PHYSICS PROJECT
CLASS XII
SESSION 2021-2022
MADE BY:- Ojanshu Pati Tripathi
INTERNAL
ASSESSMENT
NAME:- Ojanshu Pati Tripathi
CLASS:- XII
SECTION:- G
MARKS:-
SIGN:-
TOPIC:- CURRENT ELECTRICITY
ACKNOWLEDGEMENT
I would like to express my special thanks to my Physics
teacher Mr. Vinay Bajpai for their able guidance and support in
completing my Project.
I would also like to extend my gratitude to Principal Ma’am as
well as my family, friends and the people who helped me directly
or indirectly in completing this project.
Above all I would like to thank God.
INTRODUCTION
The branch of Physics which deals with dynamic state of charge
is called current electricity. Examples of current electricity in our
daily life are as follows:-
● When charge flows through the filament of a light bulb it
glows.
● When charge flows through the circuit of a computer it
works.
● Television, torch, fan and all other electric appliances work
when charge flows through them.
Electric Current
When the charges flow in a conductor from one place to the other
in a particular direction, then this flow of charge is called ‘Electric
Current.’
It is measured as the rate of flow of charge. It means how much
charge is flowing with respect to time. Thus, if in an electric circuit,
an amount of Q flows in t second, then the electric current in the
circuit is given by:
I=Q/t
CURRENT DENSITY
Current density is defined as current flowing per unit area provided the
area is held normal to the current. Current density is a property which
describes a specific point of the conductor. It is denoted by J.
J=I/A [where A=area vector]
It is a vector quantity.
Drift Velocity
The potential difference of the battery does not provide an
accelerated motion to the electrons, but simply gives them a drift,
that is, a small constant velocity of order of a few mm/s along the
length of the wire opposite to the electric field. This average
velocity of the electron is called a drift velocity of the electrons.
v = I/nAq
OHM’S LAW
Ohm’s law is named after the scientist Ohm who gave this law.
According to Ohm's law, current flowing through a conductor is
directly proportional to the potential difference applied between the
ends of the conductor.
This means if the potential difference applied at the ends increases
then the current flowing through the conductor also increases and
vice-versa.
Mathematically,
● Current flowing through the conductor I ∝ V where V is the potential
difference applied at the ends of the conductor.
● Or I=(constant) V where constant = 1/R where R =resistance of
the conductor
I=(1/R)V
V=IR
Graph between Current and Voltage
Limitations of Ohm’s Law
● Ohm’s law is valid for metal conductors, provided the
temperature and other physical conditions remain constant.
● Ohm’s law is not applicable to gaseous conductors.
● Ohm’s law is also not applicable to semiconductors such as
Germanium and Silicon.
RESISTANCE
Resistance is the property that resists flow of current.
From Ohm’s law:-
V=IR
[where R=resistance of the conductor]
If a huge amount of current flows through a circuit it will produce a
huge amount of heat which can damage the circuit. Resistance helps
to avoid damage to the circuit when a huge amount of current flows.
Resistance will control the flow of current.
When we apply some external field the free electrons will start moving
towards the positive end.
They will keep colliding with the positive ions here and there.These
collisions give rise to resistance. Greater the collision, more is the
resistance and vice-versa.
Expression:-
R=V/I
R= ρ (l/A)
Factors on which Resistance depends;-
● LENGTH OF THE CONDUCTOR
Resistance is directly proportional to the length of the
conductor.
● CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF CONDUCTOR
Resistance is inversely proportional to the cross sectional
area of the conductor.
● TEMPERATURE OF THE CONDUCTOR
For Metals:-
When temperature increases, resistance increases.
For Alloys:-
When temperature increases, resistance increases.
For Semiconductors:-
When temperature increases, resistance decreases.
CELLS, INTERNAL
RESISTANCE AND EMF
CELL
A cell is a device which generates electricity by using chemical
energy. A cell consists of electrodes and electrolytes.
Representation of Cell:-
INTERNAL RESISTANCE
Internal resistance is the resistance offered by the electrolyte and
electrodes when the current flows. The electrolytes and
electrodes oppose the flow of current.
Internal resistance plays a role only when the circuit is closed.
It varies from cell to cell.It is negligible where E>>Ir.
EMF
Emf is defined as the potential difference between electrodes
when there is no current in the cell(cell is in open circuit).Emf of
the cell initiates the flow of current in the cell.
emf= potential difference between 2 electrodes(Zn and Cu).
KIRCHHOFF’S FIRST LAW
Kirchhoff’s First law: Junction law
Junction Law is also known as Kirchhoff’s First Law. It states that
at the junction, the sum of current entering the junction is equal to
the sum of current leaving the junction. Junction is any point in the
circuit.Consider a case where I1 and I2 are the current entering
the junction and, current I4 and I5 are exiting out of the junction.
According to Kirchhoff’s law:-
I1+ I2 =I3+ I4+ I5
Kirchhoff’s Second law: Loop law
Loop law is also known as Kirchhoff’s Second Law. It states that
in a closed loop, the algebraic sum of emfs is equal to the
algebraic sum of product of resistances and respective currents
flowing through them.
Consider a simple circuit having,
emfs = E1 and E2;
R1 and R2 =resistances;
Current = I1 and I2.
Then according to this law:-
E1+ E2= I1R1+ I2R2
WHEATSTONE BRIDGE
Wheatstone bridge is a special arrangement of resistors as shown in
the figure.
There are 4 resistances R1, R2, R3 and R4 arranged in such a
manner that there is a galvanometer placed between the points B and
D. The arm BD is known as the galvanometer arm. AC is known as
the battery arm. The circuit is connected to the battery across the pair
of diagonally opposite points A and C.
According to Wheatstone bridge principle:-
If (R1/R2)=(R3/R4), then Bridge is said to be balanced.
If the bridge is balanced there is no current flowing through the
galvanometer arm.
METER BRIDGE
A meter bridge is an apparatus utilized in finding the unknown
resistance of a coil. The below figure is the diagram of a useful
meter bridge instrument.
In the meter bridge, one of the lateral kinds of resistances is
replaced by a wire having a length of the uniform cross section of
about 1m. The other pair consists of one known and an unknown
pair of resistances. The one part of the galvanometer is
connected in between both resistances, whereas the other part of
the wire is finding the null point where the galvanometer is not
showing any deflection. At this point, the bridge is said to be
balanced.
FORMULA:-
R / X = L / (100-L)
POTENTIOMETER
Potentiometer working can be explained when the potentiometer
is understood. It is defined as a three-terminal resistor having
either sliding or rotating contact that forms an adjustable voltage
divider. In order to use the potentiometer as a rheostat or variable
resistor, it should have only two terminals with one end and the
wiper. The potentiometer consists of L which is a long resistive
wire and a battery of known EMF V whose voltage is known as
driver cell voltage. Assume a primary circuit arrangement by
connecting the two ends of L to the battery terminals. One end of
the primary circuit is connected to the cell whose EMF E is to be
measured and the other end is connected to galvanometer G.
This circuit is assumed to be a secondary circuit.
Potentiometer is used to find:-
● emf
● the comparison between two cells
● internal resistance
E₁/E₂ = L₁/L₂
r= R(L₁/L₂ -1)
V= KL
[where K is a constant known as Potential Gradient]
BIBLIOGRAPHY
The information provided in this project has been
taken from the book ISC Physics by Dr. Raj Kumar
and Mr. Kapil Mittal and the Internet (wikipedia).
