UNIT – V

Design for Assembly Automation : 1. Fundamentals of automated assembly systems, 2. System

configurations, 3. Parts delivery system at workstations, 4. Various escapement and placement
devices used in automated assembly systems, 5. Quantitative analysis of Assembly systems,
6. Multi station assembly systems, 7. Single station assembly lines.
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1. Fundamentals of automated assembly systems

Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanized and automated devices to perform the
various functions in an assembly line or cell. Most Automated assembly systems are
designed to perform a fixed sequence of assembly steps on a specific product that is produced
in very large quantities.
Automated assembly system performs a sequence of automated operations to combine
multiple components in to a single entity which can be a final product or sub assembly.

 Assembly involves the joining together of two or more separate parts to form new
entity which may be assembly or subassembly.
 Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanizes and automated devices to perform
the various functions in an assembly line or cell.
 Automated assembly system performs a sequence of automated operations to
combine multiple components in to a single entity which can be a final product or
sub assembly.

Need for an Automated Assembly System

 High product demand.

 Stable product design.
 The assembly consists of no more than a limited number of components.
 The product is designed for automated assembly.

Automated Assembly v/s Transfer Lines

 Work part produced are smaller in size compared to transfer lines.

 Assembly operations do not have the large mechanical forces and power requirement.
 Size is very less compared to transfer lines.

Design for Automated Assembly

Some principles that can be applied in product design to facilitate automated assembly are :

 Reduce the amount of assembly required.

 Use modular design.
 Reduce the number of fasteners required.
 Reduce the need of multiple components to lie handled at once.
  Limit the required directions of access.
 Requires high quality in components.
 Implement hopperability.

Automated Assembly - Application Characteristics

Where is automated assembly appropriate :
 High product demand
 Stable product design
 The assembly consists of no more than a limited number of components
 The product is designed for automated assembly

Advantages Of Automated Assembly

 High production rate
 High product quality and precision
 Low cost of production
 Not create the risk to the operator

Typical Products
 Alarm clocks
 Door mechanisms
 Gear boxes
 Ball bearings
 Small electric motors

Assembly Processes in Automated Assembly

Adhesive bonding Snap fitting
Insertion of components Soldering
Placement of components Spot welding
Riveting Stapling
Screw fastening Stitching
2. System Configurations
1.In-line assembly machine

2.Dial indexing machine

3.Carousel assembly system

4.Single-station assembly cell

Possible system configurations are outlined and described in Table 14.1.

Table 14.1: System configurations for Automated Assembly Systems
Configuration Description
In-line assembly machine A series of automatic
 workstations located
along an in-line transfer
system—the assembly
version of the machining
transfer line.
Synchronous and
asynchronous transfer
systems may be used to
transport parts from
workstation to
workstation.

Dial-type indexing machine Base parts loaded onto

fixtures or nests around
the periphery of the
circular dial, and—as
the dial table turns—
components are
assemblied sequentially
onto the base part.
Synchronous transfer
system in operation, as
all nests move at the
same time, sometimes
through continuous
motion, but more often
intermittently.

Carousel assembly system Represents a hybrid

between the circular
work flow of the dial-
type assembly machine,
and the straight work
flow of the in-line
system. Carousels can
be operated with
continuous,
synchronous, or
asynchronous transfer
mechanisms.

Single-station assembly cell Consists of one

 workstation where
components are
assembled, successively,
onto a base part that
has entered the system.
Once all the
components have been
assembled onto the
base part, the base part
leaves the system.
Inherently slower than
the other three system
configurations, as only
one base part is
processed at a time.

3. Parts delivery system at workstations

Parts delivery to workstations depends upon specific pieces of delivery equipment, particularly
associated with automatic assembly. These pieces of equipment are connected together to
create the parts delivery system.

Parts delivery at workstations is dependent on the following hardware components: the hopper;
the parts feeder; selector and/or orientor devices; the feed track; and escapement and placement
devices.

The following hardware for parts delivery consists of:

BULLETLIST
Hopper—a container into which components are loaded at the workstation, and which passes
components to the parts feeder.

Parts feeder—a mechanism used for removing components from the hopper, and passing them
to the feed track; the parts feeder is often connected to the hopper to form one unit. The
hopper and parts feeder device are often combined as one entity.
Selector and/or orientor—devices found on the feedtrack that establish the proper orientation
of the components for the assembly workhead: a selector is a filter device that only-correctly
oriented parts to pass; while an orientor re-orients parts that are not properly oriented initially
on the feed track.
Selector and orientor devices are small simple devices built onto the feed track to force the removal
of unacceptable components, or the re-orientation of misaligned ones.
Feed track—the pathway along which the components pass from the hopper and parts feeder
to the assembly workhead, whilst maintaining proper orientation of the parts via
selectors/orientors along the way; it generally operates by gravity, though powered feed tracks
(operated by vibratory action or air pressure) may also be encountered.
Escapement and placement devices—devices used to remove components from the feedtrack
(escapement), and to place them at the workstation for the assembly operation (placement);
there are a number of different device designs to accomplish this.

Escapement and placement devices include mechanisms with various designs to suit the needs
of the workstation in question; they include: horizontal and vertical placement devices; work-
carrier actuated escapement devices; and pick-and-place mechanisms.

The general arrangement of this hardware is shown in Figure 14.1.

Figure 14.1: Hardware elements used to delivery parts to workstations

The hopper and parts feeder device are often combined, as shown schematically and pictorially
in Figure 14.2.
 Figure 14.2: Hopper and parts feeder

Typical selector and orientor devices are shown in Figure 14.3.

Figure 14.3: (a) Selector and (b) orientor devices used upon the feedtrack
Meanwhile, depending upon the assembly system type, various escapement and placement devices
may be favoured; Table 14.2 outlines just some of these.
Table 14.2: Escapement and placement devices
Device Description
Horizontal placement device Device used on dial-type
assembly machines: parts move
via horizontal delivery into vacant
nests on the dial, as they appear,
from the feed track; meanwhile
the circular motion of the dial
table means that the nests are
revolved away from the feed
track, permitting the next
component in the feed track to
move into the next vacant nest,
and so forth.

Vertical placement device Device used on dial-type

assembly machines: here, the
parts feeder is arranged vertically
above the dial table, so that
when the table turns, to reveal an
empty nest, the component can
fall by gravity from the feed track
into the empty nest. Successive
parts fall by gravity to take up
their position at the mouth of the
feed track in turn.

Escapement device This device is actuated by the top

of the carrier contacting the
lower surface of the rivet-shaped
part, causing its upper surface to
press against the spring blade,
which releases the part so that it
falls into the work carrier nest.
The work carriers are moved
horizontally to cause the release
of the part, and—after the first
part has escaped—the work
carrier and released part move
off, to be replaced by the next
work carrier, and so forth.

Pick-and-place mechanism (1) This mechanism uses a pick-and-

 place unit with a horizontal arm
that may be extended and
retracted as necessary, so that
parts may be removed from the
feed track, and placed into work
carriers.

Pick-and-place mechanism (2) This mechanism uses a pick-and-

place unit with a revolving arm,
so that parts may be removed
from the feed track, and placed
into work carriers.

4. Various escapement and placement devices used in

automated assembly systems
Escapement device
◦ Removes parts from feed track at time intervals that are consistent with the cycle time of
the assembly workhead
Placement device
◦ Physically places the parts in the correct location at the assembly workstation
Escapement and placement devices are sometimes the same device, sometimes different
devices
Escapement and Placement Devices

Horizontal placement device

Device used on dial-type assembly machines: parts move via horizontal delivery into vacant
nests on the dial, as they appear, from the feed track; meanwhile the circular motion of the dial
table means that the nests are revolved away from the feed track, permitting the next
component in the feed track to move into the next vacant nest, and so forth.

Vertical placement device

Device used on dial-type assembly machines: here, the parts feeder is arranged vertically above
the dial table, so that when the table turns, to reveal an empty nest, the component can fall by
gravity from the feed track into the empty nest. Successive parts fall by gravity to take up their
position at the mouth of the feed track in turn.

(a) Horizontal and (b) vertical devices for placement of parts onto dial indexing table

Escapement device
This device is actuated by the top of the carrier contacting the lower surface of the rivet-shaped
part, causing its upper surface to press against the spring blade, which releases the part so that
it falls into the work carrier nest. The work carriers are moved horizontally to cause the release
of the part, and—after the first part has escaped—the work carrier and released part move off,
to be replaced by the next work carrier, and so forth.

Escapement of rivet-shaped parts actuated by work carriers

Pick-and-place mechanism (1)

This mechanism uses a pick-and-place unit with a horizontal arm that may be extended and
retracted as necessary, so that parts may be removed from the feed track, and placed into work
carriers.

Pick-and-place mechanism (2)

This mechanism uses a pick-and-place unit with a revolving arm, so that parts may be removed
from the feed track, and placed into work carriers.

Two types of pick-and-place mechanisms for transferring base parts from feeders to work
carriers
5. Quantitative Analysis of Assembly Systems
Here we examine four cases of quantitative analysis in the sub-sections below:
1. Parts delivery system at workstations
2. Multi-station automated assembly systems
3. Single-station automated assembly systems
4. Partial automation

1. Parts delivery system at workstations

 We have reviewed how parts are delivered to workstations above. The rate at which parts
are removed from the hopper is f, and—once removed from the hopper—the parts are
presented to the selector or orientor. In the case of the selector, a certain proportion of the
parts will be rejected back into the hopper, while a certain proportion will pass the selector and
continue down the feed track. For the orientor, 100% of the parts will pass the device (as it only
re-orients parts, but doesn’t remove them). The selector and orientor devices are often
combined.
If we let Θ be the proportion of parts that pass the selector/orientor test, then the effective
rate of delivery is fΘ. The remaining proportion, returned to the hopper, is given by (1 - Θ). The
delivery rate (fΘ) must keep up with the cycle rate of the assembly machine.
If we let Rc be the cycle rate of the assembly machine, and we discover that fΘ is greater
than Rc, then we must limit the flow of components into the system, or it will become
overloaded. A sensor, called the high level sensor (HLS), is placed on the feed track at a certain
location to achieve this; it turns off the feeding mechanism when the feed track is full. The
location of the HLS defines the active length of the feed track ( Lf2). Assume the length of a
component in the feed track is Lc, then the number of parts held in the feed track ( nf2) is given
by:
L
nf 2 = f 2
LC
This value is the capacity of the feed track. A second sensor, called the low level sensor (LLS)
that is placed some distance from the HLS, is now added to the feed track to re-start the
feeding mechanism after it has been stopped. If the location of the LLS is defined as Lf1, then
the number of parts held in the feed track to the LLS (nf1) is given by:

Lf 1
nf 1 = LC
The rate at which parts in the feed track are reduced when the HLS turns off the feed track
is the same as Rc. On average, when the LLS is activated, the rate at which parts will increase in
the feed track is fΘ - Rc. However this value is not uniform, owing to the random operation of
the selector; thus, the value of nf1 must be large enough to eliminate the possibility of
stockouts.
In the operation of the parts delivery system at workstations, sensors are used to avoid the
problem of overloading the workstation with parts. Two sensors are used: the high level sensor,
for stopping the feeding mechanism when the feed track is at full capacity; and the low level
sensor which is used to switch the feeding mechanism back on after it has been turned-off, and
after the risk of workstation overloading has been avoided.

EXAMPLE 14.1
A feeder-selector device at one of the stations of an automated assembly machine has a feed
rate of 25 parts per minute and provides a throughput of one part in four. The ideal cycle time
of the assembly machine is 10 sec. The low level sensor on the feed track is set at 10 parts, and
the high level sensor is set at 20 parts.
(a) How long will it take for the supply of parts to be depleted from the high level sensor to the
low level sensor once the feeder-selector device is turned off?
(b) How long will it take for the parts to be resupplied from the low level sensor to the high
level sensor, on average, after the feeder-selector device is turned on?

(c) What proportion of the time that the assembly machine is operating will the feeder-selector
device be turned on? Turned off?
Solution:
(a) Time to deplete from nf2 to nf1
Rate of depletion = cycle rate Rc = 60/10 = 6 parts/min
Time to deplete = (20 - 10)/6 = 10/6 = 1.667 min
(b) Time to resupply from nf1 to nf2
Rate of resupply = fθ - Rc = 25(0.25) - 6 = 0.25 parts/min
Time to resupply = (20 - 10)/0.25 = 10/0.25 = 40 min
(c) Total cycle of depletion and resupply = 41.667 min
Proportion of time feeder-selector is on = 40/41.667 = 0.96
Proportion of time feeder-selector is off = 1.667/41.667 = 0.04

2. Multi-station automated assembly systems

Here we analyze the operation of an automated assembly system with several workstations
that use a synchronous transfer system. The following assumptions are made:
BULLETLIST
Assembly operations at the stations have constant element times, although the times are not
necessarily equal across all stations
Synchronous parts transfer is used
There is no internal storage

Defective parts occur in manufacturing with a certain fraction defect rate q, where (0 ≤ q ≤ 1.0).
In the operation of an assembly workstation, q is the probability that the component to be
added to the assembly during the current cycle is defective. A defective component might or
might not cause a workstation to jam; thus we let m be the probability that a defect causes the
workstation to jam, causing a consequential stoppage of the line. Since the values of q and m
may be different for different workstations in the system, we subscript these terms as qi and
mi, where i = 1, 2, 3, …, n, and where n is the number of workstations in the system.
There are three possible events that can occur when a defective part is fed into the workstation
system, with scenario 3 being the most desirable; these are:
NUMLIST
1. The defective component causes a station jam, expressed by the equation (where pi is the
probability of this event occurring):
pi = mi qi
2. The defective component does not cause a station jam, expressed by the equation:
pi = ¿ ¿

3. The component is not defective, expressed by the equation:.

pi = 1−qi

These three possible events sum to unity for any workstation:

m i qi + ¿ ¿ + (1−qi)
In the special case where mi is the same as m, and qi is the same as q, then this equation can be
simplified to:

mq + ( 1−m) q + ( 1−q ) = 1
The complete distribution of possible outcomes that can occur on an n-station assembly
machine, and given the special case where mi is the same as m, and qi is the same as q,, then:

[mq + ( 1−m ) q+ ( 1−q ) ] = 1

n

We must consider the assembly machine and the delivery of parts to its multiple stations as a
game of chance, where potentially defective components may or may not cause individual
workstations to jam.
Related performance metrics include the following.
The proportion of acceptable product coming off the line (Pap):

In the special case, where mi is the same as m, and qi is the same as q, then this equation can
be simplified to:
Pap = (1−q+mq)n
The proportion of assemblies containing at least one defective component (Pqp):

Pqp = 1−P ap
The frequency of downtime occurrences per cycle (F):

In the special case, where mi is the same as m, and qi is the same as q, then this equation can
be simplified to:
 F = nmq
The average actual production time per assembly (Tp) is:

where Td is the average downtime per occurrence. In the special case, where mi is the same as
m, and qi is the same as q, then this equation can be simplified to:
T p = T c + nmqT d
The average actual production time (Rp):
1
Rp =
Tp
But this equation has to be corrected for the existence of defective components that may be added
at different stations in the system; thus we determine the average actual production rate of
acceptable product (Rap):

In the special case, where mi is the same as m, and qi is the same as q, then this
equation can be simplified to:

Line efficiency (E):

Rp Tc
E = =
Rc Tp
The proportion downtime (D):
D = 1–E
The cost per assembled product (Cpc):
C m +C o T p +C t
C pc
P ap
where Cm is the cost of materials; Co is the operating cost of the assembly system; and Ct is the
cost of disposable tooling.
A variety of performance metrics can be assessed for multi-station assembly machines, where
—owing to the existence of defective components in the system—assembly is a game of
change; these include: the proportion of acceptable product coming off the line; the proportion
of assemblies containing at least one defective component; the frequency of downtime
occurrences per cycle; the average actual production time per assembly; the average actual
production time; the average actual production rate of acceptable product; line efficiency; the
proportion downtime; and the cost per assembled product.
EXAMPLE 14.2
An eight-station assembly machine has an ideal cycle time of 6 sec. The fraction defect rate at
each of the 8 stations is q = 0.015 and a defect always jams the affected station. When a
breakdown occurs, it takes 1 minute, on average, for the system to be put back into operation.
Determine the production rate for the assembly machine, the yield of good product (final
assemblies containing no defective components), and proportion uptime of the system.
Solution:
Tp = 0.1 + 8(1.0)(0.015)(1.0) = 0.22 min/asby.
Rp = 60/0.22 = 272.7 asbys/hr
If defects always jam the affected station, then m = 1.0
Pap = (1 - 0.015 + 1x0.015)8 = 1.0 = yield
E = 0.1/0.22 = 0.4545 = 45.45%

3. Single-Station Assembly Machines

The single-station assembly machine consists of one workstation where several components
are assembled onto a base unit. The assumptions in the following analysis include: a single
workhead, with several components feeding into the station to be assembled to the base part.
Let ne be the number of distinct assembly elements that are performed on the machine. Each
element has an element time Tej, where j = 1, 2, 3, …, ne. The ideal cycle time for the single-
station machine is the sum of individual element times of the assembly operations to be
performed on the machine, plus the handling time (Th) to load the base part into position and
unload the completed assembly. This can be expressed as:

Each component type has a certain fraction defect rate qj, and there is a certain probability that
a defective component will jam the workstation mj. When a jam occurs, the machine will stop,
and it will take an average time (Td) to clear the jam and restart the system. The inclusion of
downtime resulting from jams in the machine cycle time gives:

In the special case, where mi is the same as m, and qi is the same as q, then this equation can
be simplified to:
T p = T c + nmqT d
To determine the proportion of assemblies that contain no defective components, use the
equation specified for multi-station assembly machines; while uptime efficiency (E) is computed
as:
Tc
E =
Tp
In the single-station assembly machine only one workstation is used to assemble multiples of
components. We must, therefore, determine the ideal cycle time of the workstation by
summing the individual element times of the assembly operations to be performed on the
machine, plus adding in additional times as necessary.
EXAMPLE 14.3
A single station robotic assembly system performs a series of five assembly elements, each of
which adds a different component to a base part. Each element takes 4.5 sec. In addition, the
handling time needed to move the base part into and out of position is 4 sec. For identification,
the components, as well as the elements that assemble them, are numbered 1, 2, 3, 4, and 5.
The fraction defect rate is 0.005 for all components, and the probability of a jam by a defective
component is 0.7. Average downtime per occurrence = 2.5 min.
Determine (a) production rate, (b) yield of good product in the output, (c) uptime efficiency,
and (d) proportion of the output that contains a defective type 3 component.
Solution:
(a) T p = T c + nmqT d
Tc = 4 + 5(4.5) = 26.5 sec = 0.44167 min
Tp = 0.44167 + 5(0.7)(0.005)(2.5) = 0.48542 min
Rp = 1/0.48542 = 2.06 asbys/min = 123.6 asbys/hr
(b) Pap = (1 - 0.005 + 0.7(0.005))5 = (0.9985)5 = 0.9925
(c) E = 0.44167/0.48542 = 0.90986 = 91.0%
(d) Type 3 defect = 1 - (1 - 0.005 + 0.7(0.005)) = 0.005 - 0.7(0.005) = 0.3(0.005) = 0.0015

4. Partial automation
The cases for partial automation—that is, the combination of automated and manual
workstations—are two:
NUMLIST
1. Automation may be introduced gradually on an existing manual line.
2. Certain manual operations are too difficult or too costly to automate.
Partial automation may be favoured in cases where it is ideal to introduce automation gradually
on an existing manual line; or where full automation cannot be considered because certain
manual operations are too difficult or too costly to automate.
In our analysis here we make the following assumptions:
BULLETLIST
Workstations perform either processing or assembly operations.
Processing and assembly times at automated stations are constant, though not necessarily
equal at all stations.
The system uses synchronous transfer of parts between stations.
The system does not use internal buffer storage.
Station breakdowns occur only at automated stations.
The ideal cycle time (Tc) is determined by the slowest station on the line, which is usually a
manual station, in which case Tc may display a considerable degree of variability reflecting the
randomness of the human operator. Here we assume an average value for Tc over time.
Station breakdowns occur only at automated stations. Let na be the number of automated
stations in the system, and Td the average downtime per occurrence. For automated stations
performing processing operations, let pi be the probability (or frequency) of breakdowns per
cycle; whilst for automated stations that perform assembly operations, let qi and mi equal,
respectively, the defect rate and probability that the defect will cause station i to stop. Thus,
the average actual production time (Tp) is given by:

For those automated stations that perform assembly operations in which a part is added:
pi = m i qi
In the special case, where mi is the same as m, and qi is the same as q, then the above
equation can be simplified to:
T p = T c + na p T d
and p = mq for those stations that perform assembly consisting of the addition of a part.
Let nw be the number of stations in system operated by manual workers; therefore the total
number of workstations in the system (n) is:
n = na + nw
The total cost to operate the line (Co) is:

where Cat is the cost to operate the automatic transfer mechanism; Casi is the cost to operate
the automatic workstation i; and Cwi is the cost to operate manual workstation i. This can be
simplified to (assuming that all Casi = Cas and all Cwi = Cw):
C 0 = C at + n a C as + n w C w
The total cost per unit produced (Cpc) is:
Cm +C o T p +C t
C pc
P ap
For partial automation we must divide our analysis into a consideration of the times, costs and
benefits of automated workstations, and the times, costs and benefits of manual workstations,
before combining the two to achieve the final result.

EXAMPLE 14.4
A partially automated production line has a mixture of three mechanized and three manual
workstations. There are a total of six stations, and the ideal cycle time of 1.0 min, which
includes a transfer time of 6 sec. Data on the six stations are listed in the accompanying table.
Cost of the transfer mechanism Cat = $0.10/min, cost to run each automated station
Cas = $0.12/min, and labor cost to operate each manual station Cw = $0.17/min. It has been
proposed to substitute an automated station in place of station 5. The cost of this station is
estimated at Cas5 = $0.25/min and its breakdown rate p5 = 0.02, but its process time would be
only 30 sec, thus reducing the overall cycle time of the line from 1.0 min to 36 sec.
Average downtime per breakdown of the current line, as well as for the proposed
configuration, is 3.5 min.
Determine the following for the current line and the proposed line: (a) production rate, (b)
proportion uptime, and (c) cost per unit.
Assume the line operates without storage buffers, so when an automated station stops, the whole
line stops, including the manual stations. Also, in computing costs, neglect material and tooling
costs.

Solution:
For the current line,
(a) Tc = 1.0 min, F = 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.01 = 0.04
Tp = 1.0 + 0.04(3.5) = 1.0 + 0.14 = 1.14 min/unit, Rp = 1/1.14 = 0.877 units/min = 52.6 units/hr

(b) E = 1.0/1.14 = 0.877 = 87.7%

(c) Co = 0.10 + 3(0.12) + 3(0.17) = $0.97/min. Cpc = (0.97)(1.14) = $1.106/unit.
For the proposed line in which station 5 is automated,
(a) Tc = 36 sec = 0.6 min F = 0.01 + 0.02 + 0.01 + 0.02 = 0.06
Tp = 0.6 + 0.06(3.5) = 0.6 + 0.21 = 0.81 min/unit,
Rp = 1/0.81 = 1.235 units/min = 74.1 units/hr
(b) E = 0.6/0.81 = 0.7407 = 74.1%
(c) Co = 0.10 + 3(0.12) + 0.25 + 2(0.17) = $1.05/min Cpc = (1.05)(0.81) = $0.851/unit.

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What the Equations Tell Us

BULLETLIST
 The parts delivery system must deliver components at a net rate, otherwise the
assembly system performance is limited by the parts delivery system rather than the
assembly process technology
  The quality of components added in an automated assembly system has a
significant effect on system performance. Poor quality components can result in jams
at stations, or the assembly of defective components onto base units, which renders
the entire assembled product defective
 As the number of workstations increases in an automated assembly system, uptime
efficiency and production rate tend to decrease due to parts quality and station
reliability effects
 The cycle time of a multi-station assembly system is determined by the slowest
station in the system
 Compared with a multi-station assembly machine, a single-station assembly system
with the same number of assembly tasks has a lower production rate but a higher
uptime efficiency
 Multi-station assembly systems are appropriate for high production applications and
long production runs; single-station assembly systems have longer cycle times, and
are more suited to mid-range quantities of product
 Storage buffers should be used on partially automated production lines to isolate the
manual stations from breakdowns of the automated stations
 An automated station should be substituted for a manual station only if it reduces
cycle time sufficiently to offset any negative effectives of lower reliability

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Unit Review
BULLETLIST
 Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanized and automated devices to
perform the various assembly tasks in an assembly line or cell.
 Systems configurations for automated assembly systems include : in-line assembly;
dial-type assembly; carousel assembly; and single-station assembly.
 Parts delivery at workstations is dependent on the following hardware components:
the hopper; the parts feeder; selector and/or orientor devices; the feed track; and
escapement and placement devices.
 The hopper and parts feeder device are often combined as one entity.
 Selector and orientor devices are small simple devices built onto the feed track to
force the removal of unacceptable components, or the re-orientation of misaligned
ones.
 Escapement and placement devices include mechanisms with various designs to
suit the needs of the workstation in question; they include: horizontal and vertical
placement devices; work-carrier actuated escapement devices; and pick-and-place
mechanisms.
 Automated assembly systems are used in a wide variety of contexts to assemble
products that range from alarm clocks to electric motors.
 Typical assembly processes that are used in automated assembly must be easy-to-
automate operations, such as component insertion, spot welding, and snap fitting.
Difficult-to-automate operations include processes that rely on threaded fasteners.
 In the operation of the parts delivery system at workstations, sensors are used to
avoid the problem of overloading the workstation with parts. Two sensors are used:
the high level sensor, for stopping the feeding mechanism when the feed track is at
full capacity; and the low level sensor which is used to switch the feeding mechanism
 back on after it has been turned-off, and after the risk of workstation overloading has
been avoided.
 We must consider the assembly machine and the delivery of parts to its multiple
stations as a game of chance, where potentially defective components may or may
not cause individual workstations to jam.
 A variety of performance metrics can be assessed for multi-station assembly
machines, where—owing to the existence of defective components in the system—
assembly is a game of change; these include: the proportion of acceptable product
coming off the line;
 the proportion of assemblies containing at least one defective component;
 the frequency of downtime occurrences per cycle;
 the average actual production time per assembly;
 the average actual production time;
 the average actual production rate of acceptable product;
 line efficiency; the proportion downtime; and
 the cost per assembled product
.
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Self-Assessment Questions
1. What are automated assembly systems? What system configurations can automated
assembly systems take?
2. List the hardware components used for parts delivery at workstations.
3. What would generally be seen as typical automated assembly processes?
4. How do the high level sensor and the low level sensor in parts delivery at
workstations function?
5. Why is automated assembly sometimes considered a “game of chance”?
6. List performance metrics associated with multi-station assembly machines.
7. For what reasons would partial automation be used?
Answers to Self-Assessment Questions
1. Automated assembly refers to the use of mechanized and automated devices to
perform the various assembly tasks in an assembly line or cell. System
configurations for automated assembly systems include: in-line assembly; dial-type
assembly; carousel assembly; and single-station assembly.
2. Parts delivery at workstations is dependent on the following hardware components:
the hopper; the parts feeder; selector and/or orientor devices; the feed track; and
escapement and placement devices.
3. Typical assembly processes that are used in automated assembly must be easy-to-
automate operations, such as component insertion, spot welding, and snap fitting.
Difficult-to-automate operations include processes that rely on threaded fasteners;
these are not seen as typical automated assembly processes.
4. In the operation of the parts delivery system at workstations, sensors are used to
avoid the problem of overloading the workstation with parts. Two sensors are used:
the high level sensor, for stopping the feeding mechanism when the feed track is at
full capacity; and the low level sensor which is used to switch the feeding mechanism
back on after it has been turned-off, and after the risk of workstation overloading has
been avoided.
 5. Owing to the possibility of potentially defective components, delivered to individual
workstations, which may or may not cause individual workstations to jam, the
assembly machine and the delivery of parts to its multiple stations is sometimes
considered a game of chance.
6. Performance metrics for multi-station assembly machines include: the proportion of
acceptable product coming off the line; the proportion of assemblies containing at
least one defective component; the frequency of downtime occurrences per cycle;
the average actual production time per assembly; the average actual production
time; the average actual production rate of acceptable product; line efficiency; the
proportion downtime; and the cost per assembled product.
7. Partial automation may be favoured in cases where it is ideal to introduce
automation gradually on an existing manual line; or where full automation cannot be
considered because certain manual operations are too difficult or too costly to
automate.
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 The parts delivery system at each station must deliver components to the assembly
operation at a net rate that is greater than or equal to the cycle rate of the assembly
workhead
 Otherwise, assembly system performance is limited by the parts delivery system
rather than the assembly process technology

 assembly system performance is limited by the parts delivery system rather than the
assembly process technology
 Component quality has an important effect on system performance - poor quality
means
 Jams at stations that stop the entire assembly system
 Assembly of defective components in the product

 As the number of stations increases, uptime efficiency and production rate are
adversely affected due to parts quality and station reliability effects.
 The cycle time of a multi-station assembly system is determined by its slowest station.
 By comparison with a multi-station assembly system, a single-station assembly cell with
the same number of assembly tasks has a lower production rate but a higher uptime
efficiency.
 Multi-station assembly systems are appropriate for high production applications and
long production runs.
 By comparison, single-station assembly cells have a longer cycle time and are more
appropriate for mid-range quantities.
 Storage buffers should be used on partially automated production lines to isolate the
manual stations from breakdowns at the automated stations.
 An automated station should be substituted for a manual station only if it has the effect
of reducing cycle time sufficiently to offset negative effects of lower reliability.
6. Multi Station Assembly Machines / Systems
Multi-station assembly machine or line
 Faster cycle rate
 High production quantities
 More operations possible
 More components per assembly

In this section, we analyze the operation and performance of automated assembly

machines that have several workstations and use a synchronous transfer system. The types
include the dial indexing machine, many in-Iine assembly systems, and certain carousel
systems.
Assumptions underlying the analysis are similar to those in our analysis of transfer lines:
Assembly operations at the stations have: (1) constant element times, although the times are
not necessarily equal at all stations; (2) synchronous parts transfer-and (3)no internal storage.
The analysis of an automated assembly machine with multiple stations shares much
in common with the upper-bound approach used for metal machining transfer lines from
Section 183.Some modifications in the analysis must be made 10 account lor the fact that
components are being added at the various workstations in the assembly system. The general
operation of the assembly system is pictured in Figure J9.1(a)-(c).ln developing the
equations that govern the operation of the system. we will follow the general approach
suggested by Boothroyd and Redford [2].
We assume that the typical operation at a workstation of an assembly machine consists
of a component being added and/or joined in some fashion to an existing assembly. The
existing assembly consists of a base part plus the components assembled to it at previous
stations. The base part is launched onto the line either at or before the first workstation. The
components that are added must be clean, uniform in size and shape, of high quality, and
consistently oriented. When the feed mechanism and assembly workhead attempt to join a
component that does not satisfy this technical description, the station can jam. When a jam
occurs, it results in the shutdown of the entire system until the fault is corrected.
Thus, in addition to the other mechanical and electrical failures that interrupt the
operation of a production line, the problem of defective components is one that specifically
plagues the operation of an automatic assembly system. This is the problem we propose to
deal with in this Section.
The Assembly Machine as a Game of Chance. Defective parts occur in manufacturing with a
certain fraction defect rate, q(0 ≤ q ≤ 1.0). In the operation of an assembly workstation, q can
be considered to be the probability that the component to be added during the current cycle is
defective. When an attempt is made to feed and assemble a defective component. the defect
might or might not cause the station to jam. Let m = probability that a defect results in a jam at
the station and consequent stoppage of the line. Since the values of q and m may be different
for different stations, we subscript these terms as qi, and mi where i = 1,2, ... ,n,the number of
workstations on the assembly machine.
Consider what happens at a particular workstation, say station i, where there are three possible
events that might occur when the feed mechanism attempts to feed the next component, and
the assembly device attempts to join it to the existing assembly at the station.
The three events and their associated probabilities are:
1. The component is defective and causes a station jam. The probability of this event is the
fraction defect rate of the parts at the station (q ) multiplied by the probability that a defect will
cause the station to jam (m). This product is the same term p, in our previous analysis of
transfer machines. For an assembly machine, pi = mi qi . When the station jams, the
component must then be cleared and the next component be allowed to feed and be
assembled. We assume that if the next component in the feed track were defective, the
operator who cleared the previous jam would notice and remove this next defect as well.
Anyway, the probability of two consecutive defects is very small, equal to qi2 .
2. The component is defective but does not cause a station jam. This has a probability
(1 - mi)qi . With this outcome, a bad part is joined to the existing assembly, perhaps rendering
the entire assembly defective.
3. The component is not defective. This is the most desirable outcome and the most likely by
far (hopefully). The probability that a part added at the station is not defective is equal to the
proportion of good parts (1 - qi).

7. Single station assembly lines.

Single-station assembly cell
 Suited to robotic assembly
 Intended for lower production quantities