Introduction to Automata Theory
Reading: Chapter 1
What is Automata Theory?
Study of abstract computing devices, or machines Automaton = an abstract computing device
Note: A device need not even be a physical hardware!
A fundamental question in computer science:
Find out what different models of machines can do and cannot do The theory of computation
Computability vs. Complexity
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(A pioneer of automata theory)
Alan Turing (1912-1954)
Father of Modern Computer Science English mathematician Studied abstract machines called Turing machines even before real computers existed Heard of the Turing test?
Theory of Computation: A Historical Perspective
1930s Alan Turing studies Turing machines Decidability Halting problem
1940-1950s Finite automata machines studied Noam Chomsky proposes the Chomsky Hierarchy for formal languages 1969 1970Cook introduces intractable problems or NP-Hard problems Modern computer science: compilers, computational & complexity theory evolve
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Languages & Grammars
Or words
Languages: A language is a collection of sentences of finite length all constructed from a finite alphabet of symbols Grammars: A grammar can be regarded as a device that enumerates the sentences of a language - nothing more, nothing less N. Chomsky, Information and Control, Vol 2, 1959
Image source: Nowak et al. Nature, vol 417, 2002
The Chomsky Hierachy
A containment hierarchy of classes of formal languages
Regular (DFA)
Contextfree (PDA)
Contextsensitive (LBA)
Recursivelyenumerable (TM)
Finite Automata
Some Applications
Software for designing and checking the behavior of digital circuits Lexical analyzer of a typical compiler Software for scanning large bodies of text (e.g., web pages) for pattern finding Software for verifying systems of all types that have a finite number of states (e.g., stock market transaction, communication/network protocol)
Finite Automata : Examples
action
On/Off switch
state
Modeling recognition of the word then
Start state
Transition
Intermediate state
Final state
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The Central Concepts of Automata Theory
Alphabet
An alphabet is a finite, non-empty set of symbols We use the symbol (sigma) to denote an alphabet Examples:
Binary: = {0,1} All lower case letters: = {a,b,c,..z} Alphanumeric: = {a-z, A-Z, 0-9} DNA molecule letters: = {a,c,g,t}
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Strings
A string or word is a finite sequence of symbols chosen from Empty string is (or epsilon) Length of a string w is |w|
= number of characters in the string
Powers of an alphabet
k = the set of all strings of length k * = 0 U 1 U 2 U + = 1 U 2 U 3 U xy = concatentation of two strings x and y
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Languages
L is a said to be a language over alphabet , if L is a subset of strings in * Examples:
The language of all strings consisting of n 0s followed by n 1s: {,01,0011,000111,} The set of strings of with equal number of 0s and 1s: {, 01,10,0011,1100,0101,1010,1001,}
= Empty language Let L = {}; Is L=?
no
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The Membership Problem
Given a string w in *and a language L over , decide whether or not w is in L. Example: Let w = 100011 Q) Is w Language of equal number of 0s and 1s?
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Structural expressions
Grammars Regular expressions
E.g., unix style to capture city names such as Palo Alto CA:
[A-Z][a-z]*([ ][A-Z][a-z]*)*[ ][A-Z][A-Z]
Start with a letter A string of other letters (possibly empty) Should end w/ 2-letter state code
Other space delimited words (part of city name)
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Formal Proofs
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Deductive Proofs
From the hypothesis or the given statement, to a conclusion statement (what we want to prove) Logical progression by direct implications Theorem 1: If x4, then 2xx2.
hypothesis conclusion
Theorem 2: If x is the sum of the squares of 4 positive integers, then 2xx2
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Example: Deductive proof
Theorem: If x is the sum of the squares of four positive integers, then 2xx2 Proof:
1) 2) 3) 4) 5)
Given: x = a2 + b2 + c2 + d2 Given: a1, b1, c1, d1 a21, b21, c21, d21 (by 2) x4 (by 1 & 3) 2x x2 (by 4 and previous theorem)
implies or follows
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Quantifiers
For all or For every
Universal proofs Notation=?
There exists
Used in existential proofs Notation=?
Other notation:
Implication is denoted by =>
E.g., IF A THEN B can also be written as A=>B
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Proving techniques
By contradiction
Start with a contradictory statement E.g., To prove (A and B => C or D), we could start with:
A and B and not(C or D) and show that could never happen
By induction
(3 steps) Basis, inductive hypothesis, inductive step
By contrapositive statement
If A then B == If not B then not A
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Proving techniques
By counter-example Show an example that disproves the claim Note: There is no such thing called a proof by example! So when asked to prove a claim, an example that satisfied that claim is not a proof
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Different ways of saying the same thing
If H then C:
i. ii. iii. iv. v.
H implies C H => C C if H H only if C Whenever H holds, C follows
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If-and-Only-If statements
A if and only if B (A <==> B)
(if part) if B then A ( <= ) (only if part) A only if B ( => ) (same as if A then B)
If and only if is abbreviated as iff
i.e., A iff B
Example:
Theorem: Let x be a real number. Then floor of x = ceiling of x if and only if x is an integer.
Proofs for iff have two parts
One for the if part & another for the only if part
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Summary
Automata theory & a historical perspective Chomsky hierarchy Finite automata Alphabets, strings/words/sentences, languages Membership problem Proofs: Deductive, induction, contrapositive, contradiction, counterexample If and only if Read chapter 1 for more examples and exercises Gradiance homework 1
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