VEHICLE DYNAMICS Fernands Ribese da Site ser - 97Lit 094K VEHICLE DYNAMICS Professor J. R, Ellis, M.Sc. (Eng.), Ph.D., F.l.Mech.E. Advanced School of Automobile Engineering, Cranfcld £42 Se; LONDON BUSINESS BOOKS LIMITEDFt pubis 1949 (© 1969 JOHN RONAINE ELLIS hs reserved, Except for normal review purposes no pat this book may be reproduced owed many form orb any means clerons or mechan. incling photocopying, cording oy any information storage and reer sysen, without permlaon othe pubes SON 22099029 anese | 100213. “his bok has een sn 1009 12 pl Tis Roman (Monopoo) prin (Norwich Ld forthe publshers Business Rooke Listed ested oer: 10 eet Suet, London, EC publbing oes: Mercury Howse, Wazoo Rad, London, SE MADE AND PRINTED IN GREAT BRITAIN| . CONTENTS Prac xv Chapter 1 the pneumatic tyre 1 1M State re tess []1.2 Rolling ye tents ground reactions] 3 Tyr oc and women's] 14 Comment (315 The ye on th sehie[]1.6 Tye-road ction 11.7 Tyreto-ye variations [4 The dyeamie respons of rer] 19 Tye et dala] L10 An approximation to aliow for teatve frees] 1.1 Some theories of literal tye fore 112 Tau string analogy 13 A ‘comment on paca ater sfc) 11 Beamon ate support theory) 11S The ember Shel []L16 A theory of th anient response fee [) 17 Sinusoidal change inthe angle of fidetip(} 1.18 Simplifedrspone equation ]119 Geometric simmny”[1.20 Dynamic whee! “shimmy"[) 1.21 Equivalence of wheel and pound oess[]1.22 Concusons[] 123 Reeences Chapter 2 applied mechanics 45 21 Axesoeferene moving wth he vebce122 Moments and produ one ]23 Vehice angles()24 Sait of namic ptm) Crea ably ceria) 26 Reece Chapter 3 the control and stability of a simple car 60 11 Fined ais modst[].12 Analysis wing body cotred ator}. Steady sate rerponter oeerng input ()34 Satie margin and neural ster point) 38 Steady sate sponses to a extra lateral fore andyeping moment(]26 Ackermann agle[137 Responses es of re chaaceitia) 18 Calelation of steady state esponser to nocring pat [39 Transient response characterises) 10 The car with setip resdom only] 241 The cr with aw freedom only(]412 ‘Single dec of reedonveile(].43 Tw dere of feedom tame responses (3. The tral Frequency (315 Motion in reponse to stcrng input] 316 fst of active rqutementC) 347 Overs and undersor[']34R Velie testing (349 Constant ea en []220 Constant speedtest ()3.21 Aerodynamic efes(] 322 Conlusons 328 Reerense Chapter 4 the articulated semi-trailer vehicle 93 ‘1 The inane ebice}42 Steady tte cing eaponses 143 Callan of end sate ving reponte(J44 Tease responses (J45 Concinions (46 Retrenevt contents. Chapter 5 suspension mechanics 106 54 “tll ais assumption C]32 RotlenteL}53 Wheel amber and rb 'C] 4 Eten sag sileses(}39 Beam ane estes] $6 Alena meted fore eum) 57 Macpherson suspension [88 Veo diagrams for an arbitrary centre af lation (59 Roll ‘siance of dampers} 540 Roll angle)S11 Lond ant cron thetyes(]812 Rear all ‘totale spring sien 313 Suspension amie properia 1514 Sing le eqotons ‘tmaion[ 513 Beam ae: equations of motion] 516 The rung fond wheel ]817 The seeing mctonsm []318 Nowtinarles() S19 Supension deratves(]830 Seay sae boy nlacement rom derivate noaionC)S3t Concstons [522 References Chapter 6 the control and stability of a car with freedom to roll 137 {61 Suspension characterises (62 Extra forees(J63 Equations of motion CJ64 Steady sacs 5 Enample (166 Stability (J67 Approxinate solution af the characte equation {58 Selation of equation of motion -}69 Applications (610 Nonlinear characterises) {61 Inclined rol ani 6.12 Elects of design changes(]613 Condatons]6H4 Reeences Chapter 7 analog simulation 12 1 low diagrams (72 Machine operons (73 Accuracy 174 Seale actors Seng vp the equation [}76 Forcing []17 Recording] 78 Esample(-]19 Two depres offectom C) 10 Saling}7.11 Diode devices} 712 Vain fncion diode gecator[J713 Paral serail equations Chapter 8 analog simulation of some car models 200 {1 Car simulation [2 Second example 82 Alenaive mechanization C84 Reali wind and soving inputs 8S Improved tr simulation 86 Adina suspension eects 127 Condsions Chapter 9 further car models 229 21 Sone shortcoming of pce models] 92 A ct with exible tyres ()9.3 Pie degrees of stom mods ([}84 The ree contol et] 9S Sk depres of edom model []96 Conlsons Chapter 10 summary 238 index 241LIST OF FIGURES FIG 1 Hypothetical vehicle contol loop including driver FIG 2 Portion of the control loop covered by this book FIG 11 Stati yr tests, FIG 1.2 Tyre distortion during steering and distribution of pressures within the contact area integrated across the width of contact FIG 13 Carpet graph of lateral force versus sideslip angle and normal free FFIG 14. Eifec of inflation pressure on lateral force at constant normal force FIG 1.5. The eect of camber angle on lateral force FIG 1.6 Reduction in lateral force at constant sideslip ange duc to tractive effort FIG 1.7 Curves obtained from simple addition of lateral Forcen FIG 18 The actual lateral force developed is ss than shown in Fig. 1.7 because loud transfer is dependent on the lateral force FIG 19 Theefet of tractive effort on lateral fore at constant angles of sidslip for vavious loads FIG 110 Lateral force versus sdestip angle, tractive effort and load transfer FIG 1.11 (a) Effect of road speed on tyre drag: (b) Increase in drag due to active effort. FIG 1.12 (a) Effect of road surface condition; (8) Locked wheal retardation and sideways force coefficient for smooth tread tyes on various wet surfaces FIG 113 Characteristic plots of (a) smal and () large Muctuations of cornering force and self aligning torque FIG 1.14. The changes in radial fore and stipes around the periphery ofa tyre FIG 1.15. The build up of lateral force with distance rolled FIG 116. (a) The lateral fore (mean value) and the phase angle developed; (b) Mean ali {orque and phase angle between torque and sinusoidal stecring input FIG 1.17 (a) Cyclic variation in lateral force with sinusoidal displacement ofthe axle: (b) Mean value of lateral foree developed during sinusoidal displacement ofthe whes} FIG 1.18. The friction elipse concept relating the lateral force available for vehicle contol to he braking or tractive effort applied tothe wheel FIG 1.19 (a) Lateral force versus sideslip ange fr fre rolling; (b Lateral force vests tractive effor at constant sdestip ange: (e) Carpet graph of atral fore. tractive efor and sideslip angle FIG 1.20 Some ofthe tye models proposed fr analysis FIG 121. The lateral deflection of the tread band of a tyre when a point lateral load is applied FIGL22 Alten angle of sdesip FIG 1.24 Experimental measurement of lateral pneumatic sifnes FIG 125. A diagram ofthe development of acral fore fora rolling tyre as proposed by Fiala FFIG 1.26 Lateral defection curves assumed when the approach of Reference 1.10 wed to ‘expressions for lateral force and moment vuvin Uist OF FIGURES FIG1L27 A non-steady mode of a rolling tyre FIG 1.28 Whee! shimmy due tothe geometry ofthe laterally Mexible tyre FIG 129 A simplified single degree of freedom model of dynamic shimmy FIG 130. (@) Summation of the component forces at an element within the contact patch; (6) The correspondence ofthe ground forces and moments and the moments and forees ofthe Ssubliy axes) Tye characteristics are frequently messurd by dynamometers FIG21 The body centred ais system FIG.22 (Indicates the parallel displacement ofa st of axes; (6) Rotation ofthe axis set produces new displacements ofthe clement of mass P{e23. The direction cosines of succesive rotations about matally perp FIG24 Axis movements required to determine the moments and products of net FIG 3A A model of the directional stailiy of car which may move laterally and rotate FIG32_ Inthe body centred axis model the front and rear whoos at replaced by single wheels at te cent ofthe vehicle FIG33. Steady state curvature responses fr two postions of the centre of gravity FIG Yawing velocity cesponses in steady state FIG35. Single degre of freedom system with sidslip velocity only FIG36 Curves of ‘spring constant for various conditions FIGA7 Determination ofthe effective Intra force coefficients for a car FIG 38 The lateral force coefcients obtained from Fig, 37 for two conditions of tition FIG39 Determination ofthe critical speeds of the rear whest drive cae FIG310 The effect of tractive effort on the static margin of ear FIG3I1 The original definition of oversteer FIG 312 Measurement of underscer by the constant radius of turn test FIGAI3 The constant speedtest. an alternative method of measuring understeer FIG 14 The axis system adopted for measuring arodynamie forecs and moments FIG15 Typical non-dimensional fore and moment eurves fora carina side wind FIGA1 A non-lincar model ofthe articulated vehicle FIG42 The velocities atthe ith whee! FIG43 Some results obtained from the non-linear model Steady state yawing velocitics, demonstrating the effect of fith whee! position “The roll entre of linkage suspension Some typical suspensions and thee roll centres FIG $3_(@) The small dplacements about centres O, and 0; involved in rol of the body; (6) Velocity diagram fr the suspension linkage FIG 54 Equilibrium of forces in a suspension FIGS. ‘The Macpherson suspens FIG 86 A 'demonstration that £0 motements ofthe wheels FIG 51 (a) Disposition of sprung and unsprung ‘moments involved in all f the body about the roll axis FIGS A simpli analysis of the load transfer duc to body roll FIG 59. Ancquivalnt tailing link to represent the oll ster ofa leat spring FIG 5.10 The goometry ofa swing axle FIG 5.11 The velocity of the conte of gravity ofa sprung mass FIG 512 The external reactions caused bya Inerl fore atthe contre of gravity ofthe sprung FIG S13 The beam axle suspension, dynamic analysis FIG 5.14 Relative velocities acros the ends ofthe damper FIG 515. Suspension derivative notation adcular axes about an tion ofthe body about an arbitrary point causes serub ss; (hy The axis system. forees andList oF FiGuRES 1x FIG 5.16. (a) The instantaneous centres of rotation fora vertical velocity of the body orig (©) The instantaneous centres of rotation fo rotation ofthe body origin FIG 5.17 Suspension derivatives FIG 61. The ais system of the three degre of freedom car FIG 62. The forees and moments acting on the thre degre of freedom ear FIG 63. Modification of the two degre of freedom responses by inclusion of rll steer FIG 64. The stability and wind axe, three degree of freedom car FIG 65 Comparison of practical and theoretical steady state awing velociis for various ‘combinations of tyres and tyre pressures FIG 66. The time lag between movement ofthe steering whee! and stcrng the road wheels FIG 61 Experimental response times fora small ear compared with analog models FIG 68 Experimental and computed roll response times FIG 69 Test records from a small car with portable instrumentation FIG 610 A manual atempt at sinusoidal steering a shown in Fig 69 FIG 611 Non-linear simulation of tyre characteristics FIG 612 Comparison of analog simulation and tt results onthe elects of lateral force FIG 6.13 Definition of path and course ertor FIG 614 The transient response characteritics and the corresponding course and path errors fora step input of steering at 60 mileyh FIGGIS Thecfec of tyre non-linearity due to load transfer in roll onthe steady state responses FIG616 The elfet of tye non-linearity duet load transfer in roll onthe transient responses aL 88 fs forward speed FIG 617 The transient responses of Fig 6.16 expressed in terms of course and path eroF FIG 618 The path errors produced by modification of roll stcet FIG 619 The dstibution of the roll siffaesss between the axle changes the steady state responses and increasing the proportion of roll silfness reduces the course and path errors FIG 620. Increasing the distance between the roll axis andthe centre of gravity ofthe sprung mass increases the errors FIG 621 Reducing the inclination of the roll axis has a beneficial efect on the path and FIG 622 A forward shift of the centre of gravity reduces the course and path erors FIG 623 The position ofthe unladen centre of gravity and the dispotable loads of some typical eas and commercial vehicles FIG 71 The low diagram FIG 72 and FIG 73 Summing units FIG 74” The integrator unit FIG 75. The coefficient unit FIG 76 A diferetiator FIG 77 Assessing the accuracy of an analog system FIG 78 Typical values of computing componcas for summing and integrating FIG 19 Detailed setting ofthe computing unis to simulate single degre of rcedom system FIG 710. Some typical results which ate obtained from the simolaion shown in Fig 79 FIG 7.11 A simplified example ofa two mass system represeating the body and tyre FIG 742 Some alternative forms of mechanization which wll produce a satisfactory solution FIG 713 ‘Bang-bang circuit, simple friction simulation FIG 714 "Bang-bang’ unit connected into the two degre of freedom system FIG 715 Half wave rctlication with dead zone FIG 7.16 Dead zone or clearance network FIG 717 Adjustable limiting circuit FIG 718. Simulation of regular disturbances FIG 719 Absolute valve networkx Ust oF FiGuRES FIG 7.20. A number of dead zone networks plus a base ental gain provide a characteristic suitgble for simulation of a non-linear spring FIG721 The application ofa function generator to representa non-linear spring with rising FIG722_ Methods of obtaining a two segment function, suitable for the simple representation of te lateral force-sdeslip angle characteristic of tyre FIG 723 Development ofthe finite diference equations FIG 724 Mechanization of partial diflerential equations as a lumped parameter’ system FIG&1_ Simulation of the yaw-sidesip modes of small eat with rearward centre of gravity posiion FIG 82 Yawing velocity responses and sidesip velocity responses due to step inputs of steering and wind FIGR3 The roll mode simulation FIG&4 The ‘uncoupled’ roll equation with and without damping FIG 85 Additonal connections and potentiometers to complete the mechanization of eae (62) FIGS6 Yawing velocity, siesip velocity and roll angle of body due toa step input of side wind FIG87 Yaw-sideslip mode simulation for modifi car FIGAS_Mechanization of equations of motion ofa ear FIG89 Yawing velocity texponses and sidesip velocity responses to step inputs of steering tnd side wind FIGK10 Yawing velocity, sdeslip velocity and roll angle of body duc to side wind FIGBIL A more realistic simulation of wind disturbance and the responses ofthe driver FIG 812. Non-linear tyre characteristics simulated FIGS3 Simulation of effect of tractive effort (r braking) om lateral tyre force FIG9 ‘The non-oling vehicle with laterally Nexible tyres FIG 92. When load transfer duc to rol is considered the relative ds ‘contct patch and the whee affect the yawing moment FIG The disposition of forces in the roll mode with laterally flexible tyres FIG94 A model of stering mechanism showing the mechanical tral FIG9S The five degree of freedom model assumed in Reference 95 acements between theSYMBOLS USED IN THE TEXT (Chapter 1 linear velocity along the 2 ax angle of sideslip of wheel (radians) rotational velocity about x axis tread width rotational velocity about y axis, C initial slope of lateral foree-angle rotational velocity about 2 axis ‘of steer curve (Ib/ead) total velocity parallel to x axis 4 tread depth {otal velocity parallel toy axis angle of camber (radians) {otal velocity parallel to 2 axis 1h deflection of tcad relative to wheel U__ instantaneous velocity ofthe origin centre path in x direction k lateral pncumaticstifiness(Ibinfin) V instantaneous velocity of the origin 1 halflength of contact pateh (i) in y direction fee perimeter af tyre instantaneous velocity of the origin Eartieial length invoked in tyre in. direction theory external force in x direction 1 elfaligning torque ofstered tyre Y external force in y direction oki external free in 2 direction ‘external moment about x axis external moment about y axis external moment about ? axis ‘mass of body (4) moment of inertia about Ox (B) moment of inertia about Oy (C) moment of inertia about Oz inflation pressure (Ibjin?) Fs) local lateral force intensity ys) local vertical force intensity Bz maximum value of p(s) ‘ 4° lateral displacement of tread band relative to wheel rim jo? kT SPS REENNH Ex ceeeTSse y S- distance along tread band B,,() product of inertia about Oy and Tension in tread band 0 > pathradius oftyreduringatun Pay (E) product of inertia about Ox and X forward displacement “of wheel OF cae P,, (F) product of inertia about Ox and : Y lateral force oy y lateral displacement of wheal centre _rOtation about 0: (yawing) 2 Meticlent ot hieton 0 fotation about Oy (pitching) £1 bending modulus of tread band —_‘Folation about Ox rolling) ‘ X tractive effort wavelength of oscillation Chapter 3 distance from cq to frong axle (t) 6 diatanes from cy to eear axle (1) Chapter 2 7 ae bm wheelbase fart) 4@ linear velocity along the xaxis ay _angleofsideslipoffront whees(ad) linear velocity along the y axis ange of ideslip of rear whens (rad)xu 5 angle of storing of front wheels m mass (slugs) 1, polar moment of inertia (slug (2) % forward displacement of contre of sravity relative (0 an origin fixed in space U forward velocity of ear (hs) lateral displacement of centre of ‘gravity relative to an origin fixed in space ¥ lateral velocity of ear (¥ys) heading angle of ear (rad) 7 yawing velocity of car (rad/s) Cy tyre characteristic (2Y/22),-9 for front wheels , tyre characteristic (2Y,/22),-9 for rear wheels © time 21, front and rear track, respectively a vie % a¥/ap Yo avian Ny anjop Ne ON/or % oY/e6 Ny ON /06 Chapter 4 my mass of tractor (slugs) my mass of trailer (slugs) Ty polarmoment ofinertia of tractor about centre of gravity (slug 2) Jz polarmoment of inertia of trailer About centre of gravity (slug f°) YU forward velocity of tractor fis V lateral velocity of tractor ft/s 1 yawing velocity of tractor (rad/s) U’ forward velocity of tale 3) VY ateral velocity of trailer (ys) 7 yawing velocity of trailer (rad/s) Cia. tyre characteristics of front trac {or rear tractor and trailer axles, respectively (Ib/rad) braking forces at front tractor, rear tractor and trailer wheels respectively (Ib) angle between tractor and trailer distance from centre of gravity of tractor to front axle of tractor distance from centre of gravity of tractor to rear axle of tractor SYMBOLS USEO IN THE TEXT 4 distance fom contre of gravity of tractor to fifth whee of tractor € distance from centre of gravity of trailer to fith whee! of trailer hk distance from exntre of gravity of trailer to trailer axle hat eth 2 force at fith wheel along tractor Y _Toreeat fith whee! perpendicular to tractor axis 5 angle ofstcer Chapters K, elective spring stiffness at wheet yin K actual spring stiffness (bt) 21/06 roll stfness (ib f/ead) 21 wheat track () 21, spring wack te ance rom origin to centre of ravi of half sta) 24 damper track () it’ Ineight of contre of gravity of body above origin K, vertical stiffess of main sus pension spring K, lateral stifiness of main. suse pension spring k, Vertical stfnes of tyre A, ateral stiffness of tyre @ —_rollangle of body (radians) ica angles” of suspension units (radians) ‘ertial fore at the ground Chapter 6 distance between sprung and un- sprung mass centres in. direction of z-axis (i) aY/0g oNjoe aLjeg aN/op aLjop self aligning torque from a wheel db fyraay rear roll steer rateSYMAOLS USED IN THE TEXT ‘Chapter 7 The symbols peculiar to analog com- puting are listed, while the symbols tused in the mechanical equations are similar to those defined for previous chapters. XY voltages representing physical dis- placements x and y XY voltages representing physical velocities % and j AP voltages _ representis accelerations ¥ and j ly _seale factor connecting the voltage to the physical variable. The suix indicates the variableie. x = X/A, thus, = Vite ¥; input voltage to a network ¥% output voltage from a network Ry/R gain of a summing unit physical xu Y/CR time constant of an integrator (seconds): alternatively, CR is called the integrator gain + time scale factor Chapter 8 Uses the symbols ofthe previous chapters. Where it is not possible to represent a voltage by substituting the capital letter {or the small letter of the physical symbol a bar symbol is introduced V lateral velocity of centre of gravity of voltage representing lateral velocity Chapter 9 Uses the symbols of Chapters 1,2, Sand 6,PREFACE This book is based on part of the vehicle dynamics course given in The Advanced School of Automobile Engincering, Cranfield. It is intended to provide a background of theoretical information for engineers by presenting the many published papers on tyres and vehicle handling in one volume. ‘Naturally this process is selective due to the limitations of space but it is hhoped that all the main points of vehicle handling are discussed Since the tyre provides the means of guiding and stabilizing the vehicle the first chapter is a discussion of tyre performance and this is followed by some basic mechanics. The succeeding chapters demonstrate theoretical models of vehicles of increasing complexity starting with the two degree of freedom model and finally mentioning some more extensive studies. Con- siderable emphasis is laid on the ‘Cornell studies in Chapter 3 and Chapter $ since an understanding of the outstanding contribution of the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory in this field is essential to all vehicle chassis designers. acknowledge with gratitude the help I have derived from the publications listed at the end of the various chapters and from discussion with engincers from the tyre and motor industry. xvINTRODUCTION ‘The subject of ‘vehicle dynamics’ is concerned with movements ofthe vehicle ‘on the road surface, the manner in which itis guided and the effects of road irregularities. Since the prime objective ofthe designer isto providea means of ‘transporting people, it is inevitable that personal assessments are the main criteria by which a car is judged while the commercial vehicle has to pass the additional test of satisfactory delivery of items of commerce. Ross conditions Jperocynami The of ines woe i Poon | seeing L| tog age Fores | stem Ming ae Vente (ead boston axes || pcetrtr teodback Vibration, noise to ariver ‘no 1 Hypothetical vehicle control loop including driver A block diagram of a hypothetical driven-vehicle system shows that the driver is subjected to stimuli such as observed road conditions, noise, vibration and vehicle responses to steering, aerodynamic forces and moments, and road irregularities. In this environment his task is to guide the vehicle by the controls at his disposal in a manner which is acceptable to himself, xvitxvi wtpopucrion External isturbances . ¥ Steering system conve Vohicte (UN Broker Accelerator G2 Portion ofthe contra lop covered by this book hhis passengers and other road users. Since the driver is the responsible person his judgement of the situation must be accepted and hence the assessments of the satisfaction ofthe vehicle system are subjective. While the above statement is reasonable, the population of a country and its road system are such that, it may be possible to derive a vehicle system which will satisfy a majority of users. The ‘optimum’ vehicle for local conditions may not be satisfactory out of its environment; for instance it is unlikely that a car developed for narrow, winding, well surfaced roads would be approved of when a network of excellent long distance motor roads is available. In ral life the car is simultaneously subjected to road irregularities, acro- dynamic forces and moments, and the forces generated by steering. However, it is a useful artifice to consider separately the effects of road irregularities, which are termed the “ride” qualities, and then to assume a flat road exists, ‘upon which the car will be driven while under the influence of the aero- dynamic and steering forces and moments. The latter is the ‘handling’ or control and stability phase of vehicle dynamics which is the subject of this, book,CHAPTER 1 THE PNEUMATIC TYRE When vehicle control and stability are studied, itis natural to start with the pneumatic tyre since it is through the medium of the tyres that the vehicle is steered, driven and supported. The tyre plays the major role in stabilizing the vehicle and an understanding of the way in which a tyre reacts to the road and generates forces and moments is helpful ‘This chapter first examines the stiffness of the inflated tyre and wheel when it is stationary, then the forces and moments generated by the rolling steered wheel are discussed and the effects of load, inflation pressure and other variables are mentioned. Later some of the mathematical theories which have been developed to aid the study of tyre mechanics are introduced. The models used in these analyses are attempts to reduce the complexity of the real tyre to manageable proportions, and while itis not possible to estimate tyre characteristics from a drawing of the tyre construction, the models are frequently helpful in aiding the extrapolation of test data. 1.1 Static tyre tests ‘A number of static tests may be performed on tyres to measure the rate of deflection against vertical, fore and aft, and lateral loads. These stiffnesses are required in the simulation of vehicle dynamic characteristics. When the load deflection characteristics are considered, Fig, 1.1, it will be seen that these are substantially linear over the working range of loads and are inflation-pressure dependent. For static loads the tyre exhibits many of the characteristics of a spring and, as would be expected, the maximum values of lateral and fore and aft force.are limited by the sliding of the tyre on the contact paid. Certain coupling effects are noticed in these tests, for example, the applica- tion of a force in the horizontal plane increases the vertical deflection under ‘constant load, While this change in vertical deflection is small, its existenceVEHICLE OYNAMICS Belem ol rma L Stati tyre teste (a) normal loading (b) lateral loading () fore and at JoadingTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE 3 suggests that coupling occurs between the ‘ride’ and ‘handling’ modes of vehicles even when suspension characteristics are not considered. 1.2 Rolling tyre tests, ground reactions When a tyre is steered across the path of motion a deformation and displace- ment of the contact patch occurs which gives rise to a lateral force and a ‘moment which attempts to realign the wheel in the rolling direction, Fig. 1.2. Lateral force distribution Tyre movement on road x Fore and att force Nowa force ‘distnbnstion ‘detnbution no 12. Tyre distortion during stcring and distribution of pressures within the contact area integrated across the width of contact ‘The front portion of the contact patch is parallel to the direction of motion while a progressive curvature and sliding toward the wheel centre line is noticed at the rear of the contact area. For small angles of steer, the whole Of the contact length is substantially parallel to the direction of rolling, but as the angle increases the curvature moves forward until at an angle of 12°4 VEHICLE DYNAMICS to 15° the whole area is sliding and the lateral force reaches its maximum value, The distribution of the forces between the tyre and road are as shown in Fig 1.2(b) (Ref. 1.1). It will be seen that the lateral force increases from front to rear of the contact length for small angles and it is the offset of the resultant lateral force which produces the aligning torque around the vertical axis. For typical vehicle tyres the vertical load is distributed in an approximately uniform manner, while the existence of the fore and aft forces ‘within the contact length is explained by the necessity of the curved length of the tyre perimeter to be accommodated within the shorter chordal distance of the contact length, At larger angles of sicer the Tateral force is progressively limited by sliding which occurs at the rear of the contact, Tength and spreads forward as the angle increases. When a tractive force is applied to the wheel the force distribution due to this force is simitar to the lateral force distribution. Vertical loading affects the generation of side force at any given sideslip angle: a typical graph Fig, 1.3 shows these changes for a small car tyre. wot Hi Pa 2 300) vl wl 1613. Carpet graph of lateral fore (Y) versus sdeslip angle and normal force (Z) at stow speed on a dry concrete surface (positive branch only) ‘At moderate tyre inflation pressures an increase in pressure improves the side force generation and the lateral stiffness, but as can be scen from Fig. 1.4 ‘overinflation is not advantageous since this decreases the size of the contact patch and counterbalances any gain of lateral stiffness. Under poor surface conditions such as mud or soft snow overinflation may be helpful, as in these circumstances the tread distortion due to the excessive inflation promotes a cleaning action in the tread pattern.THE PNEUMATIC TYRE 5 550 12 00 Ye rim 500 «a Po va 300 Note: Overiflation doesnot improve the performance due to reduction in contact ares [RO 14 Elfect of nation pressure on lateral force (Y) at constant normal free (Z) 1.3 Tyre forces and moments Vehicle stability is concerned mainly with the initial slope of the lateral force-sideslip angle curve, known as the cornering force coefficient. When the effect of large angles of sideslip is required a power series with the co- efficients adjusted to coincide with the test curve provides a satisfactory description of the lateral force. The self aligning torque of the steered wheel is due to lateral force offset and hence reaches a maximum condition before the lateral force is a maximum, and then falls rapidly as the effective lever ‘arm of the lateral force is reduced. Pneumatic trail is a term used to describe the ratio, selfaligning torque : lateral force. Selfaligning torque is of secondary interest in describing the handling behaviour of a fixed control vehicle, but is important when the loads within the steering mechanism are required. Camber, which is the inclination of the wheel from a line perpendicular to the road surface when viewed in the fore and aft direction of the vehicle, causes a lateral force to be developed which is approximately one fifth of. VEHICLE DYNAMICS: the value of lateral force obtained from an equivalent angle of sideslip for tyres of ‘cross bias’ construction, and somewhat less for a radial cord tyre As shown in Fig. 15 the maximum lateral foree is not greatly altered by the presence of camber. 100 1G LS The eect of eamber angle (6) on lateral force (¥) Driving or braking a wheel will considerably reduce the lateral force obsained at any given sidestip angle (Fig, 1.6); this effect is due to the utiliza tion of the available local friction by the tractive force which reduces the amount available in a lateral direction and causes the whee! to lose adhesion at a lower sideslip angle. ‘When the wheel and tyre are considered as part of the vehicle it is apparent that the lateral force which is necessary to control and stabilize the vehicle will be modified by the effects of oad distribution, camber, inflation pressure and tractive effort and that a logical presentation of these effects in a form suitable for application to the control problem is desirable. A derivative form of tyre data presentation is shown which satisfies these requirements, for small variations around an equilibrium condition.700% 14 co 2Bibhia® o 00 200} ° Too 200308 500605 (to) 1716 Reduction in lateral force (Y) at constant sideslip angle due to tractive effort (X) ‘The general derivative notation Y = ad¥/du + hdY/b + pdY/Op+...ete. is based on the assumption that cach partial derivative is constant and independent of the other variables and this is incorrect in this instance. For example, the value of 2Y/0a is only zero if there is no vertical load at the contact surface, and in all cases of a vertical load on the wheel OY /dx # 0. A knowledge of tyre test data suggests a standard sot of conditions of Joad and inflation pressure. P=Po#0 Z=Zo#0 a=0 g=0 ‘Then the derivative equation can be rearranged ¥ = a(Cy + 8C/op. Ap + AC/0Z.AZ +...) + HOY /0$| p20 + PY/0b. ap. Ap + HY /8p.0Z.AZ +...) and from this cquation a series of parameters which are basic to the tyre steering performance are observed : Co = rate of change of lateral force with sideslip angle with tyre at standard load and pressure; 6C/p = variation in lateral force coefficient caused by small changes in inflation pressure; @C/0Z = variation in lateral force coefficient caused by small load incre- ments, et8 VEHICLE DYNAMICS: Since the list of variables can be extended at will itis evident that this approzch can be usefully employed to correlate existing data for a given tyre, and (0 outline the areas in which further testing may be necessary before the information is satisfactory for application to vehicle problems. 1.4 Comment The foregoing discussion and figures are intended to give a general description of typical results obtainable from tyre testing. When physical values are quoted these refer only to the tyre under test and it should never be assumed that these values are capable of general application. On the other and, we can obtain from the discussion an overall impression of the probable effects of the changes of the main parameters of tyre performance. 1.5 The tyre on the vehicle Vehicle stability is considered in terms of the characteristics of the pairs of wheels which are referred (o as the front or rear wheels, and the summed value is frequently quoted as the characteristic. Thus the effects of weight transference, camber angle changes at the wheel caused by rolling of the vehicle body and tractive thrust are considered for cach wheel separately and the values obtained at any condition are added to produce a character- istic for theaxle set. Generally this procedure produces a net result which is less than expected from a casual inspection of the tyre data, To illustrate this point two cases are considered, the effect of load transference across the wheels such as occurs during a steady state turn on a beam axle suspension with the wheels rolling freely, and then with a tractive effort required from wheels coupled by a differential gear assembly so that equal tractive efforts ‘occur at each wheel ‘The control of a vehicle is dependent on the lateral force generated by a pair of wheels and thus the effects of weight transference, camber angle changes and tractive effort are considered for each whecl separately and then summed for the front and rear axle sets. Figure 1.3 shows the expected lateral performance for a typical tyre at various loads on cither side of the operating load of 600 Ib. Figure 1.8 is, obtained from Fig. 1.7 by considering that the total load on the axle remains ‘constant at 1200 b but that the distribution of load between the whecls is varied, the variations being shown in 200 Ib increments. Thus with no load transfer a lateral force of 230 Ib is generated at 2° sideslip, but with 400 Ib load transfer a force of 205 Ib is gencratcd at 2°. Figure 1.8 shows a typical load transference such as will occur during steady turning of the vehicle and indicates that less lateral force will be generated by this axle than would be expected from a cursory inspection of the tyre data. Similar effects will beTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE ‘The tual lateral fore(Y) of an angle as normal force (Zs changed, the total force ing constant. Curves obtained from simple addition of lateral frees 400] 1G 18 The actual lateral force developed is less than shown in Fig. 1.7 because load transfer (2) s dependent on the lateral fores(Y)10 VEHICLE DYNAMICS noted if the suspension permits the wheels to camber during cornering. ‘Traction requirements are a further cause of deterioration of lateral force on a driven axle and this may be particularly noticeable under low fricti conditions. Figure 1,9 shows the effects of tractive effort on the lateral force 200 10 Z= 800 2=6001b wn 08 go é o 2 ° 00800 ° 400 ° a0 x) 110 19 The effet of trative effort (X) on lateral fovce (¥) at constant angles of sidesip, for various loads (2) of the individual tyres of the axle assuming an clliptic relation between Tateral and tractive forces. The total effective lateral force for the axle under any condition of load transference between the wheels is obtained by addition of the force from each wheel. Figure 1.10 is an example of the results of this summation at various [oad transferences. It has been assumed that the lateral force versus tractive effort for the axle is limited by the skidding of one wheel of the axle set; if this is not the case, then the carpet graphs for the larger values of load transfer could be extended to the zero lateral force line. ‘The development ofa lateral force by a rolling tyre is essentially controlled by the elastic properties of the tyre and the manner in which the contact area is laid on the road during the steering process. It is then apparent that the speed of rolling should not affect the value of lateral force developed by steering the tyre at a fixed angle, This statement is in accord with the majority of tyre test data available, although certain reports of high speed drum tests indicate that speed of rolling may cause changes in the lateral force at a given sideslip angle due to inertia effects in the tread band.THE PNEUMATIC TYRE " FAG 110 Lateral force (¥) versus sideslip ange, tractive effort (X) and load transfor ‘Tyre drag forces are small within the range of operating speeds of the tyre, but rise sharply when the road speed exceeds that for which the tyre is designed, Fig. 1.11. This rapid rise in drag is associated with the formation of ‘standing waves’ in the tyre structure which occur as the road ‘speed reaches the natural frequency of the tyre structure, ‘The tyre manufacturer usually indicates an upper limit of road speed for which particular tyres are suitable, 1.6 Tyre-road frietion ‘One of the major variables is the day-to-day changes in the frictional characteristics which occur in vehicle usage. These changes are, of course, inevitable and Figs. 1.12(a) and 1.12(b)are included without further comment. 1.7 Tyre-to-tyre variations As with all manufactured articles the wheel and tyre are subject to variations in performance of outwardly identical units. No information on the tyre-to- tyre variations has been published by the tyre manufacturers, but private2 VEHICLE ONAMICS 180} Drag (i/ton oad) o 1g 1.11. (a) Elect of road speed on tte dea; (0) Hoeren fo we in drag due to tractive tyre tests have indicated that the factor cannot be ignored although the number of such tests is not large cnough to enable the usual statistical analysis. There is, however, some information on the variations which occur around the tyre perimeter of steel cord radial ply tyres in carly stages of production. The force variation is different for clockwise and anti-clockwise rotation, Fig. 1.13, Information on the variation of radial force and run out is shown in Fig. 1.14 which indicates the presence of irregularities due to manufac:ure in fabric cord bias ply tyres. ‘Wheel run out is defined as lack of concentricity between the wheel rim and the hub and may take the form of a truly circular rim mounted eccentric- ally on the hub or an ovality of the rim. In either case the run out will cause a variation in the load between the tyre and the road as the wheel rotates.THE PNEUMATIC TYRE 13 __Wet conerete (720 milan (/ Sideways force cootficient (¥/2} 05} 1 Sidestip angle 20° 10112 (a) Elect of road surface condition; (b) Locked wheel retardation land sideways foree coeficient for smooth tread tyres on various wet surfaces In addition the wheel rim may be mounted so that a swash plate action occurs, which will give rise to a variation in the effective camber of the wheel and hence a change in the lateral force during rolling, A swash type run out of 0: in on a 12 in rim will cause a cyclic lateral force of about 40 Ib at low road speeds. This force will be speed dependent and can be considered as due to lateral shift of the tyre relative to the road-in a cyclic manner, 1.8 The dynamic response of tyres In the previous paragraphs we have discussed the steady state values ofthe lateral force developed by steering a wheel, but the wheel has dynamic properties so that, when itis disturbed by changing the angle of sideslip ot“ VEHICLE DYNAMICS oa| g & os : 2 z os] ‘ o2| ° a ‘Sideways force coefficient st 30 mile % 89 80) 20° 24 BT own z ¢ 2 E sok Anticlockwise 5 z ‘ston = or ya ae i § a = 8 a Antislockwise ae 20 Clock 2 468101 a) 14 Aligning torque (bf Aligning torque (ft) @ o 10 113 Characteristic pots ofa) small and (6) arg fluctuations of comering foree and aligning tongue ofa straight cunning tre of radial ear designTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE 6 asl! force variation Racial run out ‘titfnes variation FAG 1.14 The changes in radial force and stiffness around the periphery ofa tyre by altering the load, the tyre requires that a distance be rolled before the new steady state force is established. For a sudden change in any condition, for instance a step change in stecring angle, the new valuc of iateral force will be developed in an approximately exponential manner and the distance which the tyre has to roll before it is within 1/e (368 per cent) of its new steady state is about equal to the standing radius of the tyre. (See Fig. 1.15) a tangent |b 7 ° 2a 6 Distance rolled x (inches) ‘na 118 The build up of lateral force (Y) with distance rolled. The (rei originally turned 2" while at standstill6 no 16 (a) when a (by Mean aligning torgue and phase an ‘Steering input VEHICLE DYNAMICS “The lateral force (mean valve) and the phase angle developed Duda stecing, angle of 4 amplitude is applied to a (es le between torgue and sinusoidalTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE ” When the angle of steer is controlled in a sinusoidal manner the lateral force and self aligning torque are not in phase with the steering input, and the magnitude of both the force and torque are dependent on the wavelength of the input when this is expressed in terms of distance rolled by the tyre. (Gee Fig. 1.16) 309 ‘Axle motion (a) ‘Test ares 109} 13 po ° 2a Reduced feequency (rad/t) POLIT (a) Cyclic variation ateralforce(¥) wi ‘ofthe axle; (6) Mean “2; sin wf of the whee! s+ forward speed) usoidldisplacement(2 = 9+ 2 sin) ore developed during sinusoidal displacement (2 ~ ‘On uneven road surfaces a variation in the vertical load occurs which also has the effect of causing changes in the lateral force developed by a tyte. In this case the available test data indicate that the lateral force generated by a tyre held at a fixed angle of steer but with a sinusoidal variation in vertical force is not of a sinusoidal nature. (See Fig, 1.17(b).) 1.9 Tyre test data Before using test data for tyres it is advisable to consider the method of testing used, To date the majority of tyre testing has been carried out using18 veHicue ovnamics a cylindrical drum as the tyre contact surface. This type of test does not produce contact conditions comparable with service conditions and the results should be treated with caution, particularly if the data has been obtained at high speeds of rolling. Several machines using a plane contact surface have been developed, the earliest examples of which were laboratory machine by the author in the carly 1950's and actual road test machines by the Cornell Aeronautical Laboratory and Engineering Research Associates Ltd. at about the same time. 1.10 An approximation to allow for tractive forces ‘An approximate method of determining the lateral force available during the transmission of power or braking effort is possible if itis assumed that the tyre may reach its limiting force condition in any direction, but that the maximum force may not exceed a given value in either the lateral o fore and aft direction. (See Fig. 1.18.) The tractive effort demanded of the tyre is (| %nae ‘no 118 The fiction ellipse concept relating the lateral force (Y) available for vehicle contol to the b ttactive effort applied to the wheel ‘a force which is generated by the application of a torque around the wheel ‘entre while the lateral force is generated by distortion of the tyre against the road. In this circumstance the tractive effort will be a force against which the contact area is bound to react and in the extreme case skidding may always be produced in this direction. If ¥, is the lateral force produced at any sideslip angle in the free rolling condition and X is the tractive effort,vow THE PNEUMATIC. TYRE 19 then the lateral force at this sideslip angle under the action of X may be approximated by constructing an ellipse with ¥p as the minor axis and Xiu, as the major axis (1/%o)? + (X/Kmagl? = 1 Figure 1.19(a) shows an assumed tyre characteristic curve at zero tractive effort. Figure 1.19(b) shows the ellipses of lateral force available at various tractive efforts. In this example the tractive effort at sliding has been taken as equal to the maximum lateral force developed, but this assumption will depend on the tyre design and tread pattern particularly in low friction conditions. Figure 1.19(c) is a carpet graph relating lateral force, sideslip angle and tractive effort. ry 0 PS" 0 e 10 1.19 (a) Lateral force (Y) versus siesip angle (2) for fre rolling: (b) Lateral force (Y) ‘versus tractive effort (X) at constant sdeslip angle (a) (c) Carpet graph ofltcal force (Y), ltacive effort (X) and sieslip ange (a)D VEHICLE OYNAMICS 1.11 Some theories of lateral tyre forces ‘A number of attempts have been made to develop mathematical models of the pneumatic tyre particularly with regard to its load carrying capacity and the lateral force capability. Although these models all bear some resemblance to-a simplified tyre this should not be allowed to misguide the reader into assuming that they are mechanically representative of the structures shown in Fig, 1.20 which, particularly in the case of the bias cord construction, are most complex webs of cord set in a rubber matrix. 7 “ Ma nd 7) © 0 1.20. Some of the tyre models proposed for analysis {@) taut string model; (6) Beam on elastic foundation model ‘Most of the mathematical analysis is based on the concept ofa tread band. which is supported on @ continuous elastic curtain representative of the {yre walls with the wheel rim acting as the base or foundation of the spring. (See Fig. 1.20.) The first description of the tyre assumes that the tread band 's a taut string; hence the equation of load intensity is obtained fom structural theory 1) ay Another approach describes the tread band as a beam, again on a con- tinuous elastic support from which the intensity of loading is hs) 2) Combining both the above idealizations a further set of ‘equations is developed d*q aq eT get t= 09) (3)THE PNEUMATIC TYRE a Some of the parameters such as k and EI can be measured directly from simple tests on tyres. The major differences in the physical aspects of these equations is that in the string model discontinuities of slope are permissible, and this is not the case when a bending stiffness is considered. Some curves of the lateral deflection produced by the application ofa side force at a point on the tyre equator for cross bias and radial steel cord tyres are shown in Fig. 1.21. 180" q a 650% 16 Soibhia® y Cross bias —— 1 1.21. The lateral defection of the tread band of a tyre when a point lateral load i applied These experimental results show that there is little to choose between the various idealizations, and that if the correct value of the subtangent is ‘chosen any tyre may be adequately represented as a string model. Studies of the taut string model and the beam theory are given. For small angles of sideslip the string theory provides an adequate understanding of the mechanics of the development of a lateral force by a tyre, while it is seen that the beam assumption degenerates into the use of a power series to represent the lateral force versus sideslip angle curve, 1.12 Taut string analogy ‘When the tread band ofa tyre is represented by a central band under torsion and laterally supported by a continuous clastic foundation then the equation describes the rate of external loading. Over the greater part of the tyre ‘circumference the tyre is not loaded by external means and aq ~T a+ kg =0 (1.4)2 VEHICLE DYNAMICS It is convenient to study the deflected shape of the equatorial band by reference to the deflections imposed at the front and rear of the contact patch. “The solution of this type of differential equation is well known and may be expressed in either hyperbolic or exponential form. Hence q= Ae + Be (1.5) Consider a new variable S' such that S' = 0 when q = q, and (1.6) Lwhen q = q2 ‘Substitution of these conditions leads to ate® (5-0) 4 gfe" — oF} Oe eee) an Since L = 55 R and = R the expression simplifies to gages + qe ble Considering the centre of the contact patch as a new origin, then in the forward direction S° = 0 when s = |, S’ = L when s = L + lors’ =s—1. ‘Therefore from the centre of contact in a forward direction along the tyre perimeter gael 4 gy let as) where this equation refers to the unloaded tread band in the front half of the tyre perimeter, When the rear section of the unloaded tread band is considered, then 5’ =0 when 5 = —L ~ I relates s and S' for the end of the tread remote from the contact length. $= L when s = —1 is the required shift of the ‘origin for the end of the tread immediately after the rear of the contact length. Thus’ = s +L 41. Whence ga quent hte 4 gs rte as) Equation (1.9) refers tothe length of tread band to the rear ofthe contact Iength. Certain conditions of continuity of the tread band are necessary when the tyre is rolling. As the tyre rolls forward all points on the equator will succes- sively be brought into contact with the ground, and thus a point on the free perimeter immediately in front of the contact patch becomes a point within the contact patch after the tyre has rolled a short distance. This is onlyTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE 2 possible if the contact patch and the free equatorial band have a common tangent at the front point of contact. Differentiating eqn. (1.8) and assuming e~™* = 0, daids|.01 = — 91/0 (110) Similarly from eqn. (1.9) dqis|,_1 = 42/¢ at the rear of the contact patch. For small angles of steer the position of any point on the equator will remain constant relative to the ground during its passage through the contact patch, that is, no relative slipping will occur. It will be noted that o is the length of the subtangent of the exponential ccurve and is termed the ‘relaxation length’. Let a loaded wheel be rolled in a condition of constant yaw angle until a steady state condition is reached, the wheel being clamped so that lateral force and torque are resisted. The deflection of the centre of the tyre relative to the wheel rim will increase in aan exponential manner as will the lateral force. Thus a continuous measure- ‘ment of either parameter will yield a measure of the ‘relaxation length’. In general the change in any parameter, U, following a sudden disturbance of the wheel from one steady state condition to another will follow a law of approximate exponential decay U = U,e8" ‘The lateral force developed by the tyre when distorted may be considered cither as the restoring force between the tyre and the wheel rim, of alterna~ tively as the total force within the contact region. (See Fig, 1.22) These alternative considerations lead to Yak [ads+k fads aay Diestion of mation fy24 VEHICLE OYNAMICS where the first integral isthe force developed due to distortion in the contact ‘area and the second integral is the force due to distortion of the free peri- meter, or Y= f plsds (112) Considering eqn. (1.12) and substituting for p(s) from eqn. (1.1) vat flau—efermeau a or + ¥ =k fads ~ ko*[dausT 4 Substituting from (1.10) for the slope at +1 and —L respectively Y= fads + hola, +43) (13) ‘The torque on the axle duc to distortion is similarly capable of expréssion in two distinct forms which lead to a similar result. Considered as the sum, of the moments of the restoring force between tyre and wheel rim tua N ands nua) where is the moment arm of the differential force kqds. Integration of the moment of the loading curve about the centre point of the contact length yields (1.14) Integrating by parts N= kf! sqds ~ ka?[sdg/ds — Jdgidsds]*! o N= k J sods ~ ko*fsdgits ~ 4% Substituting forda/as from eqn (1.10) Nk fi sgds + ko(l + 0) [ay — a3] (1.15)THE PNEUMATIC TYRE 26 ‘When standing tyre is subjected to a pure side load, Fig. 1.23,q, = 42 = ¢ ‘Then from eqns. (1.13) and (1.15) (16) ‘na 1.23. (a) Distortion of a stationary tyre under a side Toad: (8) Distortion of a sationary tyre, applied momen (©) Distortion ofa rolling {for & small angle of sdeslip The condition of a pure torque on the axle of a standing whee! is shown in Fig 1.23, whence ~ q, = qz = al. This gives y=0 (17) N = 2klalP/3 + ofl + 0] For the rolling tyre at a steady angle of sideslip the condition of continuity ives tana= (qi - 43/2 = -ai/o Substituting in eqns, (1.13) and (1.15) ¥ = 2ko(l + 0)? 1 N= -2lelP/3 + of! + 0)) G48) These results suggest that for small angles of yaw the lateral force and aligning torque increase linearly with angle of sideslip. Inspection of Fig. 1.2 shows that this is correct for small angles in the order of +4”. However the2% VEHICLE DYNAMICS local sliding which occurs initially at the rear of the contact length and extends further forward as the angle of steer increases causes the lateral ferce and moment to fall away from this linear condition, and thus the theory is restricted to small angle performance estimates. 1.13 A comment on pneumatic lateral stiffuess Measurements of k and o have been carried out by several experimenters and it has been found that for an aircraft tyre, loaded to its rated axle load, values of ¢ range from 06 R to 09 R. Values of k increase linearly with pressure, Fig. 1.24, the value at zero pressure indicating a residual carcase stiffness. Continuous support a Stem of weed A Residual stfress ° 70 20 m0 Inflation presure (on®) 1 124 Experimental measurement of lateral pacumati stifnes. The slope is dependent ‘on the tyre ifation pressure 1.14 Beam on elastic support analogy The tread band structure of the tyre is assumed to have the characteristics ‘ofa beam supported on the clastic structure of the side walls. Between the tread band and the road surface the tread rubber is assumed to act as a series of separate strips of rubber cach of width along the direction of contactTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE 2 of is. From the theory of clastcity the lateral force generated by the de- Tleetion ofa strip of rubber of depth dy and tread width b is c we Sy “ats mya 8 is the relative lateral deflection of the tread band to the ground, and mis Poisson's ratio “The beam theory eqn. (.2) is Elata/as* + kq = 9) ‘The solution for an infinitely long beam with a point load Y at the position s=0is oY = —(a¥ 2k) e-™cos ns + sin ns) where = WEL Expanding this as a power series, and neglecting terms of third and higher order = —n¥ 2k. (= Ws?) (1.19) This approximation for a point load is now used to define the deflected shape of the tread band under the action of a non-uniform distributed load, and within the arca of loading. Consider now the effect of an angle of sideslip. It is assumed that the tread band follows a parabolic shape with zero distortion at front and rear of the contact length. The tread rubber follows the tread band until acted upon by the ground force when it will be displaced laterally by an amount proportional to the local lateral force intensity, until the limit ofthe frictional force is reached. Thereafter the local lateral force is dependent on the product of the local vertical force and the local coefficient of friction. Thus it is necessary to determine the displacement of the ground contact surface of the tread rubber, and the deflection of the tread band of the carcasc, when the force developed in the tread rubber can be estimated since the deflection of its road contact force and of its support at the tread band is known, Assuming a parabolic distribution of contact pressure then the local vertical pressure at any point along the contact length is pds) = 4p{s/20 (1 — 5/20 where p, is the maximum value of p(s). The maximum pressure is related to the vertical load by B, = 3Z/4b12% VEHICLE DYNAMICS ‘Then the local value of the lateral force which could be attained before total sliding occurs is Pls) = wpds) = 4up,{s/21) (1 ~ 3/21) (1.20) When a factor of proportionality is introduced, Co, the local adhesion force can be expressed in terms of the maximum deflection HD.» = Com Cq is also a measure of the local lateral force per unit arca of contact and corresponds to E/2(1 + m) ‘The maximum lateral displacement of the tread rubber has been defined at any point along the contact length by lg since p, isa function of position within the contact length. To define the distortion of the tread band of the tyre carcase eqn. (1.19) is used. In Fig, .25 the parabolic curve of the beam like distortion of the carcase has zero displacement at front and rear of the contact length; hence n of eqn. (1.19) corresponds to 1/l. Changing the position of the origin to the front of the contact length results in 8) = x. ¥/Col5/20 (1 = 5/2 where 1 = WP Cok In the front of the contact length there is no relative movement betweea the tyre and the road since the lateral force is not suicient to cause sliding hfs) = tana . When the lateral force is limited by the sliding condition the position of the contact zone is dependent on the local coefficient of friction. From Fig, 1.25, 14s) = lng (9) and ds) ~ als) = 4up,b/Cols/20 (1 ~ 5/20 ‘The lateral force exerted is proportional to the area enclosed by the curve of hand that of q, Fig. 1.25, ¥ « {O4s)— a} ds + | io) ~ alas [ootane — r/caerandt — sans + faupaycats0 ot ~ spaTHE PNEUMATIC. TYRE 2 —Aresion sting > {otal iogth of contact postion t which sipping fest occurs 170 1.25. A diagram of the development of lateral force for a rolling tyre as proposed by Fiala ‘The coordinates of the point of slipping are given by the equality of the non-sliding displacement line, Fig. 1.25, with the curve of maximum lateral displacement for the rear (,) =H CoP tana and hy = sytane Then 1 SCP esas y vps bow ane ta a 2up.b — x) 1SCEP fan o(ub a (1.22 where A= 16,2720? + L6up.bal + @xl? and B= 3AC4up.b + 2x0) ‘Since the solution of this equation is only possible by trial and error methods the following approximation is suggested CH tan? | Chit tan? « (1.23) 2C,P tana —» VEHICLE DYNAMICS where C, = Co/(I + Xl/3). For zero ‘angle of sideslip the approximation yields the same values of Y and d¥/da: and for da, the same values of Y, dY /da and d?Y/da? as does the original equation. However this equation is basically ill-conditioned since the lateral force is obtained as the difference of large numbers, and an aid to computation is given, A new variable q, is introduced where the subscript indicates that the variable takes integral values a, = 1, 2,3,etc., so that tana = asapeb/2C.) ‘Then the simplified equation for lateral force becomes, ¥ = 2up,blay/2.— a3/8 + 03/96) (1.2 AY da, = up DIL — ay/2 + 2/16) (125) ‘These equations are evaluated in Table 1.1. The gradient to the lateral force versus sideslip angle is tan ¢ = (OY /2a,)/2p,bI rable seat 8 | Saxe | Fue | dage | da Sel vo | oe | te | Te | 3 Seta wagon | 8 | ase | ie | tase | ora ats ta | | es | toe’ | 8 With increasing angle of sideslip the point B moves toward A, until when Aand B coincide the whole contact area is sliding, then tan tgag = 217b/CE ‘The self aligning torque is obtained from the lateral force by N= f avjas(s — has (1.26) Or substituting the approximate equation for 4Y is, Ciitian?a | CH tanta _ Cit ant a No 2EHCP tan a) — Sone Sap 12D In terms of the variable a, introduced as an aid (o calculation, N = np.bP(a/3 — ab/4 + a3/16 — a$/192) (1.28) andthe slope of the auxiliary equation curve is AN a, = yp,bP(/3 — ayf2 + 303/16 — 43/48) (1.29)THE PNEUMATIC TYRE ” Thus the slope of the aligning torque curve is defined as tan ¢, = AN f4a,)/4yp,bP Differentiating eqn, (1.28) and equating to zero, the maximum value of the aligning torque is ip bl? /64 which occurs when tana = 4p,b/2C\1 1.15 The cambered wheel Running a wheel at an angle of camber produces a ground contact line which is no longer a straight line but is elliptical. When the ellipse is replaced by a parabola of the same curvature at the vertex, then the equation of the undeformed equatorial band in the contact zone becomes (3) = G2 /Ro) (5/2 (1 — 5/2 (1.30) where @ is the angle of camber, Ro is the radius of the tyre and Rod is the distance of the vertex of the parabola from the wheel axis. Then the equation of the deformed equator is due to camber deformation and the bending deformation, hence As) = 2PG/Ry + X¥/Co) (5/2 (1 ~ 5/2 (131) As with the previous development of the lateral force equation bh, = 3) + hy Considering the lateral force as proportional to the area enclosed between the curve of h and that of q Y= Co | Thy — a(s)] ds + Co f [hy ~ als] ds Integration gives Y = 2C,P$/3Ro + 2C,P tana — CPP tan? aff + CP tan? a/6p? (1.32) where T= wb — C,PHRo ‘Table 1.1 can again be used if up,b is replaced by and the term independent of the angle of sideslip is added,2 VEHICLE DYNAMICS ‘The maximum angle of sideslip occurs when AB becomes tangential to the parabola of maximum deflection : tan oan = 2H7b/Cyl + I6/Ro “The self aligning torque due to camber is proportional to the moment of the area between the h and q curves. N= (2C\P tan a3 — CH tan? af + CHP tan? of29? — CH tan a/129? (1.33) ‘The maximum value of this moment is Ngax= (9/64) bl*(up, — Cs1b/2Ro) which occurs when tan 0 = pP,b/2C\I — I/ARo It follows for a straight running wheel, cambered at ¢, where a positive value of $ indicates a tilt of the whecl in the opposite direction to the force, that Y = QC,F/3Ro) N=0 (34) ‘CIRCULAR PATH. ‘The case of a wheel rolling around a circular path is also considered. Since the projection onto the road of the tread band does not coincide with the position of all the points of contact a lateral force is produced. If the curve fadius is p then the force is proportional to an area bounded by the curve ‘and a straight line joining the front and rear points of the contact length. ¥ = (1/2) Cyp%5 ~ sind) or (135) ¥=2C,2 3p where 6 is the angle subtended at the centre of the circle by the front and rear points of contact, No self aligning torque is developed in this condition. “The lateral force due to running on a circular path is directed toward the centre of the path and may be balanced by an angle of camber of the wheel such that the centre of the axle when extended coincides with the centre of the ground path. The wheel is then sweeping out a conic section.Pn VEHICLE DYNAMICS it follows the parabolic shape until the line AE cuts the parabola at B, and then again becomes a straight line, BE, For small angles of steer the case (a) gives the following equations Y =(1/2)k,bs,La (136) N = (1/12) k,ps,La(2L — 61 + 2s,) (1.37) And for the larger angles ¥ = (2) kyboga + PR, a(S ited #) 61 — kbs (G =3) ¢ a3) (138) N = (1/12) kybs,La(2L — 61 + 2s,) + (w’p,b/AP) (5, — s,) [2L(s? +5455 + 52) fete any 0800 yer ~ (sy — sa) (sp + 3 + APY] “BE 3) Uh in + S.)(GL + Gl) + + sys, + 52 — 1201] (1.39) An effective coefficient of friction which takes account of the tractive effort and lateral stiffness is used in the calculations v= [we -(X/ZP} - YZ (1.40) bey = hg — EZ — SyeX (4 Also the ‘elastic trail’ length is affected by the presence of a tractive effort ot eX/Z (1.42) ‘To obtain the parameters for a particular tyre involved it is necessary to have access to a number of tests of steady state forces and moments and static stiffness tests; the calculations of the behaviour of this tyre can then be extended to cover the regions of tractive effort. 1.16 A theory of the transient responses of a tyre Several possible mechanisms to represent the tyre have been suggested earlier and the lateral force produced by rolling the tyre at a fixed angle of sideslip hhas been examined. Use may also be made of these models to consider the elects of fluctuating inputs on the lateral force, provided that the conditions of continuity of the front region of the contact length and the free tyre Perimeter immediately before contact are observed. The taut string model will be considered since this is the most simple ‘mathematical analogy and all the parameters ean be deduced from testsTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE 2 FURTHER METHOD OF COMPUTATION ‘A method of calculating the lateral force and sclf aligning torque in the presence of a tractive effort is now described. Essentially the parabolic distribution of normal pressure at the contact surface is assumed and the ‘maximum possible lateral deflection is also assumed to be a parabola. Then a lateral deflection in the front part of the contact length is taken as remaining, in contact with the road until it contacts the parabolic form, after which it falls to the base which it contacts at some point outside the contact length, E. This length Lis adopted in order to adjust the self aligning torque calcu- lated by this method to the value obtained from tests on the particular tyre. The form of the deflected shape in the rear of the contact length is com- plicated: (a) When the point of.contact is below the point zero at which a line from E is tangential to the assumed parabolic distribution of the ‘maximum lateral displacement, then the simplified lateral deflection is made up of two straight lines (Fig. 1.26); (b) If the frontal line cuts the parabola above zero then the simplified lateral deflection becomes more complex as w ‘ Reference 110s usod to obtain expresions for lateral force and moment (a) small angles () large anglesTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE 36 A new variable is introduced, h, which relates the equatorial line of the tread band to the path of motion of the hub of the wheel; iy and hy are the values of this new variable at the front and rear of the contact patch res- peetively. Consider a wheel and tyre with the wheel centre at some displace- ‘ment y from the path of forward motion and the wheel rim inclined at some angle a. The length of the contact path is 21. (See Fig. 1.27.) Mo 127 A.non-steady model of a rolling tyre ‘True deflection of equatorial band = deflection of equatorial band relative to wheel rim + deflection of wheel axis from the road haqtytsa (1.43) Slope of equatorial band = slope of equatorial band relative to wheel rim + angle of wheel rim to road dhidx = dgids + « (144) since ds/dx > 1 for a small angle a. For the front of the contact patch hegty+ lo dhyfdx = dagy/ds + where dh,/dx = (dh/dx),, and dq,/ds = (dq/ds),, but, as demonstrated previously, dqyfds = —q,/0 thus dh,/dx = —q,/o +06 VEHICLE DYNAMICS From these equations dq,Ax + qi/o a — Idajdx — dy/dx (1.45a) or dh,jdx + hyo = ylo + (I+ 0) oo (1.456) ‘These equations are equivalent forms of the displacement of the front of the contact patch expressed as deflections relative to the wheel rim and de- Aections to the path of motion respectively. For small angles it has been assumed previously that each point on the equatorial band retains its original position relative to the ground on passage through the contact length. This condition is defined by Ixys) = hiy(x’ +8) when x! = x — (x, s)isa function of both the ground path and distance along the equatorial band with origin at the centre of the contact length. In the general case let h, q, y and « be variables of the ground path, then ax, 5) (x, 8) — y(x) — sox) (1.45¢) since both q and h are dependent on position on the equator as well as {round position, whereas y and a which define the hub position are functions of the ground path and independent of the equator. The lateral force and self aligning torque equations can now be written in terms of the ground path: Yak {as sids + kolaics) + a2(0)] (1.46) Nm kf saes)ds + hol + ofa) — anes} 147) Equations (1,46) and (1.47) define h and q(x, s), respectively. Examination of eqn. (1.45c) shows that q(x, s) contains y(x), a(x) and These symbols correspond to lateral displacement of the hub, angular displacement of the wheel and the contact length, respectively. Since the ‘contact length is approximately a linear function of the vertical loading itis now possible to examine the expected force and moment in cases where these are continuously variable, By examining cach variable separately the equations may be considered as linear. 1.17 Sinusoidal change in the angle of sidestip ‘The case of a wheel which is forced to oscillate in a sinusoidal yawing motion along the path of the axle centre line, and constrained so that no lateral motion of the hub occurs is an example of the method.THE PNEUMATIC TYRE Eo If is the wavelength of the oscillation measured on the ground and x is the position of the axle at any instant then (3) = ag sin bx where b= 2a/s and ya) = 0 ‘The equation of motion of the front point of contact (1.45b) becomes dhyfdx + hyfo = {(1 + 09/0) ay sin bx Multiplying the equation by an integration factor exp(f dx/o) hy eM = aof(l + ofa} fe sin bd ow lt2 ST oe in bx — ob cos bx) (1.48) ‘The deflection of the equatorial band relative to the rim is gs) = Hx, 8) — yx) — sal) and by the condition of continuity Mx,8) = hy(x’ +) and 4,3) = 558 sin Be + 5) ~ eb cos + 3] ~ ssi bx when 5h ayCs) = OA in oe + 9 ~ ob cos a’ + 1] ~ bn sin bx and when ~ hate) = Ein Ho’ — 9 ~ ob cos Hee — 1H] + lg sin bx Substituting these values in the general equation for lateral force few B(x! + 8) — ob cos W(x’ + s)]ds — kag sin bx [= + kalau) + aa)38 VEHICLE DYNAMICS Performing the integration and expanding the equation 2kagll + 0) 1+ ob = [2a sin blcos bl + o%b cos? bl + I/b sin? bl} cos bx} (1.49) To check that the steady state of this equation yields a similar value to that obtained previously for a steady angle of sideslip, let 6x = n/2 and then let +0 so that sin bl + bl and cos bl -» 1. Then Y {[{1/b — 076) sin bl cos bl + o (cos? bl — sin? bi)] sin bx: ¥ | = 2kagll + oF This is in agreement with the lateral force equation for a steady angle of steer which was desired previously. Equations (1.45) and (1.46) can be used to derive lateral foree and moment equations for the cases of sinusoidal steering, lateral displacement and vertical displacement in a manner similar to that demonstrated in the last paragraphs. In addition the case of a step input of the selected variable may be considered by use of the appropriate equation for fy. The separate solutions may be added to produce results for, say, variable steer angle and lateral displacement. 1.18 Simplified response equation From the point of view of vehicle control it is convenient to represent the transient tyre characteristics in terms of the steady state characteristic and the impressed displacement, Examination of the equation of lateral force due to a sinusoidal steering input reveals that both sine and cosine terms are present; thus the lateral force may be written Y = Cla — Ba) Where C is the steady state cornering force coefficient and B is a coefficient Which provides the appropriate reduction in lateral force and phase angle. ‘These coefficients would generally be derived from tyre test data. The angle of seer may be written in terms of the path length asin the original equation cr in terms of time. ‘WHEEL “SHIMMY? The phenomena of wheel ‘shimmy’ may be considered as two separate phases, one of which is a geometric effect due to lateral lexibility of the tyreTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE 2 and possible play in the axle, the other a true dynamic effect of the referred inertia of the wheel and steering mechanism about the king pin acting fagainst the moments developed by unsteady motions of the wheel relative to the ground. 1.19 Geometric ‘shimmy’ Figure 1.28(a) shows a wheel moving forward at a speed of U fi/s while steered at an angle « The simplified diagram assumes that the tyre deflection starts at the leading edge of the contact patch, Thus bq = —dssina ‘or for small angles —8q/58 Diretion of rlling————>- o 10.128 Wheel shimmy due to the geometry of the laterally exible (re Kinemati shimmy0 VEHICLE DYNAMICS Moving to the diagram, Fig, 1.28(b), a wheel is rolling on a path of radius 1p with a deflection q at a point beneath the axle, this deflection becoming. zero at a distance 0’ prea? +(p— a> therefore po/2q When the wheel is rotated the axle moves through an angle é2 and the corresponding distance iss. So pba = ds Substituting for p, 3/85 = 2a/o"® Differentiating, Pafs? = 2/0"? dajds Now substituting for dgfs, Pafds? = —2ajo! ‘Ths'isa simple harmonic motion of distance with a wavelength S = ./2. 0’. ‘The lateral deflection q is in quadrature with the steering angle « as shown in Fig, 1.28(¢), It will be noted that this simplified analysis is in agreement with the taut string analysis for a forced steering oscillation, 1.29 Dynamic wheel ‘shimmy" When the dynamic effects are considered a simplified equation of motion, may be derived by consideration of the system as shown in Fig. 1.29. The y 1101.29 A simplified single degree of freedom model of dynamic himmy‘THE PNEUMATIC TYRE a wheel and steering gear is considered as a single degree of freedom system oscillating about the king pin, We have seen previously when this type of motion exists a lateral force and moment Y= Cla Bi) N = aNjda|(a— Ba) is developed. The lateral force acts at the centre of the contact patch and ce the contact patch, Fig. 1.29, is not necessarily straight the ‘pneumatic trail effect which occurs with steady state steering is not applicable. Thus To ~ (CB + ON/oa| BY& + (IC + AN/ax|) = 0 From this equation we can deduce that the effective damping from the tyre is dependent on the values of B and B’ and may be negative in certain circumstances when the amplitude of the motion will increase with time, ‘The factors which accentuate the dynamic wheel ‘shimmy’ are: 1 large mechanical trail; 2 lack of viscous damping or static friction; 3 Mexible steeri 4 lateral flexibility in the suspension and front end structure; and. 5 steering reversibility In addition to the two types of ‘shimmy’ due to the rolling characteristies of the tyre, vibrations may arise due to out of balance of the wheel, lack of tyre uniformity or road disturbances. The character of these vibrations is that of a multiple degree of freedom system which includes the tyre spring effects shown in Fig. 1.1. 1.21 Equivalence of wheel and ground forces ‘Tyre test data are frequently obtained by measuring the forces and moments required to restrain the centre of the wheel under a given test condition. However, when the forces controlling the motion of a vehicle or the forces within a steering linkage are required, then the measured axle restraints ‘must be replaced by equivalent forces and moments along the stability axes of the vehicle and at the king pin respectively. The equivalence of wheel forces and moments and those at the ground and along the axes are easily established by reference to Fig. 1.30. Let Xy ¥, and Z, be the local ground contact pressures; then from Fig. 1.30{@) X, = [ 6X, oy, res 4-3 4 (3Y, * yox,) where the integrations are performed over the contact area.VEHICLE DYNAMICS TNS TTS 16130 (a) Summation ofthe eoimponent forces at an clement within the contact patch ‘Bequivaten tothe forecs and couples about the entre of contact; b) The correspondence Sr the ground forces and moments and the moments and forces of the stability axes: (O Tyee characterises are frequently measured by dynamometers located relative to the wheel centreTHE PNEUMATIC TYRE « ‘The ground forces and moments are equated to the vehicle axes as shown in Fig. 1.30(b) X,=X, Ly = Ly ~ YReosg ~ Z,Rsing Yay M=M, + X,Reos¢ Z=Z, NaN, +XRsing The relations between stability axes and the wheel axes which are required to convert test data measured at the axle to a suitable form for stability studies are as shown in Fig. 130(¢). X= x, L, = Ly ¥, cos — Z, sing —M,= M, cos — Nysing Z,00s + Yesing Nz = Nycosd + Mysing Determination of the forces and moments at the king pin, which is in general inclined at a compound angle, is best undertaken by the methods of transformation described in Chapter 2 1.22 Conclusions We have examined the manner in which the tyre develops forces during steering and the effect of a nunber of variables such as camber angle, load and tractive effort on the basic lateral force-sideslip angle characteristic. In addition some mathematical models of tyres have been examined and theit equations of lateral force derived for steady state and transient conditions. ‘These models are interesting despite their simplicity and the fact that they ccannot be used to design a tyre or predict its performance without reference to some test data ‘Tyre characteristics must be considered in relation to their use in vehicle stability and control studies, and here itis possible either to use a linearized ‘model ofthe vehicle for studies of stability or to develop a large displacement system which will, without modification, allow vehiele control problems to be taken to the limiting conditions of tyre adhesion. With a linear model the required tyre characteristics are those for small deviations about soune initial conditions which need not be zero, while the large displacement ‘model needs a complete tyre characteristic under all conditions of loading, camber, traction and road to whee! friction. In the latter case the power series of lateral force and moment are the most suitable. In these equations the contact length and inflation pressure appear as parameters to that once ‘an expression for the relation between vertical loading, inflation pressure and contact length of a particular tyre is established, and one set of steady state rolling tests is available, the necessary constants can be calculated, ‘When the vehicle control is studied on a digital computer this presentation