Department of

Computer Science and Engineering

UNIT 2

School of Computing
Vel Tech Rangarajan Dr. Sagunthala R&D Institute of
Science and Technology
 Transformation is a process of modifying and re-positioning the existing graphics.
Transformation means changing some graphics into something else by applying
rules. We can have various types of transformations such as translation, scaling up
or down, rotation, shearing, etc. When a transformation takes place on a 2D plane,
it is called 2D transformation.

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 Transformation Techniques-

In computer graphics, various transformation techniques are-

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 2D Translation in Computer Graphics-
2D Translation is a process of moving an object from one position
to another in a two dimensional plane.
Consider a point object O has to be moved from one position to
another in a 2D plane.
Let-
•Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)
•New coordinates of the object O after translation = (Xnew, Ynew)
•Translation vector or Shift vector = (T x, Ty)

Given a Translation vector (Tx, Ty)-

•Tx defines the distance the Xold coordinate has to be moved.
•Ty defines the distance the Yold coordinate has to be moved.

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 This translation is achieved by adding the translation coordinates to
the old coordinates of the object as-
•Xnew = Xold + Tx (This denotes translation towards X axis)
•Ynew = Yold + Ty (This denotes translation towards Y axis)

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 In Matrix form, the above translation equations may be represented as-

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 •The homogeneous coordinates representation of (X, Y) is (X, Y, 1).
•Through this representation, all the transformations can be performed using matrix / vector multiplications.

The above translation matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-

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 Given a circle C with radius 10 and center coordinates (1, 4). Apply the translation with distance 5
towards X axis and 1 towards Y axis. Obtain the new coordinates of C without changing its radius.

Solution-

Given-
Old center coordinates of C = (Xold, Yold) = (1, 4)
Translation vector = (T x, Ty) = (5, 1)

Let the new center coordinates of C = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

Xnew = Xold + Tx = 1 + 5 = 6
Ynew = Yold + Ty = 4 + 1 = 5

Thus, New center coordinates of C = (6, 5).

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 Alternatively,

In matrix form, the new center coordinates of C after

translation may be obtained as-

Thus, New center coordinates of C =

28-09-2021(6, 5). Department of Computer Science and Engineering 9

28-09-2021 Department of Computer Science and Engineering 10
 Given a square with coordinate points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0).
Apply the translation with distance 1 towards X axis and 1 towards Y
axis. Obtain the new coordinates of the square.

Solution-

Given-
•Old coordinates of the square = A (0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0)
•Translation vector = (Tx, Ty) = (1, 1)

For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4

Thus, New coordinates of corner A = (1, 4).

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 For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 3 + 1 = 4

Thus, New coordinates of corner B = (4, 4).

For Coordinates C(3, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 3 + 1 = 4
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1

Thus, New coordinates of corner C = (4, 1).

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For Coordinates D(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner D = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the translation equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Tx = 0 + 1 = 1
•Ynew = Yold + Ty = 0 + 1 = 1

Thus, New coordinates of corner D = (1, 1).

Thus, New coordinates of the square = A (1, 4), B(4, 4), C(4, 1), D(1, 1).

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 2D Rotation in Computer Graphics-
2D Rotation is a process of rotating an object with respect to an angle in a two
dimensional plane.

Consider a point object O has to be rotated from one angle to another in a 2D

plane.

Let-
•Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)
•Initial angle of the object O with respect to origin = Φ
•Rotation angle = θ
•New coordinates of the object O after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew)

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 This rotation is achieved by using the following rotation
equations-
•Xnew = Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
•Ynew = Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ

In Matrix form, the above rotation equations may be

represented as-

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 • For homogeneous coordinates, the above
rotation matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3
matrix as-
•

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 Given a line segment with starting point as (0, 0) and ending point as (4, 4). Apply 30 degree rotation
anticlockwise direction on the line segment and find out the new coordinates of the line.

Solution-

We rotate a straight line by its end points

with the same angle. Then, we re-draw a
line between the new end points.

Given-
•Old ending coordinates of the line = (Xold,
Yold) = (4, 4)
•Rotation angle = θ = 30º

Let new ending coordinates of the line after

rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).

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 Applying the rotation equations, we have-
Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 4 x cos30º – 4 x sin30º
= 4 x (√3 / 2) – 4 x (1 / 2)
= 2√3 – 2
= 2(√3 – 1)
= 2(1.73 – 1)
= 1.46

Ynew
= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 4 x sin30º + 4 x cos30º
= 4 x (1 / 2) + 4 x (√3 / 2)
= 2 + 2√3
= 2(1 + √3)
= 2(1 + 1.73)
= 5.46

Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation =

28-09-2021 (1.46, 5.46). Department of Computer Science and Engineering 18
 Alternatively,

In matrix form, the new ending coordinates of the line after rotation may be obtained as-

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 Thus, New ending coordinates of the line after rotation = (1.46, 5.46).

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 Given a triangle with corner coordinates (0, 0), (1, 0) and
(1, 1). Rotate the triangle by 90 degree anticlockwise
direction and find out the new coordinates.

Solution-

We rotate a polygon by rotating each vertex of it with the

same rotation angle.

Given-
•Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (0, 0), B(1, 0),
C(1, 1)
•Rotation angle = θ = 90º

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 For Coordinates A(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner A

after rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the rotation equations, we

have-

Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 0 x cos90º – 0 x sin90º
=0

Ynew
= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 0 x sin90º + 0 x cos90º
=0

Thus, New coordinates of corner A

after rotation = (0, 0).
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 For Coordinates B(1, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after rotation

= (Xnew, Ynew).

Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 1 x cos90º – 0 x sin90º
=0

Ynew
= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 1 x sin90º + 0 x cos90º
=1+0
=1

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after rotation

= (0, 1).

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 For Coordinates C(1, 1)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after

rotation = (Xnew, Ynew).

Xnew
= Xold x cosθ – Yold x sinθ
= 1 x cos90º – 1 x sin90º
=0–1
= -1

Ynew
= Xold x sinθ + Yold x cosθ
= 1 x sin90º + 1 x cos90º
=1+0
=1

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after

rotation = (-1, 1).

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 Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after rotation = A (0, 0), B(0, 1), C(-1, 1).

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 2D Scaling in Computer Graphics-

In computer graphics, scaling is a process of modifying or altering the

size of objects.

•Scaling may be used to increase or reduce the size of object.

•Scaling subjects the coordinate points of the original object to change.
•Scaling factor determines whether the object size is to be increased or
reduced.
•If scaling factor > 1, then the object size is increased.
•If scaling factor < 1, then the object size is reduced.

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 Let-
•Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)
•Scaling factor for X-axis = Sx
•Scaling factor for Y-axis = Sy
•New coordinates of the object O after scaling = (Xnew,
Ynew)

This scaling is achieved by using the following scaling

equations-
•Xnew = Xold x Sx
•Ynew = Yold x Sy

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 In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented
as-

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 In Matrix form, the above scaling equations may be represented as-

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 Given a square object with coordinate
points A(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0).
Apply the scaling parameter 2 towards X
axis and 3 towards Y axis and obtain the
new coordinates of the object.

Solution-

Given-
•Old corner coordinates of the square = A
(0, 3), B(3, 3), C(3, 0), D(0, 0)
•Scaling factor along X axis = 2
•Scaling factor along Y axis = 3

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 For Coordinates A(0, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after scaling =

(Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9

Thus, New coordinates of corner A after scaling = (0, 9).

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 For Coordinates B(3, 3)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after scaling = (Xnew,

Ynew).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 3 x 3 = 9

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after scaling = (6, 9).

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 For Coordinates C(3, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after

scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 3 x 2 = 6
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after

scaling = (6, 0).

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 For Coordinates D(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner D after

scaling = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the scaling equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold x Sx = 0 x 2 = 0
•Ynew = Yold x Sy = 0 x 3 = 0

Thus, New coordinates of corner D after

scaling = (0, 0).

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 Thus, New coordinates of the square after scaling = A (0, 9), B(6, 9), C(6, 0), D(0, 0).

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 2D Reflection in Computer Graphics-

•Reflection is a kind of rotation where the

angle of rotation is 180 degree.
•The reflected object is always formed on
the other side of mirror.
•The size of reflected object is same as the
size of original object.

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 Consider a point object O has to be
reflected in a 2D plane.

Let-
•Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold,
Yold)
•New coordinates of the reflected object O
after reflection = (Xnew, Ynew)

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 • Reflection On X-Axis:
•
• This reflection is achieved by using the following
reflection equations-
• Xnew = Xold
In Matrix form, the above reflection equations may be represented as-

• Ynew = -Yold

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 For homogeneous coordinates, the above reflection matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-

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 Reflection On Y-Axis:

This reflection is achieved by using the following reflection equations-

•Xnew = -Xold
•Ynew = Yold

In Matrix form, the above reflection equations may be represented as-

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 For homogeneous coordinates, the above reflection matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-

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 Problem-01:

Given a triangle with coordinate points A(3,

4), B(6, 4), C(5, 6). Apply the reflection on
the X axis and obtain the new coordinates
of the object.

Solution-

Given-
•Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A
(3, 4), B(6, 4), C(5, 6)
•Reflection has to be taken on the X axis

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 For Coordinates A(3, 4)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after reflection = (Xnew,

Ynew).

Applying the reflection equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold = 3
•Ynew = -Yold = -4

Thus, New coordinates of corner A after reflection = (3, -4).

For Coordinates B(6, 4)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after reflection = (Xnew,

Ynew).

Applying the reflection equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold = 6
•Ynew = -Yold = -4

28-09-2021 Department of of
Thus, New coordinates Computer
cornerScience
B afterand Engineering
reflection = (6, -4). 43
 • For Coordinates C(5, 6)
•
• Let the new coordinates of corner C after reflection = (Xnew,
Ynew).
•
• Applying the reflection equations, we have-
• Xnew = Xold = 5
• Ynew = -Yold = -6
•
• Thus, New coordinates of corner C after reflection = (5, -6).
•
• Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after reflection = A (3, -
4), B(6, -4), C(5, -6).
•

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28-09-2021 Department of Computer Science and Engineering 45
 In Computer graphics,
2D Shearing is an ideal technique to change the shape of
an
In a two existing
dimensional object
plane, insize
the object a can
twobe dimensional plane.
changed along X direction as well as Y direction.
So, there are two versions of shearing-

1.Shearing in X direction
2.Shearing in Y direction

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 Consider a point object O has to be sheared in a 2D plane.

Let-
•Initial coordinates of the object O = (Xold, Yold)
•Shearing parameter towards X direction = Shx
•Shearing parameter towards Y direction = Sh y
•New coordinates of the object O after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew)
Shearing in X Axis-

Shearing in X axis is achieved by using the following shearing

equations-
•Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold
•Ynew = Yold

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 In Matrix form, the above shearing
equations may be represented as-

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 For homogeneous coordinates, the above shearing matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-

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 Shearing in Y Axis-

Shearing in Y axis is achieved by using the following shearing equations-

•Xnew = Xold
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold

In Matrix form, the above shearing equations may be represented as-

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 For homogeneous coordinates, the above shearing matrix may be represented as a 3 x 3 matrix as-

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 Given a triangle with points (1, 1), (0, 0) and (1, 0). Apply shear parameter 2 on
X axis and 2 on Y axis and find out the new coordinates of the object.
Solution-

Given-
•Old corner coordinates of the triangle = A (1, 1), B(0, 0), C(1, 0)
•Shearing parameter towards X direction (Shx) = 2
•Shearing parameter towards Y direction (Shy) = 2

Shearing in X Axis-

For Coordinates A(1, 1)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the shearing equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3
•Ynew = Yold = 1

Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (3, 1).

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 For Coordinates B(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the shearing equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0
•Ynew = Yold = 0

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (0, 0).

For Coordinates C(1, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the shearing equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold + Shx x Yold = 1 + 2 x 0 = 1
•Ynew = Yold = 0

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 0).

Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in X axis = A (3, 1), B(0, 0), C(1,
0). Department of Computer Science and Engineering
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 Shearing in Y Axis-

For Coordinates A(1, 1)

Let the new coordinates of corner A after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the shearing equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold = 1
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 1 + 2 x 1 = 3

Thus, New coordinates of corner A after shearing = (1, 3).

For Coordinates B(0, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner B after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the shearing equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold = 0
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 0 + 2 x 0 = 0

Thus, New coordinates of corner B after shearing = (0, 0).

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 For Coordinates C(1, 0)

Let the new coordinates of corner C after shearing = (Xnew, Ynew).

Applying the shearing equations, we have-

•Xnew = Xold = 1
•Ynew = Yold + Shy x Xold = 0 + 2 x 1 = 2

Thus, New coordinates of corner C after shearing = (1, 2).

Thus, New coordinates of the triangle after shearing in Y axis = A (1, 3), B(0, 0), C(1, 2).

Shear along yaxis

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Shear alongDepartment of Computer Science and Engineering 55
xaxis
 Window to Viewport Transformation in
Computer Graphics with
Implementation
Window to Viewport Transformation is the process of
transforming 2D world-coordinate objects to device
coordinates. Objects inside the world or clipping window are
mapped to the viewport which is the area on the screen where
world coordinates are mapped to be displayed.

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 General Terms:
•World coordinate – It is the Cartesian coordinate w.r.t which we
define the diagram, like Xwmin, Xwmax, Ywmin, Ywmax
•Device Coordinate –It is the screen coordinate where the objects
are to be displayed, like Xvmin, Xvmax, Yvmin, Yvmax
•Window –It is the area on world coordinate selected for display.
•ViewPort –It is the area on the device coordinate where graphics
is to be displayed.

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Mathematical Calculation of Window to Viewport:
It may be possible that the size of the Viewport is much smaller or greater than the Window. In
these cases, we have to increase or decrease the size of the Window according to the Viewport
and for this, we need some mathematical calculations.
(xw, yw): A point on Window (xv, yv): Corresponding point on Viewport
•we have to calculate the point (xv, yv)

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 •Now the relative position of the object in
Window and Viewport are same.

For xcoordinate

For y coordinate,

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 •so, after calculating for x and y coordinate, we get

where sx is the scaling factor of x

coordinate and sy is the scaling factor of y
coordinate

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 Example:
Lets assume,
•for window, Xwmin = 20, Xwmax = 80, Ywmin = 40, Ywmax = 80.
•for viewport, Xvmin = 30, Xvmax = 60, Yvmin = 40, Yvmax = 60.
•Now a point ( Xw, Yw ) be ( 30, 80 ) on the window. We have to calculate that point on the viewport
i.e ( Xv, Yv ).
•First of all, calculate the scaling factor of x coordinate Sx and the scaling factor of y coordinate Sy using the above-mentioned formula.
Sx = ( 60 - 30 ) / ( 80 - 20 ) = 30 / 60 Sy = ( 60 - 40 ) / ( 80 - 40 ) = 20 / 40
•So, now calculate the point on the viewport ( Xv, Yv ).
Xv = 30 + ( 30 - 20 ) * ( 30 / 60 ) = 35 Yv = 40 + ( 80 - 40 ) * ( 20 / 40 ) = 60
•So, the point on window ( Xw, Yw ) = ( 30, 80 ) will be ( Xv, Yv ) = ( 35, 60 ) on viewport.

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 Clipping:
When we have to display a large portion of the picture, then not only
scaling & translation is necessary, the visible part of picture is also
identified. This process is not easy. Certain parts of the image are
inside, while others are partially inside. The lines or elements which are
partially visible will be omitted.
For deciding the visible and invisible portion, a particular process called
clipping is used. Clipping determines each element into the visible and
invisible portion. Visible portion is selected. An invisible portion is
discarded.

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 Types of Lines:
Lines are of three types:
1.Visible: A line or lines entirely inside the window is considered
visible
2.Invisible: A line entirely outside the window is considered
invisible
3.Clipped: A line partially inside the window and partially outside
is clipped. For clipping point of intersection of a line with the
window is determined.

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The window against which object is clipped called a clip window. It can be curved or rectangle in shape.

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 Applications of clipping:
1.It will extract part we desire.
2.For identifying the visible and invisible
area in the 3D object.
3.For creating objects using solid
modeling.
4.For drawing operations.
5.Operations related to the pointing of an
object.
6.For deleting, copying, moving part of an
object.
Clipping can be applied to world co-
ordinates. The contents inside the window
will be mapped to device co-ordinates.
Another alternative is a complete world co-
ordinates picture is assigned to device co-
ordinates, and then clipping of viewport
boundaries is done.

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 Types of Clipping:
1.Point Clipping
2.Line Clipping
3.Area Clipping (Polygon)
4.Curve Clipping
5.Text Clipping
6.Exterior Clipping

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 Point Clipping:
Point Clipping is used to determining, whether the point
is inside the window or not. For this following conditions
are checked.
1.x ≤ xmax
2.x ≥ xmin
3.y ≤ ymax
4.y ≥ ymin

The (x, y) is coordinate of the point. If anyone from the above

inequalities is false, then the point will fall outside the window
and will not be considered to be visible.

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Line Clipping:
It is performed by using the line clipping
algorithm. The line clipping algorithms are:
1.Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping
Algorithm
2.Midpoint Subdivision Line Clipping
Algorithm
3.Liang-Barsky Line Clipping Algorithm

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Cohen Sutherland Line Clipping Algorithm:
In the algorithm, first of all, it is detected whether line lies inside the screen or it i
outside the screen. All lines come under any one of the following categories:
1.Visible
2.Not Visible
3.Clipping Case
1. Visible: If a line lies within the window, i.e., both endpoints of the line lies within the
window. A line is visible and will be displayed as it is.
2. Not Visible: If a line lies outside the window it will be invisible and rejected. Such
lines will not display
3. Clipping Case: If the line is neither visible case nor invisible case. It is considered
to be clipped case. First of all, the category of a line is found based on nine regions
given below. All nine regions are assigned codes. Each code is of 4 bits. If both
endpoints of the line have end bits zero, then the line is considered to be visible.

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The algorithm will work in the following steps:
•In this algorithm, we will divide the view pane into nine equal segments (as shown in the below figure)
that only serve the viewport.
•Now, we will represent the top, bottom, left, and right corner of the window with 4 bits. This 4bit can be
described with the following point that:
•If an object lies within any particular corner position, that corner value will be 1, else it will be 0.
•The allocation of bits depends on “TBRL” (Top, Bottom, Right, Left) rule.
•Suppose, if the point of a line appears in the top-left corner, then according to TBRL, the value is 1001.
We will allot the bits as-or the top corner, because the object is present at the top corner.
•For the bottom corner, because the object does not lie at the bottom.
•For the right corner, because the object does not lie at the right side.
•For the left corner, because the object lies at the top-left corner.
•In this way, we check TBRL for each segment and allot the bits accordingly.

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 Thank You

Department of Computer Science and Engineering