CHAPTER TWO
BLOCK DIAGRAMS & SIGNAL
FLOW GRAPHS
MEng 5772 – Regulation and Control Engineering
Block Diagrams
3
In the introductory section we saw examples of block diagrams
to represent systems, e.g.:
Block diagrams consist of
🞑 Blocks – these represent subsystems – typically modeled by, and labeled
with, a transfer function
🞑 Signals – inputs and outputs of blocks – signal direction indicated by
arrows – could be voltage, velocity, force, etc.
🞑 Summing junctions – points were signals are algebraically summed –
subtraction indicated by a negative sign near where the signal joins the
summing junction
Standard Block Diagram Forms
4
The basic input/output relationship for a single block is:
Y s = U s ⋅G s
Block diagram blocks can be connected in three basic forms:
🞑 Cascade
🞑 Parallel
🞑 Feedback
We’ll next look at each of these forms and derive a single‐
block equivalent for each
Cascade Form
5
Blocks connected in cascade:
X1 s = U s ⋅ G1 s ,X2 s = X1 s
⋅ G2 s Y s = X 2 s ⋅ G3 s = X 1 s
⋅ G2 s ⋅ G3 s
Y s = U s ⋅ G1 s ⋅ G2 s ⋅ G3 s = U s ⋅ Geq s
Geq s = G1 s ⋅ G2 s ⋅ G3 s
The equivalent transfer function of cascaded blocks is the
product of the individual transfer functions
Parallel Form
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Blocks connected in parallel:
X1 s = U s ⋅ G1 s
X 2 s = U s ⋅ G2 s
X 3 s = U s ⋅ G3 s
Y s = X1 s ± X 2 s ± X 3 s
Y s = U s ⋅ G1 s ± U s ⋅ G2 s ± U s ⋅ G3 s
Y s = U s G1 s ± G2 s ± G3 s = U s ⋅ Geq s
Geq s = G1 s ± G2 s ± G3 s
The equivalent transfer function is the sum of the individual
transfer functions:
Feedback Form
7
Of obvious interest to us, is the feedback form:
Y s = E s G s
Y s = R s —X s G s
Y s = R s —Y s H s G s
Y s 1+G s H s = R s G s
G s
Y s = R s ⋅
1+G s H s
The closed‐loop transfer function, T s , is
Y s G s
T s = =
R s 1+G s H s
Feedback Form
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G s
T s =
1+ G s H s
Note that this is negative feedback, for positive feedback:
G s
T s =
1—G s H s
The G s H s factor in the denominator is the loop gain or open‐loop
transfer function
The gain from input to output with the feedback path broken is the
forward path gain – here, G s
In general:
forward path gain
T s =
1 — loop gain
Closed‐Loop Transfer Function ‐ Example
9
Calculate the closed‐loop transfer function
D s and G s are in cascade
H1 s is in cascade with the feedback system consisting of D s ,
G s , and H2 s
D s G s
T s = H s ⋅
1
1 + D s G s H2 s
H1 s D s G s
T s =
1 + D s G s H2 s
Unity‐Feedback Systems
10
We’re often interested in unity‐feedback systems
Feedback path gain is unity
🞑 Can always reconfigure a system to unity‐feedback form
Closed‐loop transfer function is:
D s G s
T s =
1+ D s G s
Block Diagram Algebra
11
Often want to simplify block diagrams into simpler,
recognizable forms
🞑 To determine the equivalent transfer function
Simplify to instances of the three standard forms,
then simplify those forms
Move blocks around relative to summing junctions
and pickoff points – simplify to a standard form
🞑 Move blocks forward/backward past summing junctions
🞑 Move blocks forward/backward past pickoff points
Moving Blocks Back Past a Summing Junction
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The following two block diagrams are equivalent:
Y s = U1 s + U2 s G s = U1 s G s + U2 s G s
Moving Blocks Forward Past a Summing Junction
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The following two block diagrams are equivalent:
1
Y s = U s G s + U s = U s + U s G s
1 2 1 2
G s
Moving Blocks Relative to Pickoff Points
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We can move blocks backward past pickoff points:
And, we can move them forward past pickoff points:
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 1
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Rearrange the following into a unity‐feedback system
Move the feedback block, H s , forward,
past the summing junction
Add an inverse block on R s to
compensate for the move
Closed‐loop transfer function:
1 H s G s
H s G s
T s = =
1+G s H s 1+G s H s
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
16
Find the closed‐loop transfer function of the following
system through block‐diagram simplification
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
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G1 s and H1 s are in feedback form
G1 s
G s =
eq
1 —G1 s H1 s
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
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Move G2 s backward past the pickoff point
Block from previous step, G2 s , and H2 s become a
feedback system that can be simplified
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
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Simplify the feedback subsystem
Note that we’ve dropped the function of s notation, s , for clarity
G1G2
1— G1H1 G1G2
Geq s = =
G G H
1+ 1 2 2 1— G1H1 + G1G2H2
1— G1H1
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
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Simplify the two parallel subsystems
G4
G s = G +
eq 3
G2
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
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Now left with two cascaded subsystems
🞑 Transfer functions multiply
G1G2G3 + G1G4
Geq s =
1 — G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2
Block Diagram Simplification – Example 2
22
The equivalent, close‐loop transfer function is
G1G2G3 + G1G4
T s =
1 — G1 H1 + G1 G2 H2
23 Multiple‐Input Systems
Multiple Input Systems
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Systems often have more than one input
🞑 E.g., reference, R s , and disturbance, W s
Two transfer functions:
🞑 From reference to output
T s = Y s ⁄R s
🞑 From disturbance to output
Tw s = Y s /W s
Transfer Function – Reference
25
Find transfer function from to
🞑 A linear system – superposition applies
🞑 Set
Transfer Function – Reference
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Next, find transfer function from to
🞑 Set
🞑 System now becomes:
w
w
Multiple Input Systems
27
Two inputs, two transfer functions
D s G s Gw s G s
T s = and Tw s =
1+D s G s 1+D s G s
is the controller transfer function
🞑 Ultimately, we’ll determine this
🞑 We have control over both and w
What do we want these to be?
🞑 Design for desired performance
🞑 Design w for disturbance rejection
28 Signal Flow Graphs
Signal Flow Graphs
29
An alternative to block diagrams for graphically describing systems
Signal flow graphs consist of:
🞑 Nodes –represent signals
🞑 Branches –represent system blocks
Branches labeled with system transfer functions
Nodes (sometimes) labeled with signal names
Arrows indicate signal flow direction
Implicit summation at nodes
🞑 Always a positive sum
🞑 Negative signs associated with branch transfer functions
Block Diagram Signal Flow Graph
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To convert from a block diagram to a signal flow
graph:
1. Identify and label all signals on the block diagram
2. Place a node for each signal
3. Connect nodes with branches in place of the blocks
Maintain correct direction
Label branches with corresponding transfer functions
Negate transfer functions as necessary to provide negative
feedback
4. If desired, simplify where possible
Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
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Connect nodes with branches, each representing a system block
Note the ‐1 to provide negative feedback of X1 s
Signal Flow Graph – Example 1
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Nodes with a single input and single output can be
eliminated, if desired
🞑 This makes sense for X1 s and X2 s
🞑 Leave U s to indicate separation between controller and plant
Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
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Revisit the block diagram from earlier
🞑 Convert to a signal flow graph
Label all signals, then place a node for each
Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
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Connect nodes with branches
Signal Flow Graph – Example 2
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Simplify – eliminate X5 s , X6 s , and X7 s
Signal Flow Graphs vs. Block Diagrams
37
Signal flow graphs and block diagrams are
alternative, though equivalent, tools for graphical
representation of interconnected systems
A generalization (not a rule)
🞑 Signal flow graphs – more often used when dealing
with state‐space system models
🞑 Block diagrams – more often used when dealing with
transfer function system models
38 Mason’s Rule
Mason’s Rule
39
We’ve seen how to reduce a complicated block
diagram to a single input‐to‐output transfer
function
🞑 Many successive simplifications
Mason’s rule provides a formula to calculate the
same overall transfer function
🞑 Single application of the formula
🞑 Can get complicated
Before presenting the Mason’s rule formula, we
need to define some terminology
Loop Gain
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Loop gain – total gain (product of individual gains) around
any path in the signal flow graph
🞑 Beginning and ending at the same node
🞑 Not passing through any node more than once
Here, there are three loops with the following gains:
1. —G1H3
2. G2H1
3. —G2G3H2
Forward Path Gain
41
Forward path gain – gain along any path from the input
to the output
🞑 Not passing through any node more than once
Here, there are two forward paths with the following
gains:
1. G1G2G3G4
2. G 1G 2G 5
Non‐Touching Loops
42
Non‐touching loops – loops that do not have any
nodes in common
Here,
1. 1 3 does not touch 2 1
2. 1 3 does not touch 2 3 2
Non‐Touching Loop Gains
43
Non‐touching loop gains – the product of loop gains
from non‐touching loops, taken two, three, four, or
more at a time
Here, there are only two pairs of non‐touching loops
1. —G1H3 ⋅ G2H1
2. —G1H3 ⋅ —G2G3H2
Mason’s Rule
44
P
Y s 1
T s = = Σ TΔ
k k
R s Δ
k=1
where
P = # of forward paths
Tk = gain of the k th forward path
Δ = 1 — Σ(loop gains)
+Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken two‐at‐a‐time)
—Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken three‐at‐a‐time)
+Σ(non‐touching loop gains taken four‐at‐a‐time)
—Σ …
Δk = Δ —Σ(loop gain terms in Δ that touch the k th forward path)
Mason’s Rule ‐ Example
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# of forward paths: Σ(NTLGs taken two‐at‐a‐time):
P= 2 —G1H3G2H1 + G1H3G2G3H2
Forward path gains: Δ:
T1 = G1G2G3G4
Δ = 1 — —G1 H3 + G2 H1 —G2 G3 H2
T2 = G1G2G5 + —G1H3G2H1 + G1H3G2G3H2
Σ(loop gains):
—G1 H3 + G2 H1 —G2 G3 H2
Mason’s Rule – Example ‐
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Simplest way to find Δk terms is to calculate Δ with the k th
path removed – must remove nodes as well
k = 1:
With forward path 1 removed, there are no loops, so
Δ1 = 1 — 0
Δ1 = 1
Mason’s Rule – Example ‐
47
k = 2:
Similarly, removing forward path 2 leaves no loops, so
2
2
Mason’s Rule ‐ Example
48
For our example: P
Y s 1
P= 2 T s = = Σ TkΔk
R s Δ
T1 = G1G2G3G4 k=1
T2 = G1G2G5
Δ = 1 + G1 H3 — G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 — G1 H3 G2 H1 + G1 H3 G2 G3 H2
Δ1 = 1
Δ2 = 1
The closed‐loop transfer function:
T1Δ1 + T2Δ2
T s =
Δ
G1G2G3G4 + G 1G 2G 5
T s =
1 + G1 H3 — G2 H1 + G2 G3 H2 — G1 H3 G2 H1 + G1 H3 G2 G3 H2
49 Preview of Controller Design
K. Webb MAE 4421
