
briefly reviewed as follows.

Translation commission is important. The commission should give the following

information: (a) the intended text function, (b) the addresses (sender and recipient), (c) the
time and place of text reception, (d) the medium (speech and writing), and (e) the motive
(why the ST was written and why it is being translated). The ST analysis is also important. In
analyzing the ST, according to Nord (in Munday 2001: 83), the most important thing is the
pragmatic analysis of the communicative situation involved and the model to be used for ST
and the translation brief.

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 Which factors are to be analyzed? They can be some of these: (a) subject matter, (b)
content: including connotation and cohesion, (c) presuppositions: real-world factors of the
communicative situation presumed to be known to the participants, (d) composition:
including microstructure and macrostructure, (e) non-verbal elements: illustrations, italics,
etc., (f) lexis: including dialect, registers and specific terminology, (g) sentence structure,
and (h) suprasegmental features: including stress, rhythm and stylistic punctuation.
(Munday, 2001: 83)

Functions are important in translation. In relation to text functions, the following

things should be taken into consideration: (a) the intended function of the translation
should be decided, (b) the functional elements to be adapted should be determined, (c) the
translation types determines translation style, and (d) the problems of the text can then be
tackled at lower linguistic levels as in the second point above.

(Due to the complexity, the theory of Julianne House and Baker are not discussed here.)

Exercise
Read the following text:

‘Wrap rage’ is term used to describe the irritation and loss of self-control experienced
when struggling to open product packaging. In recent years manufacturers have been under
pressure to provide childproof packaging, packaging that protects products during transport,
packaging that stops thieves from stealing products. At the same time, they are forced to
keep costs at minimum. Packaging comes in a wide assortment of materials depending on
the type of content it will hold.

1. What is the language function that the text serves?

2. What is the type of the text according to Reiss?

3. Using Reiss’s ideas presented in the chart, answer the following:

a. What is the main language dimension?

b. What is the text focus?

c. What is the translation method?

d. What is the TL text characteristic should be?

4. Translate the text into Indonesian.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 27

 CHAPTER 4
TRANSLATION PRINCIPLES, METHODS, AND STRATEGIES
(taken from Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2018. Practical Theories of Translation)

In the literature on translation, people distinguish translation procedure and translation

method. For the term translation procedure, Nida (1964) and Newmark (1988) have
different concepts. Nida (1964) refers to the general actions taken by a translator from
source text analysis to checking the result of his work. He also differentiates translation
procedure into technical procedure and organizational procedure. The first include (a)
analysis of the source and target languages, (b) a thorough study of the source language text
before making attempts to translate it, and (c) making judgments of the semantic and
syntactic approximations. Organizational procedure is defined to include (a) a constant re-
evaluation of the attempt made, (b) contrasting it with the existing available translations of
the same text done by other translators, and (c) checking the text's communicative
effectiveness by asking the target language readers to evaluate its accuracy and
effectiveness and studying their reactions (Nida, 1964). As there are also terms ‘translation
principle’ and ‘translation method’, in this book we use the concept of translation procedure
as proposed by Newmark (1998b). In this book, the writer position translations principle as
the most general reference for the translator. Below translation principle is the translation
method, and below the translation method is translation procedure (or also termed
translation strategies). This is in line with the idea of Newmark (1988b). He maintains that
there is a difference between translation methods and translation procedures. He writes
that, "Translation methods relate to whole texts, translation procedures are used for
sentences and the smaller units of language" (Newmark, 1988b: 81).

Translation Principles

A translation principle is a set of basic reference that should be considered by a translator.

In the world of translation no single generally accepted principle. According to Suryawinata
and hariyanto (2003), the selection of the principle is based on the purpose of translation or
whether the translator’s orienteation toward the texts. So, basically there are two sets of
translation principles: (a) source-text/source-text writer oriented and (b) target-text/target-
text writer oriented. The first set of principles would include the following:

1. Translation should use source text words

2. The translation should feel like a translation
3. Translation should reflect the style of the source text language
4. Translation should reflect the time the original text was written (contemporary of the
author).
5. Translation should not add nor delete anything existing in the source text
6. Particular literary genres should be preserved in the translation

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 According to principle 1 above, the target text should use the literal translation of
the words used in the source text. It means that it is a literal translation. While principles 2
and 3 mean that the translator must maintain style of the source text. If the style is
maintained, the target text would read like a translation. According to principle 5, the
translator can not add or delete words from the source text. Finally, according to principle 6,
a poem should be translated into a poem, and a prose translated into a prose.

For translation that is oriented to the target text or target readers, the following are
the guiding principles.

1. Translation should give an idea of the source text and not the words,
2. When read, the translation should feel read an original in terms of the sentence flow
3. Translation should have his own style
4. Translation should reflect the time when the source text is translated.
5. Translation may add or delete the source text
6. Translation does not have to maintain its genre.
Thus, according to these principles, the translation should be able to convey the idea
of source text flexibly in a target text that is easy to understand by readers. Therefore, the
translation should not follow the style of the source text and may even add and remove
elements that are not so important. Principle 6 is debatable; there are persons who object
this. They think that a short story should be translated into short stories and poems into
poems. This is understandable. With the freedom given in principle 1 to 5, the translator
must be able to convey the idea of source text with a sufficient freedom and no need to
change the genre of the source text.

Translation Methods

IN the prfevious chapter, we have talked about translation methods proposed by

Newmark (1988). Now we will talk about translation methods as proposed by Katharina
Reiss. To start with, a discussion on text types will be presented.
Reiss classifies texts into several types and relates these types with the most
appropriate methods to translate them. The text types include: (a) informative, (b)
expressive, (c) operative, and (d) audio medial texts (Munday, 2001: 73). A text is classified
as an informative text if the content is the main focus. This kind of texts plainly
communicates facts, information, knowledge, opinions, etc. The logical or referential
dimension of language is the main aspect involved. Texts are called expressive texts if the
focus is on creative composition and aesthetics aspects. Both the author and the message
are what are foregrounded. The examples are imaginative creative literature texts. Next, an
operative text is a text whose focus is the appellative aspect. Here the text appeals to the
readers to act in a certain way by persuading, dissuading, requesting, and cajoling them.
Usually the form of language is dialogic. Finally, an audio medial text is a text where the
focus is on visual and audio representations.
The target text of an informative text should be in plain prose with explication
where required, because the aim is to transmit the referential content of the text. In this
method, sentence structure can be altered to result a text that can deliver the same
content. The example of this text is a scientific book. If the target text is an expressive text,
however, the translator should use the identifying method that retains the unique

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 29

characteristics of the source text and/or the writer. Here the translator has to look at it from
the ST author’s standpoint. The example of such text is a poem. If the source text is an
operative text, the translator has to employ the adaptive method, where the translator tries
to create the same effect on the readers, as the ST. The example of such text is a sermon.
Finally, audio medial texts translator have to employ the supplementary method, where
visual images and music supplement written words. Read the previous chapter for better
discussion on this.

Translation Procedures/Strategies

The complication of the word “translation procedure” is heightened by Chesterman

by using the term “translation strategy” to refer to Newmark’s translation procedure.
According to Chesterman (1997: 89), translation strategies refer to operations a translator
may do when he formulates the TT. He further states that they are forms of explicit textual
manipulation and are directly observable from the translation product (TT) when compared
with the ST. This kind of strategies is called production strategy. The other strategy, which is
called comprehension strategies, refers to the operation a translator carries out in analyzing
the ST and the whole nature of the translation commission or instruction. The word
translation strategy used here always refers to production strategy unless stated otherwise
and it refers to the same concept with that the word translation procedure does. This book
takes the two the same and presents the ideas of Newmark first on the procedures and they
are followed by thise of Chesterman.

Newmark’s Translation Procedures

As for the translation procedure, Newmark proposes 15 translation procedures

(Newmark, 1988b:81-91). The first translation procedure by Newmark (1998b) is
transference. It is the process of transferring an SL word to a TL text. Second, naturalization
adapts the SL word first to the normal pronunciation, then to the normal morphology of the
TL. Next, cultural equivalent means replacing a cultural word in the SL with a TL one.
However, "they are not accurate". Third, functional equivalent means using a culture-
neutral word. Fourth, descriptive equivalent means explaining the meaning of the source
term in several words.

Fifth, componential analysis means comparing an SL word with a TL word which has
a similar meaning but is not an obvious one-to-one equivalent, by demonstrating first their
common and then their differing sense components. Sixth, synonymy translating the source
word with its near TL equivalent. Next, through-translation is the literal translation of
common collocations, names of organizations and components of compounds. It may
include: calque or loan translation. Eighth, shifts or transpositions is a procedure that
involves a change in the grammar from SL to TL, for instance, (i) change from singular to
plural, (ii) the change required when a specific SL structure does not exist in the TL, (iii)
change of an SL verb to a TL word, change of an SL noun group to a TL noun and so forth.

Ninth, modulation means reproducing the message of the original text in the TL text
in conformity with the current norms of the TL, since the SL and the TL may appear
dissimilar in terms of perspective. Tenth, recognized translation refers to the use of the
official or the generally accepted translation of any institutional term to translate source

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 30

term. Eleventh, compensation means compensating a loss of meaning in one part of a
sentence in another part. Twelfth, paraphrase means explaining the meaning of the source
text in different expressions. If compared to descriptive equivalent, here the explanation is
more detailed. Next, couplet is the combining of two different procedures. Finally, notes are
additional information in the translation to make the meaning of a source term clearer.

Chesterman’s Translation Strategies

Chesterman (1997) further classifies translation strategies into three main

categories: syntactic strategies, semantic strategies and pragmatic strategies.

Syntactic Strategies

According to Chesterman (1997) syntactic strategies involve pure syntactic changes

and are classified into this main category are: (1) literal translation, (2) loan, calque, (3)
transposition, (4) unit shift, (5) phrase structure change, (6) clause structure change, (7)
sentence structure change, (8) cohesion change, (9) level shift, and (10) scheme change.
Below is a short description of each strategy proposed by Chesterman (1997).

First, literal translation strategy is a strategy that results in TT that is maximally close
to the SL form, but still grammatical. Second, loan and calque are two related strategies.
Loan refers to the borrowing of individual items and calque the borrowing of syntagma (a
syntactic string of words that forms a part of some larger syntactic unit).

The third, transposition means any change of word-class, e.g. from noun to verb,
adjective to adverb. Usually, if transposition is done, structural changes are also required. In
this categorization, Chesterman (1997) uses the term transposition in its narrow sense. In
contrast, Newmark (1988) uses it in a very broad sense. It covers some other syntactic
strategies proposed by Chesterman (1997), i.e. phrase structure change, sentence structure
change, unit shift, cohesion change and scheme change.

Fourth, unit shift occurs when a ST unit is translated into a different unit in TT. The
units themselves are morpheme, word, phrase, clause, sentence, or paragraph. For
example, a ST sentence is translated into a phrase in TT. Next, phrase structure change
refers to a number of changes of the internal structure of a phrase. The changes include
number, definiteness and modification in the noun phrase, and person, tense and mood in
the verb phrase.

Similarly, clause structure change—the sixth syntactic strategy—refers to the change

in the internal structure of a clause. Within the strategy we can include the change in the
constituent order, active to passive, etc. As the seventh strategy, sentence structure change
is the change of the structure of the sentence-unit as long as it is made up of clause-units.
Included in this category are changes between main-clause and sub-clause status, changes
of sub-clause types, etc.

The eighth strategy is cohesion change. It is a change that affects intra-textual

reference, ellipsis, substitution, pronominalization and repetition, or the use of connectors
of various kinds. The ninth strategy is level shift. It refers to the shifting of the mode of

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 31

expression of a particular item from one level to another. Levels here mean phonology,
morphology, syntax and lexis. Finally, as the last syntactic strategy, scheme change refers to
the changes that translators incorporate in the translation of rhetoric scheme, parallelism,
repetition, alliteration, etc. Basically, a scheme can be substituted with another scheme in
TT, can be deleted in TT or can be added with another scheme in TT.

For the examples of the strategies see the tables below. The strategies are
distinguished into two categories: for word level equivalence and for sentence level
equivalence.

Table 4.1. Syntactic Translation Strategies for word level equivalence

Syntactic Strategy Existence Hints Example

Translation
Strategy
Borrwing - Loan: The individual items in ST: You can sign in later.
(loan, calque the ST is borrowed in the TT
with no translation. TT: Anda bisa sign in nanti.

- Naturalization: the loan

words is written in the TL ST: You can watch the box score
spelling system. anytime you want.
- Calque: there translation of TT: Anda dapat melihat boks skor
expression in the TT uses the kapan saja Anda mau.
same syntactical string in the
ST.

phrase There is a change of the ST: The present issue of Skyways

structure internal structure of a phrase. features ….
change,
TT: Di dalam nomor Skyway kali ini
Anda akan menemukan ....

literal The TT (phrase) formal ST: You are eliminated from the
translation, feature, e.g. structure, is very game.
close to the ST, but still
grammatical. TT: Anda digugurkan dari
pertandingan.

unit shift, ST unit is translated into a ST: We accept the following kinds of
different unit in TT, for credit cards and ask you to
example from one clause into mark the one with which you
one sentence, from one would like to be charged.
sentence to one phrase. This
usually involves transposition TT: Kami menerima kartu kredit
as well. The units themselves berikut ini. Silakan tandai yang
are morpheme, word, phrase, ingin Anda gunakan.
clause, sentence, or (from one sentence into two
paragraph

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 32

 sentences)

level shift, The mode of expression of a ST: May I leave the room, please?
particular item is shifted from
one level to another. Levels TT: Bolehkah saya meninggalkan
here mean phonology, ruangan, Pak?
morphology, syntax and lexis. (Polite request in English is
expressed with “may” + “please”
structure, while in Indonesian it is
with “Bolehkah” structure, the use
of vocabulary “saya” instead of
“aku”, and the addition of the
adress “Pak”? With no such
features, this will not be polite”).

Table 4.2. Syntactic Translation Strategies for sentence level equivalence

Syntactic Strategy Existence Hints Example

Translation
Strategy
transposition, There is a change of word- ST: The establishment of the car
class, e.g. from noun to verb, rental company … .
adjective to adverb. TT: Perusahaan rental mobil telah
didirikan .....
literal The whole TT sentence formal ST: You are eliminated from the
translation, feature, e.g. structure, is very game.
close to the ST, but still TT: Anda digugurkan dari
grammatical. pertandingan.
unit shift, ST unit is translated into a ST: We accept the following kinds of
different unit in TT, for credit cards and ask you to
example from one clause into mark the one with which you
one sentence, from one would like to be charged.
sentence to one phrase. This TT: Kami menerima kartu kredit
usually involves transposition berikut ini. Silakan tandai yang
as well. The units themselves ingin Anda gunakan.
are morpheme, word, phrase, (from one sentence into two
clause, sentence, or sentences)
paragraph
clause There is a change in the ST: I broke my leg.
structure structure of a clause in terms TT: Kaki saya patah.
change, of its constituent phrases, e.g.
sub-clauses, active vs passive,
transitive vs intransitive, etc.
sentence Strategies that affects the ST: The name signifies a carefully
structure structure of the sentence-unit designed program.
change, as long as it is made up of TT: Seperti diisyarakatn oleh

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 Syntactic Strategy Existence Hints Example
Translation
Strategy
clause-units. It includes the namaya, program ini dirancang
change of status between dengan cermat.
main and sub-clauses and (from one main clause into one sub-
among sub-clause types. clause and one main clause)
cohesion There is a change that affects ST: The new building was
change, intra-textual reference, investigated. All employees
ellipsis, substitution, were held outside.
pronominalization and TT: Gedung baru itu diinvestigasi.
repetition, or the use of Oleh karena itu, semua
connectors of various kinds karyawan tertahan di luar.
(from no explicit connector to with
explicit connector “oleh karena itu”)
scheme There is a change in the ST: He will get the lady and you the
change. translation of rhetoric buddy.
scheme, parallelism, TT: Dia akan mendapatkan sang
repetition, alliteration, etc. putri dan kau akan dapat
Basically, a scheme can be temannya.
substituted with another (Here the rhetoric pattern is English
scheme in TT, can be deleted is dropped into a plain pattern
in TT or can be added with in Bahasa Indonesia.)
another scheme in TT.

Semantic Strategies

As Chesterman (1997) states, a semantic strategy manipulates meaning. This is the

change which mainly related to lexical semantics and sometimes aspects of clause meaning
such as emphasis. The strategies that fall into this main category are: (1) synonymy, (2)
antonymy, (3) hyponymy, (4) converses, (5) abstraction change, (6) distribution change, (7)
emphasis change, (8) paraphrase, (9) trope change, and (10) other semantic changes.

The short description of the ten strategies is as follows (Chesterman, 1997) First of
all, synonymy refers to the selection of not the "obvious" equivalent but a synonym or near
synonym for a word in TT, e.g. to avoid repetition. Second, antonymy is a strategy where the
translator selects an antonym and combines this with a negation element. The label of this
translation strategy can be misleading, as actually antonymy cannot be used to achieve
semantic equivalence. Therefore, in this research it is classified as paraphrasing with a
specific pattern, i.e. antonymy + negation element. Third, hyponymy is adopted when one or
more shifts within the hyponymy relation are done. In principle, this strategy comes in three
sub-classes: (a) ST superordinate => TT hyponym, (b) ST hyponym => TT superordinate, and
(c) ST hyponym X=> TT hyponym Y (of the same superordinate. Notation “=>” is read “is
changed into”

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 The fourth semantic strategy is converses. Converses are pairs of (usually) verbal
structures which express the same state of affairs from opposing viewpoints, such as buy
and sell. The fifth strategy is abstraction change. This refers to the change in abstraction
level, for example from abstract to more concrete or vice versa. The sixth semantic strategy
is distribution change. It is a change in the distribution of the "same" semantic components
over more items (expansion) or fewer items (compression).

The seventh semantic strategy proposed by Chesterman (1997) is emphasis change

which adds to, reduces or alters the emphasis or thematic focus, for one reason or another.
Next strategy is paraphrase. This strategy will result in a TT version that can be described as
loose, free, or even under-translated. Semantic components at the lexeme level tend to be
disregarded, in favor of the pragmatic sense of the higher linguistic unit.

The ninth semantic strategy is trope change. This is not a single strategy, rather a set
of strategies, applied to the translation of rhetorical tropes (i.e. figurative expressions)
(Chesterman, 1997). Trope is figure of speech, any rhetorical device in which words are used
not in accordance with their literal meaning. Three main strategy sub-classes can be
identified here where a trope can be substituted with another trope in TT, can be deleted in
TT or can be added with another trope in TT. Lastly, any semantic change that cannot be
classified into the above nine sub-classes is classified into other semantic changes. These
would include other modulations of various kinds, such as change of (physical) sense or of
deictic direction.

For the examples of the strategies see the tables below. The strategies are
distinguished into two categories: for word level equivalence and for sentence level
equivalence.

Table 4.3. Semantic Translation Strategies for word level equivalence

Semantic Strategy Existence Hints Example

Translation
Strategy
synonymy A synonym or near-synonym of a ST: This issue of the magazine ….
word in ST is used in TT. TT: Majalah nomor ini .....
antonymy the translator selects an antonym ST: The price excludes the tax.
and combines this with a negation TT: Harganya tidak termasuk pajak.
element.
Hyponymy Third, hyponymy is adopted when a. ST: He should take care of respect
one or more shifts within the his parent.
hyponymy relation are done. TT: Dia seharusnya memelihara
There are three sub-classes: ayahnya.
(a) ST superordinate => TT
hyponym, b. ST: The sword and buckler method
(b) ST hyponym => TT was one of the oldest and
superordinate, and most continuous combative
(c) ST hyponym X=> TT hyponym Y systems in fencing.
(of the same superordinate. TT: Metoda pedang dan perisai
Notation “=>” is read “is changed adalah salah satu sistem
into” penyerangan yang paling

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Semantic Strategy Existence Hints Example
Translation
Strategy
lama bertahan di dalam
anggar.
abstraction There is a change in abstraction ST: The machine is the toughest in
change level, for example from abstract the world.
to more concrete or vice versa. TT: Mesin ini yang ter andal di planet
ini.
(“plane” is more concrete than
“world”.)
distribution There is a change in the ST: The company has wrote to her
change distribution of the "same" many times.
semantic components over more TT: Perusahaannya telah berkirim
items (expansion) or fewer items surat kepadanya berulang kali.
(compression).
Paraphrase The TT version is s loose, free, or ST: If you’d like to take advantage of
even under-translated version of being the participant of this
the ST. Semantic components at program ….
the lexeme level tend to be TT: Jika Anda ingin berpartisipasi
disregarded, in favor of the dalam program ini ...
pragmatic sense of the higher
linguistic unit.
other There is other type of modulation ST: The most notable feature …
semantic not classified in the previous TT: Fitur yang perlu dibahas....
changes classes. These would include
other modulations of various (Change from visual to oral sense)
kinds, such as change of (physical)
sense or of deictic direction.

Table 4.4. Semantic Translation Strategies for sentence level equivalence

Semantic Strategy Existence Hints Example

Translation
Strategy
Converses The translator uses verbal structures ST: You can not buy this artifact for
which express the same state of whatever price.
affairs from opposing viewpoints, TT: Artifak ini tidak dijual dengan
such as “buy” in the ST is expressed harga berapa pun.
with “sell” and subsequent
necessary change in the TT.
emphasis There is a change which adds to, ST: Her presentation is inspiring.
change reduces or alters the emphasis or TT: Presentasinya sangat
thematic focus, for one reason or memotivasi.
another. (Emphasis “sangat” is added.)
Paraphrase The TT version is s loose, free, or even ST: This shipyard is at the cutting
under-translated version of the ST, edge of world shipbuilding
Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 36
 Semantic Strategy Existence Hints Example
Translation
Strategy
but some other major parts are trans- technology.
lated with literal translation. Semantic TT: Galangan kapal ini
components at the lexeme level tend menggunakan teknologi
to be disregarded, in favor of the mutakhir di bidang
pragmatic sense of the higher pembangunan kapal.
linguistic unit.
Free The whole sentence is paraphrased.
translation
trope There is a change in the figure of ST: Kami selalu seiya-sekata dalam
change speech or rhetorical devices in the mengarungi hidup.
TT as compare to that of the ST. TT: We always have the same
principles in life.
(from figurative expression to
plain expression)
other There is other type of modulation ST: The most notable feature …
semantic not classified in the previous classes. TT: Fitur yang perlu dibahas....
changes These would include other modu-la-
tions of various kinds, such as (Change from visual to oral sense)
change of (physical) sense or of
deictic direction.

Pragmatic Strategies

If syntactic strategies manipulate form, and semantic strategies manipulate meaning,

pragmatic strategies manipulate the message. These strategies tend to involve bigger
changes from the ST, and typically involve syntactic and/or semantic changes as well. These
strategies are often adopted by the translator considering the appropriate translation of a
text as a whole. Therefore, translation norms in target culture would be very influential.
Chesterman (1997) lists the following sub-classes: (l) cultural filtering, (2) explicitness
change, (3) information change, (4) interpersonal change, (5) illocutionary change, (6)
coherence change, (7) partial translation, (8) visibility change, (9) transediting, and (10)
other pragmatic changes. Below is the short description of each strategy.

The first, cultural filtering refers to the strategy in which SL items, particularly
culture-specific items, are translated into TL cultural or functional equivalents, so that they
conform to TL norms. This strategy is also called naturalization, domestication or
adaptation. The opposite procedure, whereby such items are not adapted but e.g. borrowed
or transferred directly, is called exoticization, foreignization or estrangement.

The second pragmatic strategy is explicitness change. With this strategy, a meaning
in the ST is made either more explicitness (explicitation) or more implicitness (implicitation).
Explicitation involves adding components explicitly in the TT which are only implicit in the

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 37

ST. In contrast, implicitation is leaving some elements of the message implicit as s/he thinks
that the target reader will understand it from the context.

The third pragmatic strategy is information change, which includes addition or

omission of information. This, therefore, refers to the addition of new (non-inferable)
information which is thought to be relevant to the TT readership but which is not present in
the ST, or the omission of ST information deemed to be irrelevant. In the case of omission,
the omitted information cannot be inferred. If it can be inferred, the strategy would be
implicitation.

The fourth pragmatic strategy is interpersonal change. It operates at the level of the
overall style: for example, it alters the formality level, the degree of emotiveness and
involvement, the level of technical lexis, etc. Anything that involves a change in the
relationship between text/author and reader is called interpersonal change.

The fifth pragmatic strategy is illocutionary change. Illocutionary changes refer to

changes of speech acts, for example from statement to request. These also include changes
within particular classes of speech acts. The next strategy is coherence change. It refers to
the changes in the logical arrangement of information in the text, at the ideational level.
This can be a re-arrangement of paragraphs in TT. Next, the seventh pragmatic strategy is
partial translation. This covers any kind of partial translation, such as summary translation
and transcription. Below is the example of each strategy above. See Table 4.5.

Table 4.5. Pragmatic Strategies

Pragmatic Strategy Existence Hints Example/Note

Translation
Strategy
cultural The SL items, particularly ST: Write down your surname here.
filtering culture-specific items, are TT: Tuliskan nama belakang Anda di
translated into TL cultural or sini.
functional equivalents, so (Change from “surname” to “nama
that they conform to TL belakang” as Indonesian has no concept
norms. of “surname”)
explicitness A meaning in the ST is made ST: Our flight attendants on board will
change either more explicitness be happy to help you here.
(explicitation) or more TT: Pramugari kami akan senang
implicitness (implicitation). membantu Anda.
Note: Explicitation and (Implicitation: the word “on board” and
implicitation happen to “here” are deleted in the TT.)
inferable words.
information There is an addition or ST: To train their emotion control, let
change omission of information in them play soccer, baseball, etc.
the TT which is originally TT: Untuk melatih kendali emosi
not/present in the ST. Such mereka, biarkan mereka bermain
information is not inferable. sepak bola dan sejenisnya.
(The information “baseball” is deleted

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 38

Pragmatic Strategy Existence Hints Example/Note
Translation
Strategy
because it is not commonly placed by
Indonesian children.)
interpersonal There is a change in the ST: The following chapter will discuss
change, relationship between the matter comprehensively.
text/author and reader in TT: Kita akan membahas masalah ini
the TT as compare to that in secara menyeluruh di bab berikut.
ST, e.g. a change in the (In the ST, the realtion is distant or
formality level, the degree impersonal. In the TT, the relation is
of emotiveness and closer because of the use of the word
involvement, the level of “kita” ("we”).
technical lexis, etc.
illocutionary There is a change of speech ST: The motive was his concern over the
change, acts, for example from discords between Polish, Russian,
statement to request. German and Jews in his place of
birth Byalistok.
TT: Penyebabnya? Ketegangan antara
orang-orang Polandia, Rusia,
Jemran dan Yahudi di kota
kelahirannya, Byalistok.
(The TT has a rhetorical question to
produce a more dialogic text.)
coherence There is a change in the Note: This include the breaking up of
change, logical arrangement of one paragraph into two or vice versa,
information in the text, at and the order of points to discuss within
the ideational level. This can a paragraph, But the content of the
be a re-arrangement of sentences are basically the same.
paragraphs in TT.
partial The TT shows that not all ST Note: The purpose of summary
translation, text is translated in its full translation is to create a short summary
length. An example is of the key points or messages of the
summary translation. source document in the target language
- not to create a full translation of every
word of the original.
visibility change This involves the change of
authorial or translatorial
presence. The presence of
the translator is visible
through some technique,
e.g. footnoting, giving
comment in the brackets,
etc.
transediting The translator re-edits the
poorly written ST before
translating.

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 Pragmatic Strategy Existence Hints Example/Note
Translation
Strategy
Adaptation or There is any other change in Note: If an adult novel is translated into
other the textual level that more a children novel, this entails the
pragmatic or less changes the message changes in the language use, including
changes of ST. The elements of the expression. This is an example of other
sentence are adapted to the pragmatic change.
context or situation of the
target audience.
The example is the choice of
the dialect in the TT.

The eighth pragmatic strategy is visibility change. This refers to a change in the
status of the authorial presence, or to the overt intrusion or foregrounding of the
translatorial presence. This means, the translator’s presence can be made more visible or
less visible. Classified into this sub-class, among others, are translator's footnotes, bracketed
comments (such as explanations of puns) or added glosses explicitly drawing the reader's
attention to the presence of the translator.

The ninth pragmatic strategy is transediting. This is a term suggested by Stetting

(1989) to refer to the sometimes radical re-editing that translators have to do on badly
written original texts. Therefore, it includes drastic re-ordering, rewriting, at a more general
level than the kinds of changes covered by the above-mentioned strategies. Finally, as the
last sub-class of pragmatic strategy, other pragmatic changes refers to any other change in
the textual level that changes the message of the ST.

There are differences in the labeling of some translation strategies by Chesterman

(1997) and Suryawinata and Hariyanto (2003). Chesterman's loan is termed borrowing in
Suryawinata and Hariyanto. Borrowing cover naturalization which is not taken into
consideration in Chesterman (1997). Meanwhile, transposition, phrase structure change,
unit shift, clause structure change, sentence structure change, cohesion change and scheme
change are broadly termed as transposition by the later writers. Further, converses is
labeled modulation by Suryawinata and Hariyanto, and cultural filtering is termed cultural
equivalence. Finally information change is labeled omission and deletion in the later’s
classification. Further, Suryawinata and Hariyanto (2003) do not include calque and literal
translation as strategies. Therefore, it can be said that Chesterman’s classification is more
detailed.

All in all, Hariyanto (2009) mentions that the concept of translation procedure is also
labeled with translation strategy by Chestermen (1977), with translation technique by Hoed
(2006). But, the main idea is the manipulation in the sentence level mostly. On the text
level, as mentioned Newmark (1988b), it is called translation method. He mentions several
translation methods. First, word-for-word translation is a translation method in which the SL
word order is preserved and the words translated singly by their most common meanings
out of context. Second, literal translation is another translation method in which the SL
grammatical constructions are converted to their nearest TL equivalents, but the lexical

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 40

words are translated singly out of context, too. Next, faithful translation method attempts
to produce the precise contextual meaning of the original within the constraints of the TL
grammatical structures. Next, semantic translation is like 'faithful translation', but it must
take more account of the aesthetic value of the SL text.

Fifth, adaptation is the method in which the themes, characters, and plots are
usually preserved, the SL culture is converted to the TL culture and the text is rewritten.
Usually it is used for plays (comedies) and poetry. Next, free translation is a translation
method that produces the TL text without the style, form, or content of the original.
Seventh, idiomatic translation reproduces the 'message' of the original but tends to distort
nuances of meaning by preferring colloquialisms and idioms where these do not exist in the
original. Eighth, communicative translation attempts to render the exact contextual
meaning of the original in such a way that both content and language are readily acceptable
and comprehensible to the readership. Further Newmark (1991) sees a continuum from
"semantic" to "communicative" translation. Any translation can be "more, or less
semantic—more, or less, communicative—even a particular section or sentence can be
treated more communicatively or less semantically."

In relation to function-oriented translation, the method of translation is related to

the type of text. In its turn, the translation method gives general orientation of the
translation procedure (strategies) to adopt so that the target text style can be produced.
According to Reiss (1977), informative text type is to be translated with “plain prose”
method. Expressive text is better translated with identifying method, and operative text is
better translated into adaptive method. Plain prose is a prose (text) which is not beautified
and primarily aimed at explaining its content. Identifying method refers to the method by
which the unique characteristic of the source text writer is taken into main consideration.
Finally, adaptive method refers to the one which prioritize the equivalent effect of the
target.

Conclusion

Translation strategy is different from translation method. Translation strategies refer

to the actual ways of textualizing the TT. Translation strategies are the operations a
translator does in the stage of textualizing the meaning and message s/he obtained from ST
into the TT. On the other hand, translation method refers to basic principle underlying the
translator’s way to translate the texts (Hoed, 2006: 55). There are two main categories of
translation methods: SL-oriented and TL-oriented methods (Newmark, 1988). These
methods are executed in strategies. However, there is no literature proposing what
strategies are typically suitable for what methods. Further, a hypothesis can be formulated
(not for this present research purpose) that in the process a translator holds on one
translation method and one or more translation strategies are used to address ad hoc
problem in textualizing the TT.

Basically translation strategies are classified into syntactic, semantic, and pragmatic
strategy (Chesterman, 1997). Syntactic strategies can be traced back from the fact that the
syntactical form in the TT is different from that in the ST. Semantic strategies can be seen
from the fact that the meaning in the ST is manipulated in the TT. Finally pragmatic strategy
manipulates the general message of the text.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 41

 The translation strategies proposed by Chesterman (1997) above can be used to
translate word, phrase, and clause or sentence. What is lacking in the categorization is the
identification of which ones are for below-sentence level and which one for sentence level
equivalence. Some translation strategies may be used to translate word and phrase as well
as clause and sentences; some others can only be used to translate words and phrases or
clauses and sentences.

From the syntactic category, the following strategies are used to translate words
and phrases only: loan, calque, and level shift. Literal translation and unit shift can be used
to translate words, phrase, clauses and sentences. Meanwhile, transposition, clause
structure change, sentence structure, change cohesion change and scheme change are for
translating clauses and sentences. See Figure 4.1 for better understanding of these
strategies.

Figure 4.1. Syntactic Translation Strategies

Figure 4.2. Semantic Translation Strategies

Just like syntactic strategies, semantic strategies can also be further classified the
same way. See the picture below. As seen from the picture, synonymy, paraphrase with
antonymy and negation element, hyponymy, abstraction change, and distribution change

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 42

are to translate words and phrases. Converses, emphasis change and trope change are to
translate clauses and sentences. Meanwhile, paraphrase and other semantic change can be
used to translate all. See Figure 4.2.

Finally, as pragmatic consideration is always at sentence level or even at the text

level, all pragmatic strategies can be considered to achieve sentential equivalence. Finally,
classification of strategies that can be used to translate words, phrases, clauses and
sentences can be presented in Table 1.

Table 4.6 Word, Phrase and Sentential Translation Strategies

Translation Words and phrases Word/phrase Clause/sentence

strategy and
clause/sentence
Syntactic - loan (borrowing) - Literal - transposition,
- calque translation - clause structure change,
- level shift - unit shift - sentence structure change
- cohesion change
- scheme change
Semantic - synonymy, - other - Converses
- paraphrase with semantic - emphasis change
antonymy + changes - paraphrase
negation element,
- hyponymy, - trope change
- abstraction change,
- distribution change
Pragmatic (Not applicable) (Not applicable) All pragmatic strategies

There are a few strategies that are missing from Chesterman's classification above if
compared to the classification by Newmark (1988), Suryawinata and Hariyanto (2003), e.g.
free translation and adaptation. Free translation can be included in full paraphrasing.
However, to make it more specific free translation is added to the list of the strategies to
differentiate “full” and “partial” paraphrasing. Free translation is the full paraphrasing, and
paraphrasing refers to the fact that some parts of the clause or sentence are translated
somewhat literally. Adaptation here is not cultural filtering. The sentence is adapted to suite
the situation of the target audience. Instead of translating “Get your sunscreen” into “Bawa
tabir surya Anda”, adaptation translates it into “Bawa payung Anda”. These two strategies
are included into the list of strategies for sentence translation.

Finally, the same translation can be said to use several strategies based on the point
of view used to see it. A sentence “You are not alone” which is translated into “Ibu tidak
sendiri” can be said to have been translated using synonymy strategy (semantic strategy)
and interpersonal change (pragmatic strategy) because in addition to the fact that “you” is
not translated into “Anda’ (synonymy), the use of “Ibu” is used to show respect and create
certain distance between the writer and the reader which is different from those in the ST
(interpersonal change). However, in the identification, such combination of synonymy and

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interpersonal change was named interpersonal change as it is the major consideration for
the sentence translation. The literal translation that is used to translate most of the words is
not considered in the naming because it is the basic strategy and the other strategy is taken
with greater consideration for the sentence translation.

Exercise

Read the following text.

Cross-Cultural Communication – The New Norm

The Internet and modern technology have opened up new marketplaces that allow us to
promote our businesses to new geographic locations and cultures. And given that it can now be as
easy to work with people remotely as it is to work face-to-face, cross-cultural communication is
increasingly the new norm.
After all, if communication is electronic, it's as easy to work with someone in another country
as it is to work with someone in the next town.
And why limit yourself to working with people within convenient driving distance when, just as
conveniently, you can work with the most knowledgeable people in the entire world?
For those of us who are native English-speakers, it is fortunate that English seems to be the
language that people use if they want to reach the widest possible audience. However, even for
native English speakers, cross-cultural communication can be an issue: Just witness the mutual
incomprehension that can sometimes arise between people from different English-speaking countries.
In this new world, good cross-cultural communication is a must.

1. Translate the text into Indonesian.

2. Underline the parts that require you to use a particular translation strategy or startegies.

3. Explain the translation starategies you adopt during translation.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 44

 CHAPTER 5
WORD-LEVEL EQUIVALENCE
(Excerpt taken from Baker, Mona. 2011. In Other Words. Some Indonesian
examples are added in by the writer of this handout.)

THE WORD IN DIFFERENT LANGUAGES

What is a word?

The smallest unit which we would expect to possess individual meaning is the word.
Defined loosely, the word is ‘the smallest unit of language that can be used by itself’
(Bolinger and Sears 1968:43). For our present purposes, we can define the written word
with more precision as any sequence of letters with an orthographic space on either side.
Many of us think of the word as the basic meaningful element in a language. This is
not strictly accurate. Meaning can be carried by units smaller than the word. More often,
however, it is carried by units much more complex than the single word and by various
structures and linguistic devices. This will be discussed in more detail in the following
chapters. For the moment, we will content ourselves with single words as a starting point
before we move on to more complex linguistic units.

There is no one-to-one relationship between word and meaning

If you consider a word such as rebuild, you will note that there are two distinct
elements of meaning in it: re and build that is ‘to build again’. The same applies to
disbelieve, which may be paraphrased as ‘not to believe’. Elements of meaning which are
represented by several orthographic words in one language, say English, may be
represented by one orthographic word in another, and vice versa. For instance, tennis
player is written as one word in Indonesia: petenis. This suggests that there is no one-to-
one corre- spondence between orthographic words and elements of meaning within or
across languages.

THE PROBLEM OF NON-EQUIVALENCE

Based on the above discussion, we can now begin to outline some of the more common
types of non-equivalence which often pose difficulties for the translator and some attested
strategies for dealing with them. First, it is a word of warning. The choice of a suitable
equivalent in a given context depends on several factors: linguistic and extra-linguistic
factors.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 45

Non-equivalence at word level and some common strategies for dealing with it
Non-equivalence at word level means that the target language has no direct equiv-
alent for a word which occurs in the source text. The type and level of difficulty posed can
vary tremendously depending on the nature of non-equivalence. Different kinds of non-
equivalence require different strategies, some very straightforward, others more involved
and difficult to handle. Since, in addition to the nature of non- equivalence, the context and
purpose of translation will often rule out some strat- egies and favour others, I will keep
the discussion of types of non-equivalence separate from the discussion of strategies used
by professional translators. It is neither possible nor helpful to attempt to relate specific
types of non-equivalence to specific strategies, but I will comment on the advantages or
disadvantages of certain strategies wherever possible.

Common problems of non-equivalence

The following are some common types of non-equivalence at word level, with
examples from various languages:

(a) Culture-specific concepts

The source-language word may express a concept which is totally unknown in the
target culture. The concept in question may be abstract or concrete; it may relate to a
religious belief, a social custom or even a type of food. Such concepts are often
referred to as ‘culture-specific’. An example of an abstract English concept which is
notoriously difficult to translate into other languages is that expressed by the word
privacy. This is a very ‘English’ concept which is rarely understood by people from
other cultures. Speaker (of the House of Commons) has no equivalent in languages
such as Russian, Chinese and Arabic, among others. It is often translated into Russian
as ‘Chairman’, which does not reflect the role of the Speaker of the House of
Commons as an independent person who maintains authority and order in Parliament.
An example of a concrete concept is airing cupboard in English which, again, is
unknown to speakers of most languages.

(b) The source-language concept is not lexicalized in the target language

The source-language word may express a concept which is known in the target culture
but simply not lexicalized, that is not ‘allocated’ a target-language word to express it.
The word savoury has no equivalent in many languages, although it expresses a
concept which is easy to understand. The adjective standard (meaning ‘ordinary, not
extra’, as in standard range of products) also expresses a concept which is very
accessible and readily understood by most people, yet Arabic has no equivalent for it.
Landslide has no ready equivalent in many languages, although it simply means
‘overwhelming majority’.

(c) The source-language word is semantically complex

The source-language word may be semantically complex. This is a fairly common
problem in translation. Words do not have to be morphologically complex to be
semantically complex (Bolinger and Sears 1968). In other words, a single word which
consists of a single morpheme can sometimes express a more complex set of meanings
than a whole sentence. Languages automatically develop very concise forms for
referring to complex concepts if the concepts become important enough to be talked

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 about often. Bolinger and Sears suggest that ‘If we should ever need to talk regularly
and frequently about independently operated sawmills from which striking workers
are locked out on Thursday when the temperature is between 500° and 600°F, we
would find a concise way to do it’ (ibid.:114). We do not usually realize how
semantically complex a word is until we have to translate it into a language which
does not have an equivalent for it. An example of such a semanti- cally complex word
is arruação, a Brazilian word which means ‘clearing the ground under coffee trees of
rubbish and piling it in the middle of the row in order to aid in the recovery of beans
dropped during harvesting’ (ITI News 1988:57).8

(d) The source and target languages make different distinctions in meaning
The target language may make more or fewer distinctions in meaning than the source
language. What one language regards as an important distinction in meaning another
language may not perceive as relevant. For example, Indonesian makes a distinction
between going out in the rain without the knowledge that it is raining (kehujanan) and
going out in the rain with the knowledge that it is raining (hujan- hujanan). English
does not make this distinction, with the result that if an English text referred to going
out in the rain, the Indonesian translator may find it difficult to choose the right
equivalent, unless the context makes it clear whether or not the person in question
knew that it was raining.

(e) The target language lacks a superordinate

The target language may have specific words (hyponyms) but no general word
(superordinate) to head the semantic field. Russian has no ready equivalent for facilities,
meaning ‘any equipment, building, services, etc. that are provided for a particular
activity or purpose’. It does, however, have several specific words and expressions
which can be thought of as types of facilities, for example sredstva peredvizheniya
(‘means of transport’), naem (‘loan’), neobkhodimye pomesh- cheniia (‘essential
accommodation’) and neobkhodimoe oborudovanie (‘essential equipment’). Brennan
(1999) discusses a range of interesting examples that demonstrate this type of
difficulty in interpreting between English and British Sign Language (BSL):

(f) The target language lacks a specific term (hyponym)

More commonly, languages tend to have general words (superordinates) but lack
specific ones (hyponyms), since each language makes only those distinctions in
meaning which seem relevant to its particular environment. There are endless
examples of this type of non-equivalence. English has many hyponyms under article for
which it is difficult to find precise equivalents in other languages, for example feature,
survey, report, critique, commentary, review and many more. Under house, English
again has a variety of hyponyms which have no equivalents in many languages, for
example bungalow, cottage, croft, chalet, lodge, hut, mansion, manor, villa and hall.
Under jump we find more specific verbs such as leap, vault, spring, bounce, dive, clear,
plunge and plummet.

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(g) Differences in physical or interpersonal perspective
Physical perspective may be of more importance in one language than it is in another.
Physical perspective has to do with where things or people are in relation to one
another or to a place, as expressed in pairs of words such as come/go, take/ bring,
arrive/depart and so on. Perspective may also include the relationship between
participants in the text. For example, Indonesian has many equivalents for the word I,
depending on the context. It can be saya, aku, hamba, etc.

(h) Differences in expressive meaning

There may be a target-language word which has the same propositional meaning as
the source-language word, but it may have a different expressive meaning. The
difference may be considerable or it may be subtle but important enough to pose a
translation problem in a given context. It is usually easier to add expressive meaning
than to subtract it. In other words, if the target-language equivalent is neutral
compared to the source-language item, the translator can sometimes add the
evaluative element by means of a modifier or adverb if necessary, or by building it in
somewhere else in the text. So, it may be possible, for instance, in some contexts to
render the English verb batter (as in child/wife battering) by the more neutral
Japanese verb tataku, meaning ‘to beat’, plus an equivalent modifier such as
‘savagely’ or ‘ruthlessly’. Differences in expressive meaning are usually more difficult to
handle when the target-language equivalent is more emotionally loaded than the
source-language item.

(i) Differences in form

There is often no equivalent in the target language for a particular form in the source
text. Certain suffixes and prefixes which convey propositional and other types of
meaning in English often have no direct equivalents in other languages. English has
many couplets such as employer/employee, trainer/trainee and payer/payee. It also
makes frequent use of suffixes such as -ish (e.g. boyish, hellish, greenish) and -able
(e.g. conceivable, retrievable, drinkable). Arabic, for instance, has no ready mechanism
for producing such forms and so they are often replaced by an appro- priate
paraphrase, depending on the meaning they convey (e.g. retrievable as ‘can be
retrieved’ and drinkable as ‘suitable for drinking’). Affixes which contribute to
expressive or evoked meaning, for instance by creating buzz words such as washa-
teria, carpeteria and groceteria (Bolinger and Sears 1968), and those which convey
expressive meaning, such as journalese, translationese and legalese (the -ese suffix
usually suggests disapproval of a muddled or stilted form of writing), are more difficult
to translate by means of a paraphrase. It is relatively easy to paraphrase propositional
meaning, but other types of meaning cannot always be spelt out in a translation. Their
subtle contribution to the overall meaning of the text is either lost altogether or
recovered elsewhere by means of compensatory techniques.

It is important for translators to understand the contribution that affixes make to

the meaning of words and expressions, especially since such affixes are often used
creatively in English to coin new words for various reasons, such as filling temporary
semantic gaps in the language and creating humour. Their contribution is also
important in the area of terminology and standardization. Examples of creative use of

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affixes can often be found in advertisements and other types of promotional liter-
ature. One advertisement for the chocolate Toblerone which appeared in many
outlets in the mid 1990s showed three chocolate triangles against a larger image of
the three pyramids in Egypt, with the caption ‘Ancient Tobleronism?’ appearing next to
the pyramids. Here, the -ism ending evokes spirituality (as in Buddhism) and,
possibly, tradition – the kind we associate with established schools of thought that
have large numbers of loyal followers, such as Marxism, Existentialism and so on.

Eating Toblerone is thus likened to a spiritual experience; at the same time, the
making of the chocolate, as well as eating it, are presented as part of a tradition, with
a long and stable history.

(j) Differences in frequency and purpose of using specific forms

Even when a particular form does have a ready equivalent in the target language,
there may be a difference in the frequency with which it is used or the purpose for
which it is used. Thus, English uses the continuous -ing form for binding clauses much
more frequently than other languages which have equivalents for it, for example
German and the Scandinavian languages. Consequently, rendering every
-ing form in an English source text with an equivalent -ing form in a German, Danish or
Swedish target text would result in stilted, unnatural style.

(k) The use of loan words in the source text

The use of loan words in the source text poses a special problem in translation. Quite
apart from their respective propositional meaning, loan words such as au fait, chic, Auf
Wiedershen and alfresco in English are often used for their prestige value, because
they can add an air of sophistication to the text or its subject matter. Japanese in
particular tends to use loan words widely, ‘just for effect, for example because they
sound beautiful or look elegant’ (Jüngst 2008:61). This effect is often lost in translation,
both into the language from which the loan word is originally borrowed and into other
languages, where it is not always possible to find a loan word with the same meaning
or associations. Dilettante is a loan word in English, Russian and Japanese, but Arabic
has no equivalent loan word. This means that only the propositional meaning of
dilettante can be rendered into Arabic; its stylistic effect would almost certainly have
to be sacrificed.
Loan words also pose another problem for the unwary translator, namely the
problem of false friends, or faux amis as they are often called. False friends are words or
expressions which have the same form in two or more languages but convey different
meanings. They are often associated with historically or culturally related languages such
as English, French, Spanish and German, but in fact false friends also abound among
totally unrelated languages such as English, Japanese and Russian. Mayoral Asensio
(2003:95–96) discusses several interesting examples of false friends (which he refers to as
‘deceptive cognates’) in English and Spanish in the context of translating official
documents, including college/colegio and graduate/graduado.
Once a word or expression is borrowed into a language, we cannot predict or
control its development or the additional meanings it might or might not take on.
Some false friends are easy to spot because the difference in their meanings is so
great that only a very inexperienced translator is likely to be unaware of it. The
average Japanese translator is not likely to confuse an English feminist with a Japanese

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 49

 feminist (feminist in Japanese is usually used to describe a man who is excessively soft
with women). An inexperienced French or German translator may, however, confuse
English sensible with German sensibel (meaning ‘sensitive’), or English sympathetic
with French sympathique (meaning ‘nice/likeable’).

The above are some of the more common examples of non-equivalence among languages
and the problems they pose for translators. In dealing with any kind of non-equivalence, it
is important first of all to assess its significance and implications in a given context. Not
every instance of non-equivalence you encounter is going to be significant. It is neither
possible nor desirable to reproduce every aspect of meaning for every word in a source
text. We have to try, as much as possible, to convey the meaning of key words which are
focal to the understanding and development of a text, but we cannot and should not
distract the reader by looking at every word in isolation and attempting to present him or
her with a full linguistic account of its meaning.

Strategies used by professional translators

With the above proviso in mind, we can now look at examples of strategies used by
professional translators for dealing with various types of non-equivalence. In each
example, the source-language word which represents a translation problem is underlined.
The strategy used by the translator is highlighted in bold in both the original translation
and the back-translated version. Only the strategies used for dealing with non-equivalence
at word level will be commented on. Other strategies and differences between the source
and target texts are dealt with in subsequent chapters.

(a) Translation by a more general word (superordinate)

This is one of the commonest strategies for dealing with many types of non- equivalence,
particularly in the area of propositional meaning. It works equally well in most, if not all,
languages, since the hierarchical structure of semantic fields is not language-specific.

(b) Translation by a more neutral/less expressive word

There is a noticeable difference in the expressive meaning of mumble and its nearest
Indonesian, bergumam or berkata.

1. ‘Sorry,’ she managed to mumble incoherently.

2. I was doing a three-point-turn manoeuvre to get us back onto the road when he
woke up, lifted his hat and mumbled: ‘Where are we?’
3. ‘I didn’t mean to disturb you,’ I mumbled apologetically.
4. ‘I’m in your hands,’ I mumbled and didn’t quite know why I said it.
5. Presented with a hard question, she’ll blush, stare at her feet and finally mumble her
answer.

(c) Translation by cultural substitution

This strategy involves replacing a culture-specific item or expression with a target-
language item which does not have the same propositional meaning but is likely to have a

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similar impact on the target reader, for instance by evoking a similar context in the target
culture. The main advantage of using this strategy is that it gives the reader a concept with
which he or she can identify something familiar and appealing. On an individual level, the
translator’s decision to use this strategy will largely depend on (a) how much licence is
given to him or her by those who commission the translation; (b) the purpose of the
translation; and (c) the translator’s own judgement of the desirability or otherwise of
obscuring the cultural specificity of the source text. On a more general level, the decision
will also reflect, to some extent, the norms of translation prevailing in a given community.
Tolerance of strategies that involve significant departure from the propositional meaning
of the text varies considerably across different communities and temporal locations.
(d) Translation using a loan word or loan word plus explanation
This strategy is particularly common in dealing with culture-specific items, modern
concepts and buzz words. Following the loan word with an explanation is very useful when
the word in question is repeated several times in the text. Once explained, the loan word can
then be used on its own; the reader can understand it and is not distracted by further
lengthy explanations.

(e) Translation by paraphrase using unrelated words

If the concept expressed by the source item is not lexicalized at all in the target language,
the paraphrase strategy can still be used in some contexts. Instead of a related word, the
paraphrase may be based on modifying a superordinate or simply on unpacking the
meaning of the source item, particularly if the item in question is semantically complex.

(f)Translation by omission
This strategy may sound rather drastic, but in fact it does no harm to omit translating a
word or expression in some contexts. If the meaning conveyed by a particular item or
expression is not vital enough to the development of the text to justify distracting the
reader with lengthy explanations, translators can and often do simply omit translating the
word or expression in question.

(g) Translation by illustration

This is a useful option if the word which lacks an equivalent in the target language
refers to a physical entity which can be illustrated, particularly if there are restrictions on
space and if the text has to remain short, concise and to the point.

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 CHAPTER 6
ABOVE-WORD LEVEL EQUIVALENCE
(Taken from www.uniroma2.it/didattica/ling_ing1_linfo/.../Equivalence_above_word_level.doc)

In order to convey meaning, words are usually combined together and there are restrictions
to these combinations. The most common ones, especially those concerning classes of
words, take the form of rules. Apart from grammar and syntax, among the elements that
determine the arrangement of words in a text are the rules concerning collocation.

We have already mentioned collocational restrictions while talking about presupposed

meaning. They can be defined as “semantically arbitrary restrictions which do not follow
logically from the propositional meaning of a word”. Certain words tend to co-occur
because of their propositional meaning. Words that belong to the same semantic field are
more likely to be found together (ex. steak is more likely to co-occur with chips or salad than
with book). But meaning does not always account for collocation.

You grill meat but toast bread, even if you use the same grill to do it. You wash your hands
but shampoo your hair and brush your teeth.

Even words that may appear synonyms will often take different collocations. In English you
break rules but violate norms and regulations; you waste time but squander money.

Collocation often reflects cultural differences. The common English association between
bread and butter would be much less common in an African or an Asian language.

In some cases words can co-occur in all their forms, in other cases, some co- collocations are
unlikely. You can bend rules, but you cannot say that rules are unbendable, they are
inflexible.

Collocation rules can be broken to obtain certain effects:

Example: Eyes wide-shut

Collocational range

Any given lexical item will tend to occur in a language with a particular range of other lexical
items with which we can say it is compatible. Some words have a more restricted
collocational range than others. You can only blink your eyes, or shrug your shoulders, the
word spick are rarely used other than as part of the expression spick and span. Other words
have no collocational restrictions (eg. the, after, of).

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 52

Then, there are words with a large, even if not unlimited, range of collocations. The word
long for example. Its collocations include many expressions to do with time (a long day, a
long week.) and many others to do with physical distance (a long way, a long road).

The collocational range of a word is influenced by two main factors. The first is its level of
specificity; a superordinate has a broader range than its hyponyms. Consider kill, execute,
murder and assassinate. You can kill by accident, both a person and an animal, while you
murder intentionally and execute only in certain specific situations.

Superordinates can substitute their hyponyms, but not vice-versa. Give can be substituted
for any of the verbs in the following examples:

 I donated money to the hospital.

 I awarded him a medal (gave him a medal for services rendered.)
 I lent him my car (gave him my car for a short period.)

Conversely, donate, award, lend cannot occur in sentences such as:

 I gave him a book for Christmas.

 I gave him a lift.

The second determining factor is the number of senses a word has. But we could also put it
the other way round and say that the collocational pattern of a word determines its
different senses.
See the following examples and find the Indonesian equivalence.

 A hot day (calda/torrida)

 A hot iron (rovente)
 Hot water (bollente)
 Hot food (piccante)

There is no such thing as an impossible collocation; this is part of the creative aspect of
language. Although some are more typical than others, we tend to accept marked
collocations, which produce a deliberate confusion to create new images.

Examples:

 Peace broke out (usually a war breaks out).

 Eyes wide-shut (usually eyes are wide-open)

Some collocations are untypical in everyday language but can be common in special
registers, for instance tolerable error in statistics.

Collocational meaning
We can conclude that a word does not have a meaning outside a context. If we were asked
to explain the meaning of the adjective dry, we would tend to define it as “free from water”,
but consider expressions such as:

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Dry wine, dry sound, dry voice, dry humour, the dry facts

Taking account of collocational meaning rather than replacing single words with their
dictionary equivalents is therefore crucial for translation. In addition, differences in
collocational patterns can create problems in translation and produce clumsy sentences.

1) Confusing source and target patterns is a pitfall that can easily be avoided.
Translators should be careful not to carry over source-language collocation patterns which
are untypical of the target language.

Example:

SL: The city boasts a beautiful beach.

TL: Kota itu membanggakan pantai yang indah.

Ther underline word is not appropriate due to wrong collocation.

2) A translator can easily misinterpret a collocation in the source text due to interference
from his/her native language. This happens when a source-language collocation appears to
be familiar because it corresponds in form to a common collocation in the target language.

3) In rendering unmarked source-language collocations into his/her target language, a

translator ideally aims at producing a collocation which is typical in the target language
while, at the same time, preserving the meaning associated with the source collocation.
This ideal cannot always be achieved. Translation often involves a difficult choice between
what is typical and what is accurate.

Example:
In English, a hard drink (as opposed to a soft drink) does not include beer or wine.

4) Some collocations reflect the cultural settings in which they occur. If the cultural settings
of the source and target languages are significantly different, there will be instances when
the source text will contain collocations which convey what to the target reader could be
unfamiliar associations of ideas. Translators should not opt for accuracy if the source
collocations have little or no meaning in the target culture.

5) Unusual combinations of words are sometimes used to create new images. The
translation of a marked collocation should be as far as possible similarly marked.

Example:
SL: And then peace broke out.
TL: Lalu, kedamaian pun pecah.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 54

Idioms and fixed expressions

Idioms and fixed expressions are frozen, stereotyped patterns of language which allow no
variation in form and often carry meanings which cannot be deduced from their individual
components.

Example:
Beat about the bush

Although some idioms are more flexible than others, usually a speaker/writer cannot do any
of the following with an idiom, unless he/she is making a joke:

 Change the order of the words (beat the bush about)

 Delete a word (beat about)
 Add a word (beat about the usual bush)
 Replace a word (beat about the tree)
 Change its grammatical structure (beat about bushes)

The main problems that idiomatic and fixed expression create in translation are related
to two areas: the ability to recognize and interpret an idiom correctly and the difficulties
involved in rendering the various aspects of meaning that it conveys.

As far as idioms are concerned, the first difficulty for a translator is to recognize them.
Some idioms are more recognizable than others because they violate truth conditions or do
not follow grammatical rules.
There are two cases in which idioms can be misinterpreted:
 When they offer a reasonable literal interpretation (Take someone for a ride).
 When an idiom in the source language has a counterpart in the target language
which looks very similar but has a different meaning (To have cold feet).

The difficulties involved in translating idioms can be summarised as follows:

• An idiom or fixed expression may have no equivalent in the target language.
• An idiom or fixed expression may have a similar counterpart in the target language, but its
context of use may be different; they may have different connotations or not be
pragmatically transferable.
• An idiom may be used in the source text both in its literal and idiomatic senses at the
same time and this play on idiom may not be successfully reproduced in the target text.
• The convention regarding idioms, the contexts in which they can be used and their
frequency of use may be different in the source language and the target language.

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Strategies for translating idioms

Baker proposes the following strategies for translating idioms:

• Using an idiom of similar meaning and form.

(hard to find)
• Using an idiom of similar meaning but dissimilar form.
SL: Tong kosong berbunyi nyaring.

TL: Still waters run deep.

• Paraphrasing, when there is no match or using idiomatic language seems inappropriate in

the target text.
SL: The police decided to call the dogs off.
TL: Polisi memutuskan untuk berhenti berburu.

• Omission, if the idiom has no close match and paraphrase is either difficult or results in
clumsy style.

SL: She was as poor as a church mouse.

TL: Dia miskin sekali.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 56

 CHAPTER 7
GRAMMAR AND TRANSLATION
(taken from Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2018. Practical Theories of Translation)

When translating, we have to write the translation result in a target language with its
grammar, not the grammar of the source language. Sometimes a translator just translates
word-by-word, forgetting the grammar of the target language and the result is a weird text.
Grammatical equivalence does not maintain the grammar of the spurce text, but using the
grammar of the target language to reexpress the meaning or message.
Structurally, is translating difficult? Theoretically, we can borrow the assumption of
contrastive analysis in the field of foreign language teaching. It is said that if the source
language structure and target language structure are the same, then translation tend to be
easier to translate the source text into target text structurally. However, if source language
and target language differ in terms of structure or grammar, then the translator will
potentially face difficulties in handling the translation. In such a case a grammatical
adjustment is needed. From linguistics it is known that languages of a family have almost
the same grammatical features. However, languages originating from different families,
such as Indonesian and English, have very different grammatical features. Thus it can be
assumed that grammatically, the translation of English into Indonesian or vise versa will not
easy and need many grammatical adjustments.
Below are some of the grammatical differences between English and Bahasa
Indonesia which will potentially pose some problems for translators. All of these differences
demand grammatical adjustments. Technically, this grammatical adjustment means the
application of structural translation strategies, namely addition, subtraction, and
transposition.

DIFFERENCES OF ENGLISH AND INDONESIAN GRAMMAR

Articles
The definite article in English is the. In Indonesian we don’t have such article, but we
have a suffix and few words to show the meaning, i.e. -nya, itu, ini, tadi, and tersebut. In
English indefinite article is a or an. In Indonesian, however, we have sebuah, sebutir, seekor,
sekuntum, seorang, etc. depending on the noun being defined.

It is important to note that these articles do not necessarily have to be translated

into Indonesian. In contrast, an Indonesian sentence that does not contain any article could
be translated into English containing an article. Consider the following example:

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 57

 SL: The horse is grazing in the yard.
TL: Kudanya sedang merumput di halaman. (NOT: Kudanya sedang merumput di
halaman tersebut.)

SL: My vehicle is a horse.

TL: Kendaraanku adalah kuda. (NOT: Kendaraanku adalah seekor kuda.)

Why is the in the first part of the first sentence translated? Why is it omitted in the
second part of the TL sentence? Why is a on the second sentence omitted from the TL
sentence?
The article (the) must be translated if without the word the meaning of TL becomes
unclear. “The” is better omitted if the noun described by the “the” is already understood
from the context. For example is the sentence above. The repeated word will make the
Indonesian sentence boring, just like a child's writing. “The” in the first part of the sentence
above must be maintained because the phrase "the horse" refers to a particular horse, not
just any horse. Therefore “the” must be translated. While the second it is omitted because
without the article the readers already know that the yard in question is the yard near the
speaker.
In the second example, a is not translated. Why? It is important to note that
indefinite article is a necessity in English if the noun is countable which is just mentioned the
first time, but not in Indonesian it is not.
In English, a phrase which is formed with an indefinite article and a noun has two
meanings. The phrase may represent a thing that really exists and only one (the quantity), or
it may also represent all the the same objects in the world (general concept) as in the
sentence Horse is a strong animal. In this example, the horse represents the horse as a
whole. Therefore, the translation of the word the needs not be retained in the Indonesian
so that the translation is Kuda (adalah) binatang yang kuat. The problem is different again
in the following example.

SL: She ate an apple on the way and she did not realize that it was not hers.
TL: Ia makan sebuah apel di perjalanan dan ia tidak sadar bahwa apel itu bukan
miliknya.

In the example a should be translated to emphasize that she only eat one aple, not
tow or three aples. See again the following examples.

SL: It was an old table she had bought at a junk sale for two dollars and painted pink.
There were some cosmetic jars on it and a silver-backed brush she had gotten as
a present on her eighteenth birthday and three small bottles of perfumes and a
manicure set all neatly laid out on a clean towel. (Rich Man Poor Man, 1979:22)
TL: Meja tersebut adalah sebuah meja tua yang dibelinya di pasar loak seharga dua
dolar dan bercat merah muda. Di atasnya ada beberapa botol kosmetik, sebuah
sisir berpunggung perak yang didapatnya sebagai hadiah ulang tahunnya yang
kedelapan belas, tiga botol kecil parfum dan seperangkat manikur semuanya
terjajar rapi pada selembar handuk bersih.

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Plural forms
Plural forms in English are not necessarily translated into a plural fomrs in
Indonesian. English has nominal concord or agreement. This rule requires that nouns be
made in plural when they refer to more than one. Consider the following example.

two books = dua buku (NOT: dua buku-buku)

some books = beberapa buku (NOT: beberapa buku-buku)
few people = beberapa orang (NOT: beberapa orang-orang)

Pay attention to the following.

SL: The book is about the two most important questions of life. “Where am I going
and who will go with me?” All of us must answer these questions sometime
during our lives, and the order in which we answer them is as important as the
answers themselves. (The Ten Laws of Lasting Love, 1993: 36)
TL: Buku ini tentang dua pertanyaan paling penting tentang hidup. “Kemana aku
akan pergi, dan siapa yang akan pergi denganku?” Kita semua harus menjawab
pertanyaan-pertanyaan tersebut suatu saat dalam hidup kita, dan urutan kita
menjawabnya sama pentingnya dengan pertanyaan-pertanyaan itu sendiri.

Pronouns
In English we have pronouns she, her, hers, he, him, his, it, its, they, them their,
theirs, we, our, and ours. In Indonesian, pronouns are not that complicated, especially the
ones related to gender.
She actually refers to a female third person and he refers to a male third person..
They refer to humans as well as things. While it is for singular objects. It is important to
know that she and her should not be translated with dia perempuan and –nya perempuan
and he and him need not be translated into ia laki-laki and –nya laki-laki. This is not unsually
in Indonesian. Usually the context helps readers identify the gender. Therefore, her, hers
does not need to be translated into miliknya perempuan, and his does not need to be
translated into miliknya laki-laki.
In addition, in bahasa Indonesia a oun id not replaced with "ia" or "mereka". We can
just repreat the noun. See the following example.
SL: In the darkness, the big old house looks so frightening. It stands with no
neighbors, alone in the middle of the forest. Its windows locked all time, nobody
knows what’s behind them.

TL: Dalam kegelapan, rumah tua yang besar itu nampak sangat menakutkan. Rumah
tersebut terpencil tanpa tetangga, sendirian di tengah hutan itu. Jendela-
jendelanya terkunci sepanjang waktu, tanpa seorang pun tahu ada apa di balik
(jendela-jendela) itu.

Noun phrase
In English, a noun phrase usually consists of "article + adjective + noun". In
Indonesian, it usually consists of "(article) + noun + adjective". Consider the following
example.
a patient man = (seorang) lelaki yang sabar
an intelligent young girl = (seorang) gadis muda yang cerdas

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 a tall water tower = (sebuah) menara air yang tinggi
a long winding road = (sebuah) jalan yang panjang dan berliku atau jalan panjang
yang berliku
From the above example, a noun phrase in Indonesian is never preceded by an
adjective. Meanwhile, in English adjectives do not have to be in front of a noun like the
formula above. There is also a construction containing adjectives or adverbs that are palced
after the noun. Consider the following example.

something interesting = sesuatu yang menarik.

a girl in red = (seorang) gadis berpakaian merah.
paintings to admire = lukisan untuk dikagumi
rooms available = kamar yang tersedia
a beautiful intelligent young girl in red = (seorang) gadis cantik, cerdas, muda, (dan)
berpakaian merah

Gerund
Gerund in English is a construction of "verb1 + ing" which is treated like a noun. Therefore
this can occupy the position of the subject or object of a verb, as well as the prepositional
object. Because in the Indonesian we do not have this construction (gerund), then there are
two possibilities in translating it, that is with the verb or noun derived from the verb. Keep
in mind that the verb in Indonesian language can occupy the subject or object position.
Consider the following example.

SL: You will study the history of whaling and the present critical situation of this
magnificent animal.

TL: Anda akan mempelajari sejarah penangkapan ikan paus dan situasi kritis saat ini
dari binatang yang hebat tersebut.

SL: Whaling has been done by man for centuries and, in places, provides a main
source of food.

TL: Penangkapan ikan paus telah dilakukan manusia selama berabad-abad, dan di
beberapa tempat, menjadi sumber pangan utama.

SL: Fishermen cast nets in the whale area in order to catch the fish. In the process of
drawing in the nets, a good many get caught under water and, on being hauled
into the boats with the fish, are found to have died from drowning.

TL: Para nelayan memasang jaring di area ikan paus untuk menangkap ikan tersebut.
Dalam proses penarikan jaring, banyak ikan paus yang tertangkap di bawah air
dan ketika diangkat ke kapal ikan-ikan itu didapati telah mati karena tenggelam.

In the last translation above the phrase with the fish does not need to be translated
beause it can be inferred from the nxt part ikan-ikan itu.

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Participles
In English we have constructions called present participle and past participle. Present
participle is "verb1 + ing" construction and past participle is "verb3" of the base verb. This
This construction is used to make a verb to have a characteristic like an adjective. Usually in
Indonesian both construction are translated into nouns of the participle. It is important to
remember that present participle has an active characteristic and past participle seems to
carry passive meaning. SO, "stealing robot" and "stolen robot" are different. See the
following example.

SL: Is it the stealing robot? (TL: Inikah robot pencuri itu?)

SL: Is it the stolen robot? (TL: Inikah robot curian itu?)

Examine also the followinh example:

SL: While swimming whales take in air and dive vertically, sometimes to great
depths. They then surface and expel air from their lungs, which is audible from
some distance and can be seen largely because of the concentration of
condensing water vapour in the expelled gases.

TL: Pada saat berenang ikan-ikan paus menghirup udara dan menyelam dengan
tegak lurus, kadang-kadang sampai ke kedalaman yang luar biasa. Kemudian
ikan-ikan itu akan muncul ke permukaan dan menghembuskan udara dari paru-
paru mereka, yang bisa didengar dari kejauhan dan bisa dilihat terutama karena
konsentrasi uap air yang mengembun dalam gas yang dihembuskannya.

Tenses
In English we have tense. With tense the form of verbs change based on when the
action referred to by the verb is done. So, "berjalan" can be walked, walks, walk, will walk,
have walked, had walked, or walking. In Indonesian it is onely “berjalan” and the context
helps the readers to understand the time of the occurance. Indeed, Indonesian language has
sudah and telah and these can help understand the time of occurrence in the past.
However, when it is clear form the context, no such word is necessary. The same thing
happens to "nanti" to refer to future action. Maybe it is "sedang" which is very helpful. See
the following example:

SL: He is writing a very long letter. Don't disturb him. He will be here soon. I know it
for sure that he has visited his wife last month. He also talked about her
yesterday in the cafe. I could see from his eyes that he always said he would
always love her. You know, new couple!

If we think about tense in the above example, we may think that the trasnaltion is
complicated. However, just imagine the occurrence, and the text can be translated easily.

TL: Ia sedang menulis surat yang sangat panjang. Jangan ganggu dia. Ia akan ke sini
segera. Aku tahu dengan pasti bahwa ia telah mengunjungi istrinya bulan lalu. Ia
juga berbicara tentang istrinya di cafe kemarin. Aku bisa melihat dari matanya
bahwa ia selalu berkata bahwa ia akan selalu mencintainya. Maklum, pengantin
baru!

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See also the following example.

SL: Nowadays, more and more people realize that the world is moving into critical
period and whether we survive depend on how we deal with the crisis. One of
the biggest issues is the world's food supply in relation to its growing population.
As far as we can estimate, world population was almost stable at something
under ten million for about a million years. The increase began with the
development of agriculture eight to ten thousand years ago. After about
seventeen hundred, when industrialization began, the population started to
grow at about two per cent a year. Today there are about four thousand million
people and, if there are no major disasters, there'll be six thousand million in the
year two thousand. A hundred years after that, there would be, in theory, be
anything up to sixteen thousand million. Even today there isn't enough food for
everyone and, unless major changes occur, the situation is going to deteriorate
rapidly.

TL: Dewasa ini semakin banyak orang yang menyadari bahwa dunia ini bergerak ke
arah masa kritis dan apakah kita akan bertahan hidup tergantung pada
bagaimana kita menghadapi krisis tersebut. Salah satu masalah terbesarnya
adalah persediaan pangan dunia dalam kaitannya dengan pertumbuhan jumlah
penduduk. Sejauh yang bisa kita perkirakan, penduduk dunia hampir stabil pada
kisaran kurang dari 10 juta selama sekitar satu juta tahun. Peningkatannya
diawali dengan perkembangan pertanian delapan sampai sepuluh ribu tahun
yang lalu. Setelah tahun 1700-an, ketika industrialisasi dimulai, penduduk
bertambah sekitar dua persen setiap tahunnya. Saat ini ada sekitar empat milyar
jiwa penduduk dunia dan, jika tidak ada bencana-bencana besar, jumlah itu akan
mencapai enam milyar pada tahun 2000. Seratus tahun kemudian, secara teori,
jumlah tersebut akan menjadi 16 milyar. Bahkan sekarang pun tidak ada pangan
yang mencukupi bagi setiap orang dan, kecuali jika terjadi perubahan-perubahan
besar, situasinya akan dengan cepat menjadi kian memburuk.

Question tag
Question tags are the short questions put at the end of sentences. There are lots of
different question tags but basically if the main part of the sentence is positive, the question
tag is negative, and vice versa. In Bahasa Indonesia we also have such construction, only it is
simpler. See the example below.

SL: You are not serious, are you?

TL: Anda tidak sungguh-sungguh, bukan?

SL: You didn't keep your promise, did you?

TL: Kau tak penuhi janjimu, kan?

SL: She really means it, doesn't she?

TL: Ia sengaja, kan?

It can be seen above that all question tag is translated into bukan or abbreviated into kan.

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Conditional sentences

Conditional Sentences are also known as Conditional Clauses or If Clauses. They are
used to express that the action in the main clause (without if) can only take place if a certain
condition (in the clause with if) is fulfilled. There are three types of Conditional Sentences.
It is is to speculate what could happen if the condition is fulfilled.
The type 1 conditional is used to refer to the present or future, referring to a possible
condition and its probable result. In these sentences the if clause is in the simple present,
and the main clause is in the simple future.

Form: if + Simple Present, will-Future

Example: If I find her address, I’ll send her an invitation.

Type 2 conditional
The type 2 conditional is used to refer to a time that is now or any time, and a situation that
is unreal. In other word, it is used to refer to a hypothetical condition and its probable
result. In type 2 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the simple past, and the main
clause uses the present conditional.

Form: if + Simple Past, Conditional I (= would + Infinitive)

Example: If I found her address, I would send her an invitation.
Type 3 conditional
The type 3 conditional is used to refer to a time that is in the past, and a situation
that is contrary to reality. The facts they are based on are the opposite of what is
expressed. In type 3 conditional sentences, the if clause uses the past perfect, and the main
clause uses the perfect conditional.
Form: if + Past Perfect, Conditional II (= would + have + Past Participle)
Example: If I had found her address, I would have sent her an invitation.

It is easy to translate type 1 into Indonesian. Just use jika to start the conditional
clause, and akan to start the main clause. For the rest two types, however, we must be
careful.
Yang sedikit memerlukan perhatian lebih adalah kalimat pengandaian jenis kedua
dan ketiga. Bentuk kala (tenses) kalimat pengandaian jenis kedua adalah kombinasi simple
past dan past future tense. Kalimat ini mengindikasikan sesuatu yang kemungkinan besar
tidak akan terjadi karena potensi atau kekuatan untuk itu tidak ada. Sedangkan jenis ketiga
adalah pengandaian untuk sesuatu yang telah terjadi dimasa lampau dan bentuk kalanya
menggunakan gabungan antara past perfect tense dan past future perfect tense.

To translate this Rachmadie, et al. (19..: 2.18) formulate the following.

Bahasa Inggris Bahasa Indonesia

I. If ... V1, ... will V1. Jika ... V, ... akan V.
II. If ... V2, ... would V1. Jika saja ... V, ... akan V.
III. If ... had V3, ... would have V3. Seandainya ... V, ... akan V.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 63

See the following example.
SL: If you come to the party, you will meet him personally.
TL: Jika kamu datang ke pesta itu, kamu akan bertemu dengannya secara pribadi.

SL: If you came to the party, you would meet him personally.
TL: Jika saja kamu datang ke pesta itu, kamu akan bertemu dengannya secara
pribadi. (Catanan: Ini artinya ada kondisi lain yang menyebabkan "kamu" untuk
tidak datang.)

SL: If you had come to the party, you would have met him personally.
TL: Seandainya kamu datang ke pesta itu, kamu tentu bertemu dengannya secara
pribadi. (Catatan: Ini artinya "kamu" memang tidak datang ke pesta yang
dimaksud.)

The translation of conditional sentences from Indoensian into English is not as easy
as the above. The translators must pay attention to the context or situation. Examine the
following example.

SL: Karyo memang keras kepala. Berkali-kali adiknya menyuratinya agar dia pulang
saja ke desa. Tapi dia ngotot ingin bertahan di Jakarta, meneruskan usaha ilegal
itu. Semakin hari, bukannya semakin utung, justru dia kian dililit utang. Bahkan
sekarang polisi menjebloskannya ke penjara. Andai saja dulu ia mau sedikit saja
mendengar nasihat adiknya, tentunya akan lain nasibnya.

TL: Karyo was really stubborn. His sister had many times written him letters to ask
him return to his home-village. But he insisted to stay in Jakarta, and continued
his black business. As days went by, instead of reaping much benefit, he was
piled up by debts. Even today the police took him into the jail. His fate would
have been different, if only he had heard his sister’s advice for a little.

Another type of sentence which is similar to the above is suibjunctive. It is a sentence

using "wish". Thi sis like conditional sentence type 3, but refers to present situation. See the
following examples.

SL: I wish I were with you now.

TL: Seandainya saja aku bersamamu sekarang.

SL: I wished you had been with me that time.

TL: Aku berharap kau bersamaku saat itu. (Tapi sayang, kamu tidak ada di
sampingku.)

Elliptical sentence
An elliptical sentence refers to a sentence with information removed, but the
meaning is understood. In English, verbs, nouns, or even adjectives can be removed if the
sentence structure is parallel. What is removable in Indonesia oftentimes can be removed
also in English, but it is not always the case. See the following example.

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 SL: Bill brought some meat to the camping ground and Tony some sugar.
TL: Bill membawa sedikit daing ke perkemahan itu dan Tony membawa sedikit gula.

SL: Most of the students looked sleepy, but the teacher wasn't.
TL: Kebanyakan murid tampak mengantuk, tetapi gurunya tidak.

SL: Few of the students were not satisfied, and neither was the teacher.
TL: Beberapa murid tidak puas, dan tidak juga gurunya.

SL: Few of the students were disappointed. The teacher was too.
TL: Beberapa murid kecewa. Gurunya juga.

Expletive pronouns
In Engish we have expletive it and expletive there. These are empty words that do
not refer to anything but occupy the position of a subject.
Below is the formulation:
It + to + be + ....... + infinitive phrase.
It + to + be + ....... + that-clause atau relative clause.

There + is/are + noun clause

A translator should be careful because it here does not mean ini, itu, hal itu, hal ini
or similar expressions. The function of it is to emphasize the real meaning after “be”. See
the example below.

SL: It is frightening to realise that nuclear plant could be a total catastrope for the
environment.
TL: Sungguh mengerikanlah menyadari bahwa pembangkit tenaga listrik dapat
menjadi bencana bagi lingkungan.

SL: It is to him that Marry owes very much.

TL: Kepadanyalah Marry banyak berhutang budi.

Another construction containing the word it that must be handled carefully can be
seen in the example below.

SL: I find it more difficult to talk to my wife than to my boss.

TL: Bagi saya berbicara kepada istri saya lebih sukar daripada kepada atasan saya.

SL: You have to keep it in mind that every citizen has right to control his country.
TL: Anda harus mencamkan bahwa setiap warga negara mempunyai hak mengatur
negara ini.
A bit different from above is “there” that can be translated simply as “ada”. See the
folloing example.
SL: There is smile in my heart.
TL: Ada senyum di hatiku.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 65

 CHAPTER 8
MEANING, MESSAGE, STYLE
(taken from Hariyanto, Sugeng. 2018. Practical Theories of Translation)

Meaning

In the discussion of translation and equivalence, meaning, message, and style are
often the topics. According to Gutt (1991: 69), meaning is the information that the original
text conveys to its readers. Another expert, Newmark sees meaning from a different angle.
When Newmark defines the act of translating as the act of transferring meaning, he
does not refer the word meaning the whole meaning. An English sentence She just arrived
means that a woman has arrived long time ago or just now. The German sentence die Sonne
geth auf, for instance, tells the readers that the sun is rising now or maybe it rises regularly,
and that sun is feminine gender in German. But in its context, the translator does not
necessarily transfer all the meaning. Thus, what relevant meaning should be transferred?
Before discussing further about the above question, it is useful to discuss where does
actually meaning reside.
Meanings may be present in a word, may also reside in a larger linguistic unit, such
as a sentence or even a text. However, it must be admitted that the translator's raw
material is word. He tries to get the meaning out of series of SL words and then reexpress
the meaning in the TL series of words. It is true that meaning can be expressed by means of
sentence structure. But word has “higher level content” of meaning than the structure of
the sentence does. Pidgin is evidence that most of the meaning is contained within words.
According to Larson (1984: 6), a language, or rather the vocabulary, has special
characteristics that greatly affect translation. First, the component of meaning is always
packed in lexical items (words), but how it is packed varies from one language to another.
The second characteristic, the same component of meaning can appear in different lexical
items. In English there is the word sheep. In addition there is also the word lamb, ram, and
ewe. These last three words also contain the sheep component of meaning, which is a kind
of goat but its white fur and feathers can be used to make clothing material. (In Indonesian,
this component of meaning is encapsulated in the word domba.) Nevertheless, these last
three words also contain additional different components of meaning. The meaning
components of young can be found in lambs, adult and male in ram, and adult and female in
ewe. In the Indonesian language there is no equivalent word for lamb, ram, and ewe.
Components of 'young', 'female', and 'male' or 'adult' are added to the general word sheep.
So lamb is a domba muda, ram is domba jantan, and ewe is domba betina. On the other
hand, the words padi, gabah, beras, nasi in Indonesian only has the equivalent in English, i.e.
rice, whereas the word rice contains general meaning components covering all sorts of the
real grain and the products made of the grain. The word gabah contains the meaning of rice
grains without the stalks; while the word beras has the meaning of the ready-to-cook rice
grain. The word nasi means steamed rice grain, like nasi liwet, nasi uduk, nasi kebul, and so
on. As an example, see the following example.

Translation Class Learning Material – Sugeng Hariyanto– PAGE: 66

 SL: They surely needed rice.

TL: Mereka tentu membutuhkan ???.

In Indonesias the word rice has a mot of equivalents. It can be padi, gabah, beras, or
nasi. To translate the above sentence, a translator should look at the larger context. If there
is another sentence, get the meaning with the help of the sentence. See the following
example.

SL: They all looked tired and pale. They surely needed rice.
TL: Mereka semua kelihatan letih dan pucat. Mereka tentunya membutuhkan nasi.

The Indonesian words above are words related to Indonesian culture. Indonesians
are very concerned about rice as the staple food, so they create a lot of vocabulary
associated with it. While the English culture that does not require "rice" never thinks about
rice in details. Its vocabulary about "rice" was simpleand general. A translator may face
difficulties if s/he does translate from a more general vocabulary into more detailed
vocabulary.

Larson (1984: 89) mentions this phenomenon as mismatching of reference. Reference is an

object, event or characteristic that a word refers to. So there is always the possibility for an
object or event to exist in a particular culture or society, but it does not exist in other
cultures or societies. Although similar objects, events, or characteristics exist in two
different cultures, the referencing system is not necessarily exactly the same, because,
according to the theory of semantic fields in Semantics, each language will divide the
semantic field in different ways. Consider the following table.

Indonesian English
tidur lie, sleep
terlentang lie (facing up)/lie on one's back
tengkurap lie (facing down)/lie on one's belly
membawa carry
menjinjing carry
menggendong carry (on the back)
memanggul carry (on the shoulder)
memikul carry (on the shoulder using a pole)

The above examples show that "memindahkan benda dari satu tempat ke tempat
yang lain dengan tenaga manusia" can be expressed simply with "carry" in English. However,
in English such meaning is distributed to "menjinjing, menggendong, memanggul”, and
“memikul." In such case, a translator may find difficulties to translate such meaning from
English into Indonesias.

Very much similar to the above, Larson (1984: 92) also mentions "mismatching of
semantic sets". Every word must be semantically related to other words. Interrelated words
about a particular topic are called collocation. Collocation may be different from culture to
culture, from language to language. In English, breakfast is related to the "milk, orange juice,

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egg, roll," dan "bread". Meanwhile, in Indonesian the word "sarapan" is related to "teh,
kopi, nasi." Yes, it may be easy to translate "breakfast" into "sarapan" or “makan pagi”.
However, it is important keep in mind that the readers may imagine things that are different
from those intended by the original author.

To give another example, Larson (1984: 95) quotes the example of the owrds
"house", "oikos" (Greek) and "numuno" (Papua New Guinea). For better understanding,
please see the example below.

rumah (Ind.) oikos (Greek) numuno (Papua New Guinea)

Shape of “house” in Indonesia, Greek, dan Papaua New Guinea

A Greek phrase saying "Peter went up to the housetop to pray" when translated
literally into Indonesian would be worth discussing if it is translated as “Peter naik ke atas
atap untuk berdoa.” It is even weirder to have "Peter naik ke atas numuno untuk berdoa".
Peter may have to be very careful in Indonesia and may have to be ready to fall in Papua
New Guinea.
The above discussion above leads us to the conclusion that a word often does not
refer to exactly the same referent as the reference by its equivalent in TL. Because the task
of the translator is to find the equivalent of the exact referent, he must be smart to measure
and choose words that would convey the meaning correctly in the TL. Third, a word form
can be used to represent some meaning. In English there is a word run, whose central
meaning is to move along, faster than walking, by taking quick steps in which each foot is
lifted before the next foot touches the ground. However, this word can also be used to
represent some other meanings. Notice some of the use of run below:
- The river runs slowly. (Sungai itu mengalir pelahan.)
- His nose runs badly. (Hidungnya ngocor.)/Dia pilek.
- He runs his business very well. (Ia menjalankan bisnisnya dengan sangat baik.)
In Indonesian, the word run may mean "mengalir" in the first sentence, and in the second
sentence it means "berair" or "ngocor" or "pilek". In sentence 3, the means “operate".

The last characteristic is that a meaning dan di express in several lexical items.
Meanign can be expressed well with several words or lexical items. For example, "tidak
jelek" can be expressed as "bagus", "baik", "tampan", "rapi", "cantik", dll.

Types of meaning
Newmark (1991: 28) classifies meaning into three varieties: cognitive,
communicative, and associative, and these are normally involved in any translation. He gives
the clause, You know in English. Its meaning may include that what has been said is

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true (cognitive meaning), the speaker/writer is asking the listener/readers’ assent or mere
attention (communicative meaning), or that the speaker and the listener are talking about
the things they two know well. Further he maintains that every variety of meaning can be
transferred although it does not mean that every relevant aspect of meaning in a text has to
be translated. Otherwise, the translation would sometimes be longwinded and
cumbersome. A translator, therefore, many times has to establish priorities in choosing
which varieties of meaning to transfer.
Cognitive meaning includes: linguistic meaning, referential meaning, implicit
meaning, and thematic meaning (Newmark, 1991: 29). Linguistic meaning is the proposition
within the text. Referential meaning is the actual referent of the words. Implicit meaning is
the idea determined by the tone of the passage. The term 'implicit meaning' here should be
understood in a narrow sense, the sense defined by Newmark in this particular field. It is not
related to implicit meaning as it is generally understood which covers meaning between the
line and meaning beyond the line.
Lastly, thematic meaning is the ideas or meaning seen from the theme-rheme
perspective. A theme is normally put at the beginning of the sentence and contains old
information. And the new information is called rheme and put at the end of the sentence.
Thematic meaning ensures the maximum reasonable formal equivalence between SLT and
TLT. The sentence Kesana dia pergi would probably best translated into There he goes if the
translator considers its thematic meaning.
Communicative meaning includes: illocutionary meaning, performative meaning,
inferential meaning, and prognostic meaning (Newmark, 1991: 29). Illocutionary meaning
shows the force of the sentence, that a sentence needs a response. Mind your words! may
mean a warning if seen from illocutionary meaning. Performative meaning shows the actual
act performed when the sentence is said. Inferential meaning is the idea that can be
inferred from the sentence. And prognostic meaning shows that the speaker is giving a sign
or forewarns of what he wants in the (near) future. So, the prognostic meaning of Tunggu
apa lagi? may mean Ayo pergi or Let's go.
Associative meaning, according to Newmark (1991: 29) may be related to the writer's
background, the situation, or the sound-effect conveyed by the SLT. When related to the
writer's background, meaning can be derived and analyzed from: the class or sociolect,
bersantap rather than makan; the dialect, kenape rather than kenapa; the period, patik
rather than saya; or the age, ilmu hayat for biologi.
Related to situation, meaning covers degree of formality; generality, and objectivity
(Newmark, 1991: 29-31). Considering the formality degree, to denote death in Bahasa
Indonesia a writer may choose gugur, wafat, meninggal, mati, tewas, or mampus. In terms
of generality, a word can bring popular, neutral, or technical meaning. In terms of
objectivity, a word can show impassioned or factual meaning.
All the varieties of meaning mentioned above may or may not exist in one text. Yet,
only some of them may be functionally relevant for a translation. Normally, a translator is
always making choices, weighing, balancing the merit of one equivalent (used as noun), or
carrier of meaning against another.

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2. Message
According to Nida and Taber, (1982: 205), message is the total meaning or content of
a discourse; the feelings which the author intends the readers to understand and perceive.
For the example, see the part of Seeger's song below.

Where have all the flowers gone?

by Pete Seeger

...
Where have all the young men gone.
Long time passing?
Where have all the young men gone,
Long time ago?
Where have all the young men gone?
Gone for soldiers every one.
When will they ever learn?
When will they ever learn?

Where have all the soldiers gone,

Long time passing?
Where have all the soldiers gone,
Long time ago?
Where have all the soldiers gone?
Gone to graveyards every one.
When will they ever learn?
When will they ever learn?
...
The meaning of the above song in general is about a person telling the reader that all
young men became soldiers and finally died. The message, on the other hand, is the singer's
cry for stopping the war.
To illustrate, the meaning of the word mas in Bahasa Indonesia is brother. But the
utterance Mas Yanto made by his wife is not equivalent with Brother Yanto in English. That
word carries another meaning, it shows respect and closeness. So, Brother Yanto has the
same meaning with Mas Yanto but serves a different message.
From the two examples, it can be concluded that meaning is not always the same as
message and message may not be related directly to meaning brought about by the words
at all. It is the total intention and feeling the writer wants to convey to the readers. In this
research, message is defined as intention, feeling, or impression created by an author with
certain sentence(s) for that particular context or situation.

Style
The next often-discussed topic is style. Style here is understood as the way a writer
expresses himself resulting, for example, from the words he chooses or the way he

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constructs his sentences (Gutt, 1991: 123). In other words, this element covers diction and
syntax or sentence structure.
Any language vocabulary can be divided into three main categories: literary, neutral,
and colloquial. Of course, there is some overlapping area between literary and neutral as
well as neutral and colloquial.
In general, literary vocabulary includes archaic words, poetical words, nonce-words,
foreignism and barbarism, and terms (Galperin, 1977: 72). Archaic and poetical words are
usually old words and only used in high literary text. Nonce-word is a new word coined to
suit a particular purpose and situation. Foreignism is a word taken from another language to
create specific effect. If the foreign word has been considered part of the language's
vocabulary, it is called barbarism. Term is a word coined to express certain concept in
certain field. It can be used as a style marker if it has new special meaning in the writing.
Galperin (1977: 78) cites Thackeray's lines to give an example as follows.

"What a fool Rawdon Crawley has been," Clump replied, "to go and marry a
governess. There was something about the girl too?"
"Green eyes, fair skin, pretty figure, famous frontal development," Squill
remarked.

The phrase frontal development is usually used in anatomy and means the
development of the forehead bone. The preceding word famous and the context makes the
whole phrase a stylistic device as it uses its terminological aspect, i.e. there is a
development. The development here is not in the frontal bone as the original term means,
but the one which is in front part of the body. So, the phrase frontal development gets a
new meaning, i.e. breast of a woman.
Falling under neutral words is standard English vocabulary. While the colloquial
vocabulary consists of professionalism, slang, dialectal words, jargon, vulgarisms, and nonce
words. (Galperin, 1977: 72). Professionalisms are words used by people in the same
professions. Jargons are words by certain community members whose creation is to
preserve secrecy (Galperin, 1977: 110). Slangs are words that are pronounced or interpreted
differently from their standard pronunciation or meaning. Slang is usually used by certain
community members and is looked down. To summarize, a TL sentence is said to be
equivalent in its choice of words if its words have the same category as the ones in the SL.
The second area of style is structure. The first thing coming to our thought in this
area might be word order. In English the word order is essential to meaning of a sentence.
From the word order we know which part of sentence is being emphasized or talked about.
An English phrase "blue sky" means the sky that is blue. Literally, "blue" is "biru" in Bahasa
Indonesia, and "sky" is "langit". While "biru langit" in Bahasa Indonesia does not mean
"langit" which is "biru", but this is the color of "biru" that resembles the color of "langit". As
the TL should be natural in its own language system, the word order of a sentence must
conform to its own language system. So, style here does not take word-order into account.
Rather it takes the complexity, and completeness of a sentence.

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 The complexity is divided into: (a) simple, (b) compound, (c) complex, (d) compound-
complex. (The definition of the terms is exactly the same as the one by structural grammar.)
In terms of its completeness, a sentence can be classified into: (a) elliptical or broken
sentence and (b) complete sentence. A complete sentence is a sentence that consists of at
least "noun as subject" and "verb". Elliptical sentence is one which consists of one or none
of the element. This is important as it affects the degree of formality, one of the elements of
style.
In other words, a target language text (TLT) is said to be equivalent in terms of its
structure if it: (a) has the same complexity degree and (b) has the same completeness
degree. Consequently, a TLT considered equivalent in terms of style, if it has the same
complexity and completeness degree and its words or word groups have the same
vocabulary classification.
And finally, impression is the emotion, feeling or insight created by the writing on
the part of the reader. In this study, the word impression is understood as the emotion,
feeling, insight and reaction of the readers on the meaning, message, and style.

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 CHAPTER 9
TRANSLATION ERRORS

There are many errors categories. The following is the list of errors according to American
Translator Association (Version 2017).

Errors can be categorized as translation errorts (startegiy/transfer errors), which results in

mistranslation and mechanical errors.

A. Translation (strategy/transfer) errors

Translation (strategy/transfer) errors include:

- Misunderstanding of source text (if identifiable)

- Addition
- Omission
- Terminology, word choice
- Text Type, including resgiter and style
- Faithfulness
- Literalness
- Faux ami (false friend)
- Cohesion
- Ambiguity

Addition: (A): An addition error occurs when the translator introduces superfluous
information or stylistic effects. Candidates should generally resist the tendency to
insert “clarifying” material. Explicitation is permissible. Explicitation is defined as “A
translation procedure where the translator introduces precise semantic details into the
target text for clarification or due to constraints imposed by the target language that were
not expressed in the source text, but which are available from contextual knowledge or the
situation described in the source text.” (Translation Terminology, p. 139)

Ambiguity: (AMB): An ambiguity error occurs when either the source or target text segment
allows for more than one semantic interpretation, where its counterpart in the other
language does not.

Cohesion: (COH): A cohesion error occurs when a text is hard to follow because of
inconsistent use of terminology, misuse of pronouns, inappropriate conjunctions, or other
structural errors. Cohesion is the network of lexical, grammatical, and other relations which
provide formal links between various parts of a text. These links assist the reader in
navigating within the text. Although cohesion is a feature of the text as a whole, graders will

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mark an error for the individual element that disrupts the cohesion.

Faithfulness: (F): A faithfulness error occurs when the target text does not respect the
meaning of the source text as much as possible. Candidates are asked to translate the
meaning and intent of the source text, not to rewrite it or improve upon it. The grader will
carefully compare the translation to the source text. If a “creative” rendition changes the
meaning, an error will be marked. If recasting a sentence or paragraph—i.e., altering the
order of its major elements—destroys the flow, changes the emphasis, or obscures the
author’s intent, an error may be marked.

Faux ami: (FA): A faux ami error occurs when words of similar form but dissimilar meaning
across the language pair are confused. Faux amis, also known as false friends, are words in
two or more languages that probably are derived from similar roots and that have very
similar or identical forms, but that have different meanings, at least in some contexts.

Illegibility: (ILL): An illegibility error occurs when graders cannot read what the candidate
has written. It is the candidate’s responsibility to ensure that the graders can clearly discern
what is written. Candidates are instructed to use pen or dark pencil and to write firmly
enough to produce legible photocopies. Deletions, insertions, and revisions are acceptable if
they do not make the intent unclear.

Indecision: (IND): An indecision error occurs when the candidate gives more than one
option for a given translation unit. Graders will not choose the right word for the candidate.
Even if both options are correct, an error will be marked. More points will be deducted if
one or both options are incorrect.

Literalness: (L): A literalness error occurs when a translation that follows the source text
word for word results in awkward, unidiomatic, or incorrect renditions.

Mistranslation: (MT): See under the category Other Errors (OTH) below.

Misunderstanding: (MU): A misunderstanding error occurs when the grader can see that
the error arises from misreading a word, for example, or misinterpreting the syntax of a
sentence.

Omission: (O): An omission error occurs when an element of information in the source text
is left out of the target text. This covers not only textual information but also the author's
intention (irony, outrage). Missing titles, headings, or sentences within a passage may be
marked as one or more errors of omission, depending on how much is omitted. Implicitation
is permissible. Implicitation is defined as “A translation procedure intended to increase the
economy of the target text and achieved by not explicitly rendering elements of information
from the source text in the target text when they are evident from the context or the
described situation and can be readily inferred by the speakers of the target language.”
(Translation Terminology, p. 145)

Register: (R): See below under Text Type (TT).

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Spelling: (SP) / (Character (CH) for non-alphabetic languages): A spelling/character error
occurs when a word or character in the translation is spelled/used incorrectly according to
target-language conventions. A spelling/character error that causes confusion about the
intended meaning is more serious and may be classified as a different type of error using
the Flowchart and Framework. If a word has alternate acceptable spellings, the candidate
should be consistent throughout the passage. NOTE: In applicable cases, the SP/CH error
should be sub-categorized as C (Capitalization) or D (Diacritic); see explanations above.

Style: (ST): See below under Text Type (TT).

Syntax: (SYN): A syntax error occurs when the arrangement of words or other elements of a
sentence does not conform to the syntactic rules of the target language. Errors in this
category include improper modification, lack of parallelism, unnatural word order, and run-
on structure. If incorrect syntax changes or obscures the meaning, the error is more serious
and may be classified as a different type of error using the Flowchart and Framework. NOTE:
In the Framework grid, the SYN error is a sub-category of Grammar (G) errors.

Terminology: (T): A terminology error occurs when a term appropriate to a specific subject
field is not used when the corresponding term is used in the source text. This type of error
applies to terms used in various technical fields, but can also apply to more general texts. In
the latter, a Terminology error can occur whenever the candidate chooses a content word
or phrase (noun, verb, and modifier) with an incorrect or inappropriate meaning. NOTE: If
the word choice violates conventions of collocation (e.g., subject-verb or adjective-noun
combinations that are specific to the target language), then a Usage (U) error should be
marked.

Text Type: (TT): A text type error occurs when some component of the translation fails to
meet specifications listed or implied in the Translation Instructions (TIs). This category
includes the former categories of Register ("when the language level or degree of formality
is not appropriate for the target audience or medium specified in the TIs") and Style ("when
the style [e.g., tone, method of exposition] of the translation is inappropriate for publication
or professional use as specified by the TIs"). A TT error can also be marked when the
translation fails to adhere to terms or spellings specified in the TIs. Examples of the above
three types are: (a) in an academic textbook: "Some years, El Niño comes on with a
vengeance" (instead of "occurs with particular intensity"); (b) in step-by-step instructions:
the use of imperative verbs, when infinitives are standard for that text type in the target
language; (c) the place name "Saigon" when the TIs specify "Ho Chi Minh City."

B. Mechanical errors

Mechanical errors basically is grammar erros which include:

- Syntax (phrase/clause/sentence structure)

- Punctuation
- Spelling/Character (usually 1 point, maximum 2, if more than 2 points, another category
must apply)
- Diacritical marks / Accents

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- Capitalization
- Word form / Part of speech
- Usage

Grammar: (G): A grammar error occurs when a sentence in the translation violates the
grammatical rules of the target language. Grammar errors include lack of agreement
between subject and verb, incorrect verb inflections, and incorrect declension of nouns,
pronouns, or adjectives. NOTES: (a) In applicable cases, the G error should be sub-
categorized as SYN (Syntax) or WF/PS (Word Form/Part of Speech); see explanations below.
(b) If a verb form is grammatically correct in the sentence but changes the meaning of the
source text because of its tense, aspect, mood, etc., the category VT (Verb Tense) should be
used; see explanation below.

Capitalization: (C): A capitalization error occurs when the conventions of the target
language concerning upper and lower case usage are not followed. NOTE: In the Framework
grid, the C error is a sub-category of Spelling/Character (SP/CH) errors.

Diacritical marks / Accents: (D): A diacritical marks error occurs when the target-language
conventions of accents and diacritical marks are not followed. If incorrect or missing
diacritical marks obscure meaning (sense), the error is more serious. NOTE: In the
Framework grid, the D error is a sub-category of Spelling/Character (SP/CH) errors.

Punctuation: (P): A punctuation error occurs when the conventions of the target language
regarding punctuation are not followed, including those governing the use of quotation
marks, commas, semicolons, and colons. Incorrect or unclear paragraphing is also counted
as a punctuation error.

Usage: (U): A usage error occurs when conventions of wording in the target language are
not followed. Correct and idiomatic usage of the target language is
expected. This category includes the use of prepositions (e.g., "married with" instead of
"to"), collocations ("performed a crime" instead of "committed"), and definite/indefinite
articles.

Verb Tense: (VT): A verb tense error occurs when the translation includes a verb in the
grammatically correct form (person, number, gender, etc.) but conjugated in a tense
(and/or mood, aspect, etc.) that conveys a different meaning from the source text.
Examples: (a) "I lived there for 20 years" instead of "I have lived there for 20 years." (b)
"When he arrived, she made tea" instead of "When he arrived, she was making tea." (c) "It
is difficult to succeed" instead of "It would be difficult to succeed." NOTE: If a verb is
incorrectly inflected (for person, number, gender, etc.), the error G (Grammar) should be
marked; see explanation above.

Word form / Part of speech: (WF/PS): A word form error occurs when the root of the word
is correct, but the form of the word is incorrect or nonexistent in the target language (e.g.,
“conspiration” instead of “conspiracy”). A part of speech error occurs when the grammatical

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form (adjective, adverb, verb, etc.) is incorrect (e.g., “conspire” instead of “conspiracy”).
NOTE: In the Framework grid, the WF/PS error is a sub-category of Grammar (G) errors.

Other Errors
For errors that do not clearly fit the descriptions above, use the Framework categories OTH-
MT (for meaning transfer errors that change or distort the content of the source text) and
OTH-ME (for mechanical errors).

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