1151EC102 –

ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Faculty Name:
MrS.Mahalakshmi V
TTS 3061
Email:mahalakshmiv@veltech.edu.in
Assistant Professor / Department of ECE
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sakunthala R&D
Institute of Science and Technology
1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
Introduction to basic circuit analysis

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Preamble:
The aim of this course is to develop the necessary fundamentals of circuits concepts
which lays the foundation for communication engineers in analysis of practical circuits.
The course deals with the analysis of circuits through graph theory, network
theorems, fundamentals of AC circuit analysis, concepts of resonance, coupled circuits;
transients through differential equations and Laplace transform technique.

Objective:
• To introduce the basic concepts of DC and AC circuits behavior.
• To study the transient and steady state response of the circuits subjected to step and
sinusoidal excitations.
• For introduce different methods of circuit analysis using Network theorems, duality and
topology.

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Outcomes

Apply the basic laws and theorems for DC circuits.

Solve the problems on RL, RC and RLC for DC transient circuits.

Interpret the characteristics of steady state analysis and power analysis.

Apply the Laplace Transform technique to solve AC circuits .

Compute the parameters of the two port Network and the resonant
frequency response characteristics.

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Need of Electric Circuit Analysis for an Electronic Engineer.

• Circuit Analysis - means figuring out voltages and currents in each

element.
• An important engineering skill is learning how to break down
complicated problems into simpler pieces.
• The circuit simulation application ”SPICE” and many similar
simulation programs are available for professional and student
engineers, and anyone else interested in the subject. (search term:
circuit simulator).
• Computer simulation is often used when solving even modestly
complex circuits.
• Competitive Exams such as GATE, IES, SSC, ISRO, RRB, BSNL,
DRDO, ECIL,AAI.
1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
Subjects with Electric Circuit Analysis as Prerequisites
• Analog Electronics
• Analog and Digital Control Systems
• Signals and Systems
• Linear Integrated Circuits
• Data Communication Networks

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 What is an Electric Circuit?
According to Merriam-Webster Dictionary: “The complete path of an
electric current including usually the source of electric energy.”

Note: If ANY part of the circuit is open the device will not work!

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Electricity can be symbolic of Fluids
There is a PRESSURE DIFFERENCE
where the flow begins and ends.
A certain AMOUNT of flow passes
each SECOND.
A circuit basically works on TWO
IMPORTANT PRINCIPLES
There is a "POTENTIAL DIFFERENCE
or VOLTAGE" from where the
charge begins to where it ends
The AMOUNT of CHARGE that
flows PER SECOND is called
CURRENT.

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Circuit Elements:
Voltage
Current
Power and Energy
Resistors
Capacitors
Inductors

Active Circuit Elements – Voltage, Current, Power and Energy

Passive Circuit Elements – Resistors, Capacitors and Inductors

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Active Circuit Elements
• All circuit elements that are capable
of supplying electric power to a circuit or to an aspect of
the circuit for an indefinitely long time are
called Active Circuit Elements.
• Examples: Batteries and Generators.

Passive Circuit Elements

• Passive circuit elements absorb or dissipate electric
power in the long term. They may store some electric
power and then return that power back to the circuit at a
later time.

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 Circuit Elements
Voltage: (V or v - Volts)The electrical potential between two points in a circuit.
Current: (I or i - Amperes)The amount of charge flowing through a part of a
circuit.
Power: (W - Watts)Simply P = IV. It is the current times the voltage.
Source: A voltage or current source is the supplier for the circuit.
For the given circuit with Vs = 12Volts and R = 20Ω, find the Current and
Power consumed by the Resistor.

I = V/R P=V*I
= 12V / 20Ω = 12V * 0.6A
= 0.6 Amps. = 7.2 Watts.

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Current Flow
Conventional Current assumes that current
Conventional
flows out of the positive side of the battery, Current
through the circuit, and back to the negative side
of the battery.
Electron Flow is that the electrons flow out of
the negative side of the battery, through the Electron
circuit, and back to the positive side of the Flow
battery.

DC = Direct Current - current flows in one

direction Example: Battery
AC = Alternating Current- current reverses
direction many times per second. Example: Wall
outlet (progress energy)

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

RESISTOR
Resistance is the electrical property of which it opposes the flow of current
in an electrical circuit. It is represented in ohms Ω

R=𝞺L/A

https://phet.colorado.edu/sims/html/circuit-construction-kit-dc/latest/circuit-construction-kit-dc_en.html
https://everycircuit.com/app
1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
 Capacitor
Capacitor is an electrical element which stores energy in the form of
electrostatic field.
It stores energy during positive half cycle and emits energy during negative
half cycle.
The average energy stored in a capacitor is zero
C=q/v

dv
iC
dt

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Inductor
The behavior of inductor is associated with magnetic field &electrical
field
It is a storage element.
Energy is stored in the form of electromagnetic field.
Its unit is Henry(H)

di
V  L
dt

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Introduction to circuit
terminology
 Circuit Vs Network
An electric network is a combination of interconnected circuit elements.
A network may or may not provide closed path to the electric current to
flow.
An electrical circuit may be a combination of one or more networks which
gives closed path to the electric current.
 Types of Electric Circuit
 In a series circuit, all components are connected end-to-end, forming a
single path for current flow.
 In a parallel circuit, all components are connected across each other,
forming exactly two sets of electrically common points.

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

Difference between parallel & series

Parallel circuit Series circuits

Current is different Current is same

Potential difference is same Potential difference is different

More than one path for current Only one path for current flow.
flow

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

 Nodes of Electric Circuit
The point through which an circuit element is connected to the circuit is
called node.
Node is a point where, terminal of two or more circuit elements are
connected together.
Node is a junction point in the circuit.
If three is no element between two or more connected adjacent nodes,
these nodes can be recombined as a single node.
Branch of Electric Circuit
Circuit element connected between two nodes is termed as branch.
In other words the portion of the circuit between two nodes which can
deliver or absorb energy.
Note: The short circuit between two nodes is not referred as branch of
electric circuit.
 Mesh vs loop
Loop is any closed path in the circuit formed by branches.
A loop is any sequence of elements connected between nodes that starts
and ends at the same node.
Mesh is a closed path that does not contain any other closed path.
 Determine no of nodes, loops, branches and mesh

Solution Solution

No of Nodes: 4 No of Nodes: 4
No of Loops: 4 No of Loops: 6
No of Branches:6 No of Branches: 6
No of Meshes:3 No of Meshes: 3
Series Resistor Circuit

RT of the circuit must be equal to the sum of all the individual
resistors added together.
RT = R1 + R2 + R3
Determine the Equivalent resistance for the given
circuit
Solution:

RT = R1 + R2 + R3
= 30+10+200

= 240 ohms
 Resistors in Parallel

For only two parallel resistors:

Or
Resistors are said to be connected together
in parallel when both of their terminals are
respectively connected to each terminal of
the other resistor or resistors.
The reciprocal ( 1/R ) value of the individual
resistances are all added together
Find the equivalent resistance for the given circuit

SOLUTION:
Resistors in Series and Parallel
Determine the equivalent resistance for the given circuit.

The resultant circuit is

Solution
R2 + R3 = 8Ω + 4Ω = 12Ω

R(ab) = Rcomb + R1 = 6Ω + 6Ω = 12Ω

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
Review of Voltage and Current Laws
V.Mahalakshmi
TTS 3061
Assistant Professor- ECE
VelTech Rangarajan Dr.Sagunthala R&D Institute of Science and Technology

8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Topics Covered
 Ohm’s Law
Definition
Limitations
Applications
 Source Transformation of a Circuit
 Kirchhoff's Laws
Kirchoffs Current Law
Kirchoffs Voltage Law
 Current Divider Rule
 Voltage Divider Rule

8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 Ohms Law
 Ohm's law states that the current passing through
any conductor among two points is directly
proportional to the voltage across two points of the
conductor if physical parameters like temperature,
pressure, etc of conductor remain same.
 Mathematical Expression
VαI
V= IR
R (Ohm)= V (Volts) / I (amperes)
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8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
Determine the current for the given circuit.

Solution: Solution:

I=V/R V=I*R

I = 20 / 5 = 4A I = 4 * 5 = 20V
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Limitations of Ohm's Law

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Applications of Ohm's Law
 Fan Regulator
 Electrical heater,
 Electric kettles
 Laptops,
 Computer
 Mobile
 Fuse
8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
 Kirchhoff's Current Law (KCL)
 It is also known Kirchhoff's first law.
 It deals with the conservation of charge entering and
leaving a junction.
 It states that the algebraic sum of all currents
entering and exiting a node must equal zero.
 The sum of currents flowing into that node is equal
to the sum of currents flowing out of that node or
equivalently.
i2 + i3 = i1 + i4
- i1 + i2 + i 3 - i4 = 0
8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
 Kirchhoff's Voltage Law (KVL)
 It is also known Kirchhoff's second law.
 It deals with the conservation of energy around a
closed circuit path.
 It states that for a closed loop series path the
algebraic sum of all the voltages around any
closed loop in a circuit is equal to zero.

v1 + v2 + v3 +v4 = 0
8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
CURRENT DIVIDER RULE
 It applies when the resistors are connected in “Parallel”.
 For resistors connected in series, the current remains “Same”.

Find the Current across each resistors.

Find the Current across each resistors.

Finding the total current, IT.

𝑽 𝟖
It = = = 𝟏𝟒 𝑨𝒎𝒑𝒔.
𝑹t 𝟎.𝟓𝟕𝟏𝟒
 Current Division Rule
 Currentdividers or current division is the process of
finding the individual branch currents in a parallel
circuit were each parallel element has the same
voltage

8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Calculate the individual branch currents using the current
division rule and the equivalent circuit resistance.

Step 1. Total circuit current IT

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Step 2. Determine the Equivalent resistance REQ

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 Step 3. Determine the Branch currents IR1, IR2, IR3

Check our calculations as according to Kirchhoff’s Current Rule

IT = IR1 + IR2 + IR3 = 10 + 4 + 1 = 15 A

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Using Current division rule determine the
branch currents.

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VOLTAGE DIVIDER RULE
 It applies when the resistors are connected in “Series”.
 For resistors connected in parallel, the voltage remains “Same”.

Find the Voltage across 10Ω and 5Ω resistors.

5 5
V5Ω = 50 × (10+5) = 15
= 16.667 𝑉

Find the Value of Vx.

First the equivalent Resistor has to

be found between the two parallel
6Ω resistors.
(6×6) 36
Req = = = 3Ω
(6+6) 12

3
Vx = 15 × (2+3) = 9𝑉
How much current will flow through a 20Ω resistor connected in series
with a 40Ω resistor when the supply voltage across the series
combination is 12 volts dc. Also calculate the voltage drop produced
across each resistor.
Solution:
Step1: Determine the Equivalent Resistance
RT = R1+ R2
RT = 20Ω + 40Ω =60Ω
Step 2: Calculate the voltage drop across each resistor.

Vin ∗ Rx
Vx =
RT

12 ∗ 20
VR1 = = 4 Volts
60
12 ∗ 40
VR2 = = 8 Volts
60
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 Solve using Voltage Divider Rule
Three resistive elements of 6kΩ, 12kΩ and 18kΩ are
connected together in series across a 36 volt supply.
Calculate, the total resistance, the value of the current
flowing around the circuit, and the voltage drops across
each resistor.

8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 Types of Sources
There are two kinds of sources:
 Independent Sources
 Dependent sources.
An ideal independent source is an active element that
provides a specified voltage or current that is completely
independent of other circuit elements.

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

 Dependent Source
 An ideal dependent (controlled) source is an active element
whose quantity is controlled by a voltage or current of
another circuit element.
 Dependent sources are usually presented by diamond-shaped
symbols:
 There are four possible types of dependent sources, namely:
1. A voltage-controlled voltage source (VCVS).
2. A current-controlled voltage source (CCVS).
3. A voltage-controlled current source (VCCS).
4. A current-controlled current source (CCCS).

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS

1151EC102-ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
 Source Transformation of Circuits
 The source transformation of a circuit is the
transformation of a power source from a voltage
source to a current source, or a current source to a
voltage source.

8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 Voltage Source Transformation
 A voltage source can be changed into a current source by using ohm's
formula,
I=V/R.
Example

I=V/R, which is I= 10V/2Ω= 5A.

8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 Current Source Transformation
A current source can be changed into a voltage
source by using ohm's formula,
V= IR
Example:

V= IR, which is V= 2A*3Ω = 6V

8/5/2020 1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
Problems on Mesh analysis

Mahalakshmi.V (3061)
Asst.Prof – ECE
VELTECH

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 Mesh Analysis
Mesh and nodal analysis are two basic important
techniques used in finding solutions for a circuit.
Suitability depends on the sources in the given
circuit.
Mesh analysis is applicable only for planar
networks.

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 Steps to solve Mesh analysis
 Check whether the circuit is planar or not.
 Select mesh currents.
 Apply KVL to each mesh and write the equations.
 Solve the equations to obtain the final solution.
Apply KVL on loop1

Apply KVL on loop2

Rearranging the equations

No of Mesh =
B-(N-1)

Solve the equations to find I1 and I2.

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
For following circuit find the mesh currents and use the mesh currents to
find Ix.

Apply KVL for loop 2

Solution
Step 1: Identify all of the meshes.
Step 2: Assign currents to all of the meshes
Step 3: Apply KVL for loop 1 Step 4: Solving equation 1& 2

Step 5: To find Ix

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Solution
From mesh 1
Apply KVL for mesh 3

Apply KVL for mesh 2

Solving all the equations

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 For the following circuit find the mesh currents.
Solution

From the above figure it is clear

Apply KVL around the super mesh:
Substitute Vx in eq 2

The second equation can be obtained by

using the relation between the I1 and I2
Solving eq 1 and 3

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

 For the following circuit find the mesh currents.
Apply KVL for mesh 1

Apply KVL for super mesh

Solution
The third equation can be obtained by
using the relation between the I2 and I3

Solving all the equations

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Determine the current in the 5 Ω resistor in the network given

1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

• if you are using a CASIO fx991MS calculator follow
these steps
• press mode button 3 times
• then the following things will be displayed
• EQN MAT VCT
• 123
• then press 1
• then press the right arrow, left side to the mode button
• the press 2 if u want to solve a quadratic equation of
degree 2
• or press 3 if u want to solve a quadratic equation of
degree 3
• then enter the values in the equation u will get the
roots
1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis
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1151EC102 - Electric Circuit Analysis

Nodal Analysis

Mahalakshmi.V
Asst.Prof – ECE
VEL TECH
 Nodal Analysis or
Node-Voltage Method

 Method that provides a general procedure for

analyzing circuits using node voltages as the
circuit variables.
 It is based on the application of the Kirchhoff’s
Current Law (KCL).
 For ‘n’ nodes there will be ‘n-1’ simultaneous
equations to solve.
 Steps Used in Nodal Analysis
1. Select a node as the reference node. Assign
voltages V1, V2… Vn-1 to the remaining nodes.
2. Apply KCL to each of the non reference nodes.
3. Use Ohm’s law to express the branch currents in
terms of node voltages.
4. Current is expressed as follows

5. Solve ‘n-1’ node equations for the values of node

voltages and get the required node Voltages as result.
 Nodal Analysis with Voltage Sources
Case I. Voltage source is connected between the
reference node and a non reference node.
Case II. Voltage source is between the two non
reference nodes then it forms a super node.
 Use nodal analysis to find the voltage at each node of this circuit.

1. Apply KCL to Node 1 2. Apply KCL to Node 1

𝑉1 𝑉1−(+100) 𝑉1−𝑉2 𝑉2−𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2

+ + =0 + + = 0
30 5 10 10 10 20

1 1 1 1 100 1 1 1 1
( + + ) 𝑉1 − ( ) V2 = −( ) V1 + (10 + 10 + 20) 𝑉2 = 0
30 5 10 10 5 10

0.33𝑉1 − 0.1𝑉2 = 20 … . . (1). − 0.1𝑉1 + 0.25𝑉2

= 0 … . . (2).
3. Solving equ 1 and 2

𝑉1 = 68.96 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 27.58 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

Find the current flowing through 20 Ω resistor of the following circuit using Nodal
analysis.

1. Apply KCL to Node 1 2. Apply KCL to Node 2

𝑉1 𝑉1−(+20) 𝑉1−𝑉2
+ + =0 V2 V2−V1
10 5 10 + =4
20 10
v1+2v1−40+v1−v2
=0 v2+2v2−2v1
10 =4
20
4v1 − v2 = 40 ……(1)
−2v1 + 3v2 = 80 ……(2)

3. Solving equ 1 and 2

𝑉1 = 20 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝑉2 = 40 𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

4. Current through 20 Ω resistor

𝑉2 40
𝐼20Ω = = 20 = 2Amps
20
Problems for Practice
Thank You
Calculate Node Voltages in following circuit
2. Apply ohms law to KCL equ at Node 2
𝑉2 𝑉2−𝑉1
+ = 10-5
6 4
2v2+3v2−3v1
=5
12
-3v1 + 5v2 = 60 ……(2)

3.Solve the equations 1 and 2 to get the values

1. Apply KCL to Nodes 1 of v1 and v2 as
𝑉1 𝑉1−𝑉2
+ =5 3v1 − v2 = 20 ……(1)
2 4

2v1+v1−v2 -3v1 + 5v2 = 60 ……(2)

=5
4
v2 = 20 Volts
3v1 − v2 = 20 ……(1)
4.Substituting value v2 = 20 Volts in equation
(3) we get
3v1 − v2 = 20
V1= 40/3 = 13.33 Volts
 Solve the given circuit using nodal analysis and determine the power
supplied by the dependent source.

1. Apply KCL to Node 1 v2+3v2−3v1

= 3i1 −15v1 + 8v2 = 0…(4)
3
𝑉1 𝑉1−𝑉2 Solving eq(1) and (4)
+ = 15 −3v1 + 4v2 = 9i1 ……(2)
2 1
V1 = - 40 Volts
v1+2v1−2v2 From the circuit we can write i1 as
= 15 V2 = - 75 Volts
2
𝑣1
𝑖1 = …..(3) I1 = - 20 Amps
3v1 − 2v2 = 30 ……(1) 2

Substitute equ3 in equ 2 Power supplied by the

2. Apply KCL to Node 2 dependent source is
9𝑣1
−3v1 + 4v2 − =0 P = V2.3I1
2
𝑉2 𝑉2−𝑉1
+ = 3i1 = (−60)(−75)
3 1 −6v1+8v2−9v1
=0 = 4.5 kW
2
 Solve using Nodal analysis

Apply KCL at Node1,2 and 3

V1 = 8.072 V
V2 = 10.24 V
V3 = 3.08 V
 Superposition Theorem Statement

In any linear resistive network, the voltage across

or the current through any resistor or source may
be calculated by adding algebraically all the
individual voltages or currents caused by the
separate independent sources acting alone, with all
other independent voltage sources replaced by
short circuits and all other independent current
sources replaced by open circuits.
 Procedure
1) Select any one source and short all other voltage
sources and open all current sources if internal
impedance is not known. If known replace them by
their impedance.
2) Find out the current or voltage across the
required element, due to the source under
consideration.
3) Repeat the above steps for all other sources.
4) Add all the individual effects produced by
individual sources to obtain the total current in or
across the voltage element.
How to Deactivate a voltage source

Voltage source is short circuited

How to Deactivate a current source

Current source is open circuited

Using the superposition theorem, determine the voltage drop and
current across the resistor 3.3K as shown in figure below.

Deactivate 5V
source

Deactivate 8V Apply Nodal analysis

source 𝑉1−8 𝑉1 𝑉1
+ + =0
2000 3300 4700

V1 = 3.94 Volts
𝑉1 3.94
I3.3K = = = 1.19mA
3.3𝐾 3.3𝐾

Apply Nodal analysis Total voltage drop across 3.3 KΩ

𝑉1−5 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉𝑡 = 1.05 + 3.94 = 4.99𝑉 ≅ 5𝑉𝑜𝑙𝑡𝑠

+ + =0
4700 3300 2000
Current through 3.3 KΩ(Assuming conventional
V1 = 1.05Volts current flow)
𝑉1 1.05
I3.3K = = = 0.32mA I𝑡 = 0.32 𝑚𝐴 + 1.19𝑚𝐴 = 1.51𝑚𝐴
3.3𝐾 3.3𝐾
 Find the current through 10 Ω resistance in the given network by
using superposition theorem. Solving equs 1&2

𝐼1 = 2.25 𝐴 𝑎𝑛𝑑 𝐼2 = 0.5𝐴

Current through 10 Ω resistance

𝐼10Ω = 𝐼2 = 0.5𝐴
Deactivate
Voltage
Deactivate the Current source source

Apply CDR
𝐼𝑡 ∗ 𝑜𝑝𝑝. 𝑟𝑒𝑠
𝑠𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑟𝑒𝑠

−16 + 4𝐼1 + 4 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 = 0 16∗4

I10Ω = = 4𝐴
16
8𝐼1 − 4𝐼2 = 16 …(1)
Total current through 10 Ω resistance
4 𝐼1 − 𝐼2 + 10𝐼2 + 4𝐼2 = 0
−4𝐼1 + 18𝐼2 = 0 …(2) 𝐼𝑡 = 4 − 0.5 = 3.5 𝐴
Determine Vx and Ix using the superposition method.
Solution II 3V as active
I No current flows
-5V as active
through 2Ω

OC

−5 -(-5)-Vx1 = 0 Ix2 = 0 𝐴 Vx2 = 3 V No current flows

Ix1 = = 2.5 𝐴
2 Vx1 = 5 Volts through 3Ω
IV
III
-1A as active 2A as active

Ix4 = 0 𝐴

Vx4 + V3Ω =0
Vx4 = -(2*3) = -6V

By Adding all 5V+3V+3V−6V→Vx=5V

Vx3 + V3Ω =0 the V & I
Ix3 = 1 𝐴 Vx3 = -(-1*3) = 3V −2.5A+1A+0A−0A→Ix=−1.5A
Using Superposition theorem, find the current through the 2Ω resistor of the network
Find the voltage across the 2Ω resistor by using the superposition
theorem.

10Ω and 20Ω are in parallel,

RT = 6.67Ω + 2Ω
= 8.67 Ω
At mesh 1,
By current divider rule,
0 = 10 I1 + 20(I1 – I2)
0 = 30 I1 – 20 I2
At Mesh 2,
-20 = 5 I2 + 2 I2 + 20(I2 –I1)
-20 = -20 I1 + 27 I2
The voltage across
I1 = -0.9756 Amps, 2ohms,
I2 = - 1.4634 Amps V2Ω = I2 ×2 = 1.46 Volts
The total voltage across
2ohms,
The voltage across 2ohms, V2Ω = V’ + V” + V’”
V2Ω = I2 ×2 = - 2.9268 Volts = 0.97 - 2.9268 - 1.46
= - 3.41 Volts
 Thevenin’s and Norton’s Theorem

05-09-2021 ECA 1
 Thevenin’s Theorem

Thevenin theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of a single resistance in series with a source voltage.

Statement:

“Any linear circuit containing several voltages and resistances can be replaced by just one single voltage
in series with a single resistance connected across the load“.

05-09-2021 ECA 2
 Steps to Analyse the Thevenin’s Theorem

Step1:Open the load resistor.

Step 2: Open current sources and short voltage sources to calculate /measure the equivalent Circuit
Resistance. This is the Thevenin Resistance (RTH).
Step 3: Calculate the open circuit voltage. This is the Thevenin Voltage (VTH).

Step 4: Redraw the circuit with measured open circuit Voltage (VTH) in Step (2) as voltage source and
measured open circuit resistance (RTH)

Step 5: To find the Load current, Load voltage and power delivered by the
load resistor.

05-09-2021 ECA 3
 Norton ‘s Theorem
Norton's theorem is an analytical method used to change a complex circuit into a simple equivalent circuit
consisting of a single resistance in parallel with a current source.

Statement:

“Any linear circuit containing several energy sources and resistances can be replaced by a single
Constant Current source in parallel with a Single Resistor“.

05-09-2021 ECA 4
 Steps to Analyse the Norton’s Theorem

Step 1: Open Current Sources, Short Voltage Sources and Open Load Resistor to Calculate /measure the Open Circuit
Resistance. This is the Norton Resistance (RN).

Step 2: Short the load resistor to calculate / measure the Short Circuit Current. This is the Norton Current (IN).

Step 3: Redraw the circuit with measured short circuit Current (IN) as Current Source and measured open circuit
resistance (RN) as a parallel resistance and connect the load resistor which we had removed.

Step 4: To find the Load current flowing through and Load Voltage across Load
Resistor by using the Current divider rule.

05-09-2021 ECA 5
Determine Thevinin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuit for the given circuit and determine IL, VL and Power.

To determine IL, VL and Power

Apply KVL to loop

Determine Rth / Req

Redraw the Thevenin’s equivalent

circuit

Req = Rth =13.33Ω

05-09-2021 ECA
Determine Thevinin’s and Norton’s equivalent circuit for the given circuit and determine IL, VL and Power.

Redraw the Norton’s equivalent circuit

Determine RN / Req
Apply KVL to loop 1&2

To determine IL, VL and Power

Req = RN =13.33Ω

05-09-2021 ECA
Find the value of current through 1Ω Resistor in the given circuit using Thevenin’s theorem.

Redraw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Determine Rth / Req

Apply KCL at node V1

To determine IL, VL and Power

Req = 10Ω || 5Ω

Req = RTh =3.33Ω

05-09-2021 ECA
Determine Norton’s equivalent circuit for the given circuit and determine IL, VL and Power.

Redraw the Norton’s equivalent circuit

Determine RN / Req
Apply KVL to loop 1&2

To determine IL, VL and Power

Req = 10Ω || 5Ω

Req = RN =3.33Ω
05-09-2021 ECA
Find Thevenin’s equivalent circuit for the circuit To determine Vth

Apply KVL at loop 1

To determine RTh Vth = V3Ω+V6Ω+10V
-50+10I+6I+10=0
= 0+(6×2.5)+10
16I=40 = 2.5A
=15+10=25Volts

Redraw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Rth = 6.75 Ω

05-09-2021 ECA 10
Find Norton’s equivalent circuit for the circuit To determine IN

To determine RN Apply KVL at loop 1&2

-50+10I1+6(I1-I2)+10=0 -10+6(I2-I1)+3I2 =0

16I1-6I2=40 …..(1) -6I1+9I2=10 ……(2)

I2=5.55A, I1=4.58A IN = I2 = 5.55A

Redraw the Norton’s equivalent circuit

RN = 6.75 Ω

05-09-2021 ECA 11
Determine the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit across terminals AB.

To determine Rth To determine Vth

Rth = (5Ω || 2Ω) + (4Ω || 1Ω)

Redraw the Thevenin’s equivalent circuit

Rth =2.23Ω

05-09-2021 ECA 12
Using Thevenin’s Theorem, obtain the equivalent circuit and find the current I.

To find Rth :
(6 Ω + 6 Ω) parallel with 4Ω
Rth = 3Ω

Equivalent Circuit:

Apply Nodal Analysis,

At node 1,
2 = (V1-12)/6 + (V1-V2)/6
12 = 2V1 - V2 – 12
24 = 2V1 - V2
At node 2,
0 = V2/4 + (V2-V1)/6
0 = -2V1 + 5V2
0 = -2V1 + 5V2

V1 = 15volts; V2 = 6 Volts = Vth

Using Thevenin’s Theorem, obtain the equivalent circuit across a-b.
Apply Mesh Analysis,
To find Vth : At Mesh 1, I1 = 5 Amps
At Mesh 2,
0 = 4(I2 – I1) + 2(I2 – I3) + 6I2
0 = -4I1 + 12I2 – 2I3
At Mesh 3, 2VX = 2(I3 - I2)
VX = (I3 - I2)

To find Rth :

Apply Mesh Analysis,

At Mesh 1, At Mesh 2,
2VX = 2(I1 - I2)
VX = I1 - I2
At Mesh 3,
VX = - 4 I2 = I1 - I2
I1 = -3I2
 Quiz Link

https://forms.office.com/Pages/ResponsePage.aspx?id=eRkUvfC31k6UfaARuMD2Dk7Eg
sI2r0lLi8w214YM9hlUQ001SzFXTU9LQUJXOEZVMUhaOENYVVdWNS4u

Practice Problem Link

https://forms.office.com/Pages/ResponsePage.aspx?id=eRkUvfC31k6UfaARuMD2Dk7E
gsI2r0lLi8w214YM9hlUM0g0WjBCSjkyNFlMMzRMQkJaOVc3V1lNTy4u

05-09-2021 ECA 15
Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
&
Reciprocity theorem

Mrs.Mahalakshmi.V
Asst.Prof- ECE
Vel Tech
 Maximum Power Transfer Theorem
The Maximum Power Transfer Theorem states that the
maximum amount of power will be dissipated by a load
resistance if it is equal to the Thevenin or Norton resistance of
the network supplying power.
The current through the load for any value of load resistance is Proof
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼𝐿 =
𝑅𝑇ℎ + 𝑅𝐿

The power absorbed by the load is

𝑃𝐿 = 𝐼𝐿2 × 𝑅𝐿

To find the exact value of RL, we apply differentiation to PL with respect to RL and equating it to zero as

The maximum power delivered to the load is,

 Efficiency
Total power transferred from source is

PT = IL2 (RTH + RL)

= 2 IL2 RL

The efficiency under the condition of maximum power transfer is

Efficiency = Output / Input × 100

= IL2 RL / 2 IL2 RL × 100

= 50 %
Applications
 Radio transmitter final amplifier stage design
 A grid-tied inverter loading a solar array, or electric vehicle design
 To determine Vth

Apply KVL
To determine Rth
−10 + 2𝐼 + 3𝐼 = 0

5I = 10 I= 2 A

𝑉𝑇ℎ = 3 × 𝐼 = 3 × 2 = 6𝑉

Determine Maximum Power

2
𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝑅𝑇ℎ = (2Ω| 3Ω + 10Ω + 2Ω 𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
4 𝑅𝑇ℎ
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 1.2Ω + 10Ω + 2Ω 62
𝑃𝑚𝑎𝑥 =
= 13.2 Ω 4 × 13.2
= 0.68 W
 Find RL for which PL is maximum. To determine Vth

To determine Rth PL is maximum when RL = RTh =4Ω

𝑉𝑇ℎ
𝐼𝐿 = = 2A
2 𝑅𝑇ℎ

𝑃𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 𝐼𝐿2 × 𝑅𝐿

𝑅𝑇ℎ = (3Ω| 6Ω + 2Ω
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 2Ω + 2Ω
𝑃𝐿𝑚𝑎𝑥 = 22 × 4 = 16 W
𝑅𝑇ℎ = 4Ω
 Find the value of RL for maximum power transfer and find the maximum power in the circuit.
To find VTH across load terminal a-b

To Find RTH across a-b

−12 + 6𝐼1 + 12 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 0 I2 = 2 𝐴

−12 + 6𝐼1 + 12 𝐼1 + 2 = 0
18𝐼1 = −12
𝐼1 = −0.667 𝐴
𝑉𝑡ℎ = 3 𝐼2 + 𝐼2 𝐼1 + 𝐼2 = 22Volts
 Reciprocity Theorem
In any linear bilateral network, if a source produces a certain current in any other branch,
then the same source acting on the second branch produces the same current in the first
branch.
Limitations of Reciprocity Theorem
1. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of any
time varying element.
2. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of the
dependent source even it is linear.
3. Not applicable to the circuits consisting of non-
linear elements like diode, transistor, etc.

According to the Reciprocity Theorem, Application of Reciprocity Theorem

1.This theorem is applied to analyze Ultrasound
the voltage source (excitation) and the
Generated by High-Intensity Surface Heating of
current response (ammeter) are Elastic Bodies.
interchangeable for solving the network. 2.This theorem is applied to determine line-load-
The ratio of response to excitation is generated surface waves on an inhomogeneous
transversely isotropic half-space .
constant.
05-09-2021 ECA 8
 Steps for Solving a Network Utilizing Reciprocity Theorem

Step 1 – First select the branches between which reciprocity has to be established.

Step 2 – The current in the branch is obtained using any conventional network analysis metho

Step 3 – The voltage source is interchanged between the branch which is selected.

Step 4 – The current in the branch where the voltage source was existing earlier is calculated.

Step 5 – Current obtained in the previous connection, i.e., in step 2 and the current
which is calculated when the source is interchanged, i.e., in step 4 are identical to each
other.

05-09-2021 ECA 9
Verify the reciprocity theorem for the network shown in fig Applying the reciprocity theorem, by
interchanging the source and response, we get.

Apply KCL at node 1&2

Apply KCL at node 1&2
𝑉1−20 𝑉1−𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉2−𝑉1 𝑉2 𝑉2
+ + =0 + + =0 𝑉1−𝑉2 𝑉1 𝑉1 𝑉2−20 𝑉2−𝑉1 𝑉2
2 2 3 2 2 2 + + =0 + + =0
2 2 3 2 2 2

3v1−60+3v1−3v2+2v1 v2−v1+v2+v2
=0 3v1−3v2+3v1+2v1 v2−20+v2−v1+v2
=0 2 =0 =0
6 6 2

8v1 − 3v2 = 60 ……(1) −v1 + 3v2 = 0 ……(2) 8v1 − 3v2 = 0 ……(1) −v1 + 3v2 = 20 ……(2)

Solving eq 1 and 2 Solving eq 1 and 2

V1 =8.57 V, V2=2.857 V1 =2.857 V, V2=7.62V Hence

𝑉2 2.857 𝑉1 2.857 Proved
𝐼2Ω = = = 1.43 A 𝐼2Ω = = = 1.43 A
2 2 2 2
05-09-2021 10
 Verify the reciprocity theorem for the given circuit shown in fig.

Interchange the source and response as shown in fig

Total current

V 10
𝐼= = = 1.07A
R 9.33
Total Resistance

RT = (5Ω+3 Ω) || 4 Ω +2 Ω The current through 2 Ω resistor

Total Resistance
RT = (8 Ω||4 Ω) +2 Ω
Using current divider rule 𝐼𝑇 × 𝑜𝑝𝑝. 𝑅𝑒𝑠
8×4 RT = (2Ω||4Ω) +3 Ω +5 Ω
RT =
8+4
+2 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒
𝐼𝑇 × 𝑜𝑝𝑝. 𝑅𝑒𝑠
RT = (2 Ω||4 Ω) +8 Ω 1.07×4
RT = 4.67 Ω 𝑆𝑢𝑚 𝑜𝑓 𝑅𝑒𝑠𝑖𝑠𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 𝐼2Ω =
6
2.14×4 2×4
𝐼5Ω = RT =
2+4
+8
Total current 12 𝐼2Ω = 0.713 𝐴

V 10 RT = 9.33 Ω
𝐼= = = 2.14 A 𝐼5Ω = 0.713 𝐴
R 4.67 Hence, the reciprocity theorem is
05-09-2021 ECA verified. 11
 ELECTRIC CIRCUIT ANALYSIS
THEOREMS

9/5/2021 ECA 1
 Compensation Theorem

The compensation theorem states that any element in the linear,

bilateral network, may be replaced by a voltage source of magnitude
equal to the current passing through the element multiplied by the
value of the element, provided the currents and voltages in other
parts of the circuit remain unaltered. This is called the
Compensation Theorem.

9/5/2021 ECA 2
 Explanation

9/5/2021 VC = I ΔRL and

ECA is known as compensating voltage. 3
Using the compensation theorem, determine the ammeter reading when it is connected to
the 6Ω resistor. The internal resistance of the ammeter is 2Ω.

Apply CDR Apply mesh analysis

Rt = {[(6ǁ3)+5] ǁ 2} +{6+2}
3 At mesh 1,
𝐼5Ω = 20 × =6.315 A I1 = 20Amps
3+6.5
At Mesh 2, = 9.56 Ω
3(I2 – I1) + 5I2 + 2(I2 + I3) = 0 3.16
𝐼6Ω = 6.315 ×
2
=1.58 A 10I2 – 3I1 + 2I3 = 0 𝐼′6Ω = = 0.33 A
6+2 10I2 + 2I3 = 60 …………..(1) 9.56
At Mesh 3
6I3 + 2(I2 + I3) = 0 The Ammeter reading
2I2 +8I3 = 0 ……………….(2)
V6Ω = 1.58 × 6 Solving eq 1&2 = (1.58 -0.33)
= 3.16 Volts I2 = 6.315 A, I3 = 1.58A = 1.25 A
9/5/2021 ECA 4
 Calculate the values of new current in the network shown in the figure when the resistor R3 is
increased by 30%.
0.5 × 20
𝐼1 = = 0.4 𝐴
25
0.5 × 5
𝐼2 = = 0.1 𝐴
25
New Current values

𝐼5Ω = 𝐼𝑇 − 𝐼1
= 5 − 0.4 = 4.6 𝐴
when the resistor R3 is increased by 30%.
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (20Ωǁ 20Ω)+5 Ω 𝐼20Ω = 𝐼1 + 𝐼2
= 10+5 = 15 Ω 𝑅3 = 20 + 0.3 × 20 = 26Ω
= 2.5 + 0.1 = 2.6 𝐴
∆ 𝑅 = 0.3 × 20 = 6Ω 𝐼26Ω = 𝐼2 − 𝐼𝑇
𝑉 75
𝐼𝑇 = = =5𝐴 V = −𝐼2 ∆𝑅 = 2.5 − 0.5 = 2.0 𝐴
𝑅𝑒𝑞 15
= −2.5 × 6 = -15 V
Using CDR
𝑅𝑒𝑞 = (20Ωǁ 5Ω)+26 Ω
= 4+26 = 30 Ω
5 × 20
𝐼1 = 𝐼2 = = 2.5 𝐴 𝑉 15
40 𝐼𝑇 = =ECA = 0.5 𝐴
9/5/2021
𝑅𝑒𝑞 30 5
Find the change in the current across 2ohms and 6 ohms resistors when the resistance in
the variable branch is changed form 3 ohms to 6 ohms.

9/5/2021 ECA 6
9/5/2021 ECA 7
 TELLEGEN’S THEOREM

This theorem states that in an arbitrary lumped network, the algebraic sum of
the powers in all branches at any instant is zero. Otherwise, in a given
network, the algebraic sum of the powers delivered by all sources is equal to
the algebraic sum of the powers absorbed by all elements.

Where,
n is the number of branches
vK is the voltage in the branch

9/5/2021
ik is the current flowing through
ECA
the branch. 8
 Application of Tellegen’s Theorem

It is used in the digital signal processing system for

designing filters.
In the area of the biological and chemical process.
In topology and structure of reaction network analysis.
The theorem is used in chemical plants and oil industries to
determine the stability of any complex systems.

9/5/2021 ECA 9
Calculate the power absorbed by each element in the network. Also verify that Tellegen’s
theorem is satisfied by this network.

P1 = (16)(-1) = -16 Watts

Total Power in all the branches, = 0.
P2 = (4)(-1) = - 4 Watts
P3 = (12)(-1) = -12 Watts Hence, Tellegen’s Theorem is
verified.
P4 = (8)(-2) = -16 Watts
P12V = (12)(-2) = -24 Watts
P
9/5/2021 24V = (24)(3) = 72 Watts ECA 10
Use Tellegen’s theorem to find the current I0 in the network.

From the circuit

Ix = 2 Amps

P8Ix = (8Ix)(-11) = -176 Watts

176 + 6I0 = 108 + 30 + 32 + 12

P1 = (6)(-I0) = -6 I0 Watts
P2 = (12)(9) = 108 Watts I0 = 1 Amps
P3 = (10)(3) = 30 Watts
P4V = (4)(8) = 32 Watts
P2A = (6)(2) = 12 Watts
P 8Ix = (8Ix)(-11) = -88IxWatts
9/5/2021 ECA 11
 MILLMAN’S THEOREM

The Millman’s Theorem states that when a number of voltage sources (V1,
V2, V3.. Vn) are in parallel having internal resistance (R1, R2, R3….Rn)
respectively, the arrangement can replace by a single equivalent voltage
source V in series with an equivalent series resistance R.
In other words; it determines the voltage across the parallel branches of the
circuit, which have more than one voltage sources, i.e., reduces the
complexity of the electrical circuit.

9/5/2021 ECA 12
9/5/2021 ECA 13
Calculate the current I using Millman’s Theorem

9/5/2021 ECA 14