Module 1 : Introduction

 Definition of Signal : A signal is a function of one or more

variable and it conveys information about a physical phenomenon.
Ex: speech signal, ECG signal etc
 System: A system is an entity that manipulates one or more signal
to achieve a specified function and there by produces new signals
known as the output signal.
Ex: CRO, voltmeter etc…
Classification of signals
Signals may be classified as:
i) Continuous time and discrete time signal
ii) Even and Odd signals
iii) Periodic and Non periodic signal
iv) Power and energy signal
v) Deterministic and random signals.
Continuous time and discrete time signal

• Continuous time signal: A signal x(t) is said to be continuous if it is

defined for all values of the independent variable „t‟.

• Where„t‟ is the independent variable which represents time .

 Discrete time signal

Discrete time signal: A signal x(n) is said to be discrete if it is defined at discrete

instant of time .Where „n‟ is the independent variable

Even and Odd signals

Even signal: A continuous time signal x(t) is said to be even signal if it is

satisfies the condition

x(-t) = x(t) , Ɐ t

A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be even signal if it is satisfies the condition

x(-n) = x(n) , Ɐ n

Ex1: x(t) = t2 Ɐ t

X(-t) = (-t)2 = t2 = x(t) ---- Even signal

 Ex2: x(t) = cost Ɐ t

X(-t)= cos(-t) = cost =x(t) ----- Even signal

Odd signal: A continuous time signal x(t) is said to be odd signal if it is

satisfies the condition

x(-t) = - x(t) , Ɐ t

A discrete time signal x(n) is said to be odd signal if it is satisfies the condition

Ex: x(t) = sint Ɐ t

X(-t) = sin(-t) = -sint = -x(t) -------- Odd signal

“If the signal is either even or nor odd then it can be split / decompose into even
and odd”

If x(t) is either even or nor odd then it can be split into 2 signals

xe(t) and xo(t).

xe(t) and xo(t) are even and odd components of x(t) respectively.

I,e x(t) = xe(t) + xo(t) --------(i)

substituting t by –t in equation (i)
x(t) = xe(-t) + xo(-t) --------(ii)
W. k.t xe(-t) = xe(t)
xo(-t) = - xo(t)
Then equation 2 becomes
x(-t) = xe(t) - xo(t) --------(iii)
Adding equation (i) and (iii)
X(t) + x(-t) = xe(t) + xo(t) + xe(t) - xo(t)
X(t) + x(-t) = 2xe(t)
 Therefore
( ) ( )
xe(t) =

subtracting equation (i) and (iii)

X(t) - x(-t) = xe(t) + xo(t) - xe(t) + xo(t)
X(t) - x(-t) = 2xo(t)
Therefore
( ) ( )
xo(t) =

Similarly for a discrete time signal even and odd parts will be
( ) ( ) ( ) ( )
xe(n) = xo(n) =

Problems
1. Find the even and odd parts of the signal given
below
x(t) = t+ t2 + t3
solution: x(t) = t+ t2 + t3
( ) ( )
wkt xe(t) =

x(t) = t+ t2 + t3
x(-t) = -t+(- t)2 + (-t)3 = -t + t2 - t3
The even part of the signal is
( ) ( ) = = = 2
xe(t) = t
( ) ( )
wkt xo(t) =

x(t) = t+ t2 + t3
x(-t) = -t+(- t)2 + (-t)3 = -t + t2 - t3
The odd part of the signal is

() ( )
xo(t) = = = = t+

2. Find the even and odd part of the signal

x(t) = e-t u(t)
solution: x(t) = e-t u(t)
() ( )
wkt xe(t) =

x(t) = e-t u(t)

x(-t) = e-(-t) u(-t) =et u(-t)
The even part of the signal is

( ) ( ) = () ( )
xe(t) =
 () ( )
wkt xo(t) =

x(t) = e-t u(t)

x(-t) = e-(-t) u(-t) =et u(-t)
The odd part of the signal is
() ( ) () ( )
xo(t) = =

3. x(t) =cost +sint+ cost sint

Xe(t) = cost
Xo(t) = sint +cost sint

Periodic and Non periodic signals

The continuous time signal x(t) is said to periodic if it satisfies the condition

x(t+T) = x(t) , Ɐ t

Where T is the fundamental period of the periodic signal.

T– is the finite number and takes real values

If the above equation is not satisfied then the signal x(t) is said to be Non periodic
signal
Fundamental period(T)

• T of the periodic signal can be determined by

• ω =2πf = 2π/T rad/sec

• Where

• ω = angular frequency in rad/sec

• f =frequency in hertz Hz

• T– time period of the cycle

• Then T= 2π/ω
Steps to find the signal whether it is periodic or non periodic(CT signals)

 Case 1: For given x(t) determine the fundamental period ‘T’ by using

T = 2π/ ω sec
 Verify whether x(t) =x(t+T) then it periodic or else it is non periodic.

 Case 2: If two signals x1(t) and x2(t) are added then their periodicity is determined
by following steps Ex: x(t) = cos2πt+ sin4πt

1. Find the fundamental periods T1 and T2 of signals x1(t) and x2(t) respectively.
2. If the ratio of T1 / T2 is a rational number or ratio of two integers then the signal is
said to be periodic orelse it is non periodic.

3. If it is periodic then Fundamental period is the LCM of T1 and T2.

Problems
• Determine whether the given signals are periodic or not

1. X(t) = sin(12πt)

2. y(t) = COS (6πt)

Solution: 1. x(t) =sin(12πt) -------- sin (ωt)

ω = 12π therefore T = 2π/ ω

T = 2π/ 12π

fundamental period T= 1/6 sec

To verify periodicity check whether x(t) =x(t+T)

x(t+T) = sin(12π(t+1/6))

= sin(12πt+ 2π)

= sin12πt cos2π + cos12πt sin2π ---------[sin(a+b)= sina cosb + cosa sinb)

x(t+T) = sin12πt =x(t) therefore the given signal is periodic signal

Solution: 2. y(t) =cos(6πt) -------- cos (ωt)

ω = 6π therefore T = 2π/ ω
 T = 2π/ 6π

fundamental period T= 1/3 sec

To verify periodicity check whether x(t) =x(t+T)

x(t+T) = cos(6π(t+1/3))

= cos(6πt+ 2π)

= cos6πt cos2π - sin6πt sin2π ---------[cos(a+b)= cosa cosb - sina

sinb)

x(t+T) = cos6πt =x(t) therefore the given signal is periodic signal

2. Check the periodicity of the given signal

x(t) = cos2πt + sinπt if it periodic find the fundamental period

3. Solution: x(t) = cos2πt + sinπt = x1(t) + x2(t) = cosω1t + sinω2t

ω1 = 2π ω2 = π

wkt T1 = 2π /ω1 T2 = 2π /ω2

= 2π / 2π = 2π / π

T1 = 1 T2 = 2

The ratio of = = ------ rational number therefore the given signal is

periodic signal

The fundamental period T = LCM( 1,2) =2

4. Check the periodicity of the given signal

x(t) = cos4t + sin2πt if it periodic find the fundamental period

Solution: x(t) = cos4t + sin2πt = x1(t) + x2(t) = cosω1t + sinω2t

ω1 = 4 ω2 = 2 π
wkt T1 = 2π /ω1 T2 = 2π /ω2
= 2π / 4 = 2π / 2π
T1 = π/2 T2 = 1
The ratio of = = π/2 ------ irrational number therefore the given signal is
non periodic signal
5. Check the periodicity of the given signal
x(t) = cos6t + sint if it periodic find the fundamental period
T1 = π/3 T2 = 2π

The ratio of = = 1/6 ------ rational number therefore the given signal is periodic
signal

T = LCM( T1, T2) = LCM (π/3 , 2π) = 2π/3

Problems
1. Determine whether the given signal is periodic or non periodic
y(t) = COS2 (4πt)
Solution : 1. y(t) = COS2 (4πt)
Wkt COS2 θ =

COS2 (4πt) = = +

½ is the Dc shift added to the signal x1(t) =

Wkt .. cos2πft is periodic in nature and it will remain periodic after adding DC
shift.
Hence the signal y(t) is periodic signal.
ω = 8π T = 2π/ ω
T = 2π/ 8π
fundamental period T= 1/4 sec

2.Determine whether the given signals are periodic or non periodic

y(t) = sin2 (8πt)
Solution : 1. y(t) = sin2 (8πt)
Wkt sin2 θ =

sin2 (8πt) = = -

½ is the Dc shift added to the signal x1(t) =

Wkt .. cos2πft is periodic in nature and it will remain periodic after adding DC
shift.
Hence the signal y(t) is periodic signal.
ω = 16π T = 2π/ ω
T = 2π/ 16π
fundamental period T= 1/8 sec
3.Determine whether the given signals are periodic or non periodic y(t) = e-j2t
Solution : 1. y(t) = e-j2t
Wkt e-jθ = cosθ-jsinθ
e-j2t = cos2t-jsin2t
x(t) =cos2t-jsin2t
Wkt .. cos2πft and sin2πft is periodic in nature
Hence the signal y(t) is periodic signal and
ω=2 T = 2π/ 2
T = 2π/ 2
fundamental period T= π
4. Check the periodicity of the given signal
x(t) = cost + sin t if it periodic find the fundamental period
Solution: x(t) = cost + sin t = x1(t) + x2(t) = cosω1t + sinω2t
ω1 = 1 ω2 =
wkt T1 = 2π /ω1 T2 = 2π /ω2
= 2π / 1 = 2π / =( π)/
T1 = 2π T2 = π
The ratio of = = ------ irrational number therefore the given signal is
non periodic signal
5. Check the periodicity of the given signal
x(t) = 2cos100πt + 5sin50πt if it periodic find the fundamental period
Solution: x(t) = 2cos100πt + 5sin50πt = x1(t) + x2(t) = acosω1t + bsinω2t
ω1 = 100π ω2 = 50π
wkt T1 = 2π /ω1 T2 = 2π /ω2
= 2π / 100π = 2π / 50π
T1 = 1/50 T2 = 1/25
The ratio of = = ------ rational number therefore the given signal is
periodic signal
The fundamental period T = LCM(1/50 ,1/25 )
( )
T = 1/25 =
( )
6. Check the periodicity of the given signal
x(t) = 2cost + 3sint/3 if it periodic find the fundamental period
Solution: x(t) = 2cost + 3sint/3 = x1(t) + x2(t) = cosω1t + sinω2t
ω1 = 1 ω2 =1/3
wkt T1 = 2π /ω1 T2 = 2π /ω2
= 2π / 1 = 2π /1/3
T1 = 2π T2 = 6π
The ratio of = = 1/3 ------ rational number therefore the given signal is
periodic signal.
The fundamental period T = LCM(2π , 6π) = 6π

Steps to find the signal whether it is periodic or non

periodic(DT signals)

Case 1: For given x(t) determine the frequency „f‟ by using

Wkt ω=2πf then f = ω/2π
f = M/N is rational no or ratio of integers then it is periodic or else non periodic.
Where N – is the fundamental period or samples
Case 2: If two signals x1(n) and x2(n) are added then their periodicity is
determined by following steps Ex: x(t) = cos2πn+ sin4πn
1. Find the number of samples N1 and N2 of signals x1(n) and x2(n) respectively.
2. If the ratio of N1 / N2 is a rational number or ratio of two integers then the
signal is said to be periodic orelse it is non periodic.
3. If it is periodic then Fundamental period is the LCM of N1 and N2.

Problems
1.Determine whether the given signal is periodic or not X(n) = sin(6πn)
Solution : 1. x(n) =sin(6πn) -------- sin (ωn)
ω = 6π therefore f = ω/ 2π
f = 6π/ 2π
fundamental period f= 3 = =

M/N is the rational or ratio of integers therefore the given signal is periodic with
the fundamental period N= 1
2.Determine whether the given signal is periodic or not
X(n) = cos(0.01πn)
Solution : x(n) =cos(0.01πn) -------- cos (ωn)
ω = 0.01π therefore f = ω/ 2π
f = 0.01π/ 2π
f= =
M/N is the rational or ratio of integers therefore the given signal is periodic with
the fundamental period N= 200

3.Determine whether the given signal is periodic or not

X(n) = sin(3n)
Solution : 1. x(n) =sin(3n) -------- sin (ωn)
ω = 3 therefore f = ω/ 2π
f = 3/ 2π
f= =
M/N is the irrational therefore the given signal is non periodic

4.Determine whether the given signal is periodic or not

X(n) = 10cos(π/4n + π/3)
Solution : x(n) =10(π/4n + π/3) -------- Acos (ωn+φ)
ω = π/4 therefore f = ω/ 2π

f=

fundamental period f = =

M/N is the rational or ratio of integers therefore the given signal is periodic with
the fundamental period N= 8

5.Determine whether the given signal is periodic or not X(n) = sin2(4πn)

Solution : 1. x(n) = sin2(4πn) --------
Wkt sin2 θ =

sin2 (4πn) = = -
 ½ is the Dc shift added to the signal x1(n) =
ω = 8π therefore f = ω/ 2π
f = 8π/ 2π
fundamental period f= =
M/N is the rational or ratio of integers therefore the given signal is periodic with
the fundamental period N= 1

6. Determine whether the given signal is periodic or not X(n) = ejπ/2n

Solution : x(n) = ejπ/2n -------- ejωn
ω = π/2 therefore f = ω/ 2π
f = π/2/ 2π
fundamental period f= =
M/N is the rational or ratio of integers therefore the given signal is periodic with
the fundamental period N= 4

7. Check the periodicity of the given signal x(t) = 2cos2πn/5 + 5sin2πn/7 if it

periodic find the fundamental period
Solution: x(t) = 2cos2πn/5 + 5sin2πn/7 = x1(n) + x2(n) = acosω1n + bsinω2n
ω1 = 2π/5 ω2 = 2π/7
wkt f1 = ω1 /2π f2 = ω2 /2π

f1 = 1/5 f2 = 1/7
N1 = 5 N2 = 7
The ratio of = = ------ rational number therefore the given signal is

periodic signal
The fundamental period N = LCM(5, 7 )
N = 35

8. Check the periodicity of the given signal

x(t) = sin2n + cosπn/4 if it periodic find the fundamental period

Solution: x(t) = sin2n + cosπn/4 = x1(n) + x2(n)

 ω1 = 2 ω2 = π/4
wkt f1 = ω1 /2π f2 = ω2 /2π

f1 = 1/π f2 = 1/8
N1 = π N2 = 8
The ratio of = ------ irrational number therefore the given signal is non

periodic signal

8. X(t) =4sin6t+ 3sin2t

ω1 =6 ω2=2 -- T1=2π/ω1 = π/3

T2=π -- T1/T2 = 1/3 periodic --- T =LCM(π/3,π) =π/3

X(n) = sin30n+ cos 2n - f1=15/π f2= 1/π N1/N2= 1/1 periodic

N = lcm( 15/π ,1/π) =15/π

X(t) = 5t-2cos600πt

9.X(t) = 5t-2cos600πt

X(t) = 5t-2cos600πt -x1(t) –x2(t)

The period of signal 5t is T1which is indefinite I,e

ω2= 600π T2=1/300

T1/T2 =600π/ (1/300) --irrational which non periodic

 Power and Energy signal

• If x(t) is a continuous time signal representing voltage or current then the

instantaneous power is given by
P(t) = x2(t) -- watts [assuming R=1]
• Power of CT and DT signal
P= ∫ ( ) dt ------------ if x(t) is periodic
P= ∑ ( ) ------------ if x(n) is periodic
Definition of power signal : A signal is said to be power signal if its normalized
power is non zero and finite .
For power signal ,0 < P < ꚙ
Energy of CT and DT signal
E =∫ ( ) dt for CT signal
E =∑ ( ) for DT signal
Definition of Energy signal : A signal is said to be Energy signal if its
normalized energy is non zero and finite .
For Energy signal ,0 < E < ꚙ

Comparison between Power signal and Energy signal

Problems
1. What is the total energy of the rectangular pulse shown in a fig
 Solution:

x(t) =

{
As x(t) is a non periodic signal, energy of the signal is given by
• E =∫ ( ) dt for CT signal
E =∫ (t) dt + ∫ (t)dt + ∫ (t) dt

E =∫ dt + ∫ dt + ∫ dt

• E= |t| = (T/2 –(-T/2)) (T/2+T/2)

E= T joules---- total energy of the signal

2.What is the total energy of the signal shown in a fig

 Solution : x(n) =

The total energy of the discrete time signal

E =∑ ( )
• E =∑ ( )
• E = x2(-2)+x2(-1)+x2(0)+x2(1)+x2(2)+x2(3)+x2(4)+x2(5)
• E = (1)2+ (0.5)2+ (1)2+ (1)2 + (2)2 +(1)2+ 0 +0
E=8.25 J

3. Determine the whether the given is power or energy signal and find the
energy or power of the signal

Solution: x(t) is periodic signal hence it is a power signal for 0<t<T

x(t) ={

Total average power over one cycle is given by

P= ∫ ( )

As x(t) is periodic signal, power of the signal is given by

• P= ∫ ( ) dt for CT signal

P= ∫ (t) dt + ∫ (t)dt ]

P= ∫ ( ) dt + ∫ ( ) dt ]

• P= |t| + |t|

• P= [ (T/2 -0) + (T –T/2)

• = [ T/2 + T- T/2] = [ T]

• P= watts

4. Determine the whether the given is power or energy signal and find the
energy and power of the signal

Solution : the given signal is non periodic signal therefore it is energy signal

x(n) = {

The total energy of the discrete time signal

E =∑ ( )
• E =∑ ( ) +∑ ( ) +∑ ( )
• E =0+∑ ( ) + 0
• E = x2(-3)+ x2(-2)+x2(-1)+x2(0)+x2(1)+x2(2)+x2(3)+x2(4)+x2(5)
• E = (1)2+ (1)2+ (1)2+ (1)2 + (1)2 +(1)2+(1)2++(1)2+(1)2
E= 9 J
 5. Determine the whether the given is power or energy signal and find the
energy and power of the signal.

Solution: x(n) is periodic signal hence it is a power signal for 0<n<N with N=8

x(n) ={

Total average power of the discrete signal is given by

P= ∑ ( )

P= ∑ ( )

• P= ∑ ( ) +∑ ( ) ]

• P= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )

• P= ( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) +( )

• P= [8] =1 watts
6. Determine the whether the given is power or energy signal and find the
energy and power of the signal.

Solution: x(n) is periodic signal hence it is a power signal for 0<n<N with N=8

x(n) ={

Total average power of the discrete signal is given by

P= ∑ ( )

P= ∑ ( )

• P= ∑ ( ) +∑ ( ) ]

• P= ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( ) + ( )

• P= ( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) +( ) +0+0+0]

• P= [20] =5/2 watts

7.Determine the whether the given is power or energy signal and find the energy
and power of the signal.

Solution: x(n) is periodic signal hence it is a power signal for 0<n<N with N=8

x(n) ={

Total average power of the discrete signal is given by

P= ∑ ( )

6. Find the average power and energy of the following signals .determine
whether they are power or energy signal.

1. x(n) ={

2. y(n) ={

• Solution: 1. x(n) ={

Put n=-4 in sinπn x(-4)= sinπ(-4) =0

Put n=-3 in in sinπn x(-3)= sinπ(-3) =0

Similarly put n=-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4

we get 0 for all sin πn
therefore x(n) ={ 0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0,0}
since all the samples are 0 it is neither energy signal nor power signal

• 2. y(n) ={

• Put n=-4 in cosπn x(-4)= cosπ(-4) =1

• Put n=-3 in in cosπn x(-3)= cosπ(-3) =-1

• Similarly put n=-2,-1,0,1,2,3,4

we get 0 for all cos πn
therefore x(n) ={ 1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,1,-1,1}

since it is periodic it may be energy signal E = ∑ ( )

E =∑ ( ) = 1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1+1 = 9 joules

Deterministic and random signals

• Deterministic signals : A signal is said to be deterministic if there is no

uncertainty about its value before its occurance. I,e represented by mathematical
equation

• Ex: x(n) = cosωn

• Random signals : A signal is said to be random if there is uncertainty about its

value before its occurance.

• Ex: Noise generated in electronic components , cables and channels etc

 Elementary signals

• Standard signals are used for analysis of systems

• These standard signals are

1. unit step signal

2.Unit impulse function

3. Unit ramp function

4. Complex exponential function

5. Sinusoidal function

Unit step signal

• The unit step signal has an amplitude of „1‟ for positive values of independent
variable (for t≥0) . And it has an amplitude of „0‟ for negative values of
independent variable.(for t )

u(t) ={ u(n) ={
 Unit impulse signal or delta signal

• The unit impulse signal has of amplitude of „1‟ for t=0 . And it has an amplitude

of „0‟ for other positive and negative values δ(t) ={

δ(n) ={
Unit Ramp signal

• It is linearly growing function for positive values of independent variables.

It r(t) ={ r(n) ={
Exponential signal

• A continuous time exponential signal is of the form x(t) = A

• Where α and A are real no

 If α>0 then x(t) is a growing exponential

 If α<0 then x(t) is a decaying exponential

 Ex: x(t) = 2

Here A=2 , α = -1

Put t

t =-1 x(-1) = 2 =5.4

t =0 x(0) = 2 =2

t =1 x(1) = 2 = 0.735

t =2 x(2) = 2 = 0.0134
 Ex: x(t) =

Here A=1 , α = 1

Put

t =-1 x(-1) = = 0.3678

t =0 x(0) = =1

t =1 x(1) = = 2.71
Operations performed on signals
There are 2 types of operation performed on signals

i) operation performed on the dependent variable

ii) operation performed on the Independent variable

There different operations performed on the dependent variable are :

i) Amplitude /magnitude scaling

ii) Addition operation

iii) Multiplication

iv) Integration

v) Differentiation

Amplitude /Magnitude scaling

• Let y(t) be a continuous time signal which is obtained by performing Amplitude

scaling on x(t) . It is denoted by

• Y(t) = ax(t) where a is a real no

• Similarly for discrete time signal y(n) = ax(n)

Ex: i)
 Sktech i) y(t) =2x(t)

ii) y2(t) = 1/3 x(t)

1.For given signal sktech y(t) = 1.5 x(t)

2. For given signal sktech y(n) = 2 x(n)

y(n) =1/4x(n)
y(n) = 1/4 x(n)

Addition operation

Let y(t) be a continuous time signal which is obtained by adding x1(t) and x2(t) .
Y(t) = x1(t) + x2(t)

Similarly for discrete time signal y(n) = x1(n) + x2(n)

Ex:
Multiplication operation

Let y(t) be a continuous time signal which is obtained by adding x1(t) and x2(t) .

Y(t) = x1(t) . x2(t)

Similarly for discrete time signal y(n) = x1(n) . x2(n)

Ex:
Operations performed on signals

There different operations performed on the Independent variable are :

i) Time shifting

ii) Time scaling

iii) Reflection

Time shifting : Let y(t) be the continuous time signal which is obtained by performing
time shifting on x(t) .

It is denoted by y(t) = x(t-t0)

where t0 is the real no

If t0 > 0 , then x(t) is shifted right side by t0 to get y(t) ex: x(t-2)

If t0 < 0 , then x(t) is shifted left side by t0 to get y(t) ex: t0 =-3 --x(t+3)
Time scaling : Let y(t) be the continuous time signal which is obtained by performing
time scaling on x(t) .

It is denoted by y(t) = x(at)

where a is the real no

If a > 1 , then y(t) is the compressed version of x(t)

If a < 1 , then y(t) is the time enlarging version of x(t)

Similarly for discrete time signal y(n) = x(an)

Ex:
Reflection: Let y(t) be a continuous time signal which is obtained by reflecting x(t) I,e
mirror image

To obtain y(t) replace t by –t

Ex:
Problems on operation on the signal

1. For the given signal sketch

i) 2x(t) ii) x(t+3) iii) x(t-2) iv) x(2t) v) x(t/3)