CPE330 OPERATING SYSTEMS
Week 1 Lecture 1: Introduction to Operating Systems
At the end of the lesson, the students should be able to:
1. Give the meaning of operating system and its importance.
2. Identify basic concepts of Operating System.
3. Compare the types of Operating System.
4. Discuss basic operations of the Computer-System.
5. Differentiate all kinds of Computer-System Structures.
6. Classify the basic hardware components and its protection.
What is an Operating System?
An Operating System is a program that acts as an intermediary between a user of a computer and
the computer hardware. The goals of the OS are:
to execute user programs and make solving user problems easier,
to make the computer system convenient to use, and
to use the computer hardware in an efficient manner.
Computer System Structure
Computer system can be divided into four components (Fig. 1):
a. Hardware – provides basic computing resources
CPU, memory, I/O devices
b. Operating system
Controls and coordinates use of hardware among various applications and users.
c. Application programs – define the ways in which the system resources are used to
solve the computing problems of the users.
Word processors, compilers, web browsers, database systems, video games
d. Users
People, machines, other computers
Fig 1. Components of a computer system
Operating System Definition
OS is a resource allocator
Manages all resources
Decides between conflicting requests for efficient and fair resource use
OS is a control program
Controls execution of programs to prevent errors and improper use of the computer
No universally accepted definition
“Everything a vendor ships when you order an operating system” is good approximation
But varies wildly
“The one program running at all times on the computer” is the kernel. Everything else is either a
system program (ships with the operating system) or an application program
Computer Startup
Bootstrap program is loaded at power-up or reboot
Typically stored in ROM or EPROM, generally known as firmware
Initializes all aspects of system
Loads operating system kernel and starts execution
Computer System Organization
Computer-system operation
One or more CPUs, device controllers connect through common bus providing access to
shared memory
Concurrent execution of CPUs and devices competing for memory cycles
Fig. 2. Modern computer system
Computer-System Operation
I/O devices and the CPU can execute concurrently
Each device controller is in charge of a particular device type
Each device controller has a local buffer
CPU moves data from/to main memory to/from local buffers
I/O is from the device to local buffer of controller
Device controller informs CPU that it has finished its operation by causing an interrupt
Common Functions of Interrupts
Interrupt transfers control to the interrupt service routine generally, through the interrupt vector,
which contains the addresses of all the service routines
Interrupt architecture must save the address of the interrupted instruction
Incoming interrupts are disabled while another interrupt is being processed to prevent a lost
interrupt
A trap is a software-generated interrupt caused either by an error or a user request
An operating system is interrupt driven
Interrupt Handling
The operating system preserves the state of the CPU by storing registers and the program counter
Determines which type of interrupt has occurred:
Polling – it’s a protocol in which CPU steadily checks whether the device needs
attention.
vectored interrupt system – handles I/O interrupts
Separate segments of code determine what action should be taken for each type of interrupt
Interrupt Timeline
Storage Structure
Main memory – only large storage media that the CPU can access directly
Secondary storage – extension of main memory that provides large nonvolatile storage capacity
Magnetic disks– rigid metal or glass platters covered with magnetic recording material
Disk surface is logically divided into tracks, which are subdivided into sectors
The disk controller determines the logical interaction between the device and the
computer
Storage Hierarchy
Storage systems organized in hierarchy
Speed
Cost
Volatility
Caching – copying information into faster storage system; main memory can be viewed as a last
cache for secondary storage
Fig. 3. Storage-Device Hierarchy
Caching
Important principle, performed at many levels in a computer (in hardware, operating system,
software)
Information in use copied from slower to faster storage temporarily
Faster storage (cache) checked first to determine if information is there
If it is, information used directly from the cache (fast)
If not, data copied to cache and used there
Cache smaller than storage being cached
Cache management important design problem
Cache size and replacement policy
I/O Structure
After I/O starts, control returns to user program only upon I/O completion
Wait instruction idles the CPU until the next interrupt
Wait loop (contention for memory access)
At most one I/O request is outstanding at a time, no simultaneous I/O processing
After I/O starts, control returns to user program without waiting for I/O completion
System call – request to the operating system to allow user to wait for I/O completion
Device-status table contains entry for each I/O device indicating its type, address, and
state
Operating system indexes into I/O device table to determine device status and to modify
table entry to include interrupt
Direct Memory Access Structure
Used for high-speed I/O devices able to transmit information at close to memory speeds
Device controller transfers blocks of data from buffer storage directly to main memory without
CPU intervention
Only one interrupt is generated per block, rather than the one interrupt per byte
Fig. 4 How a modern computer works
Computer-System Architecture
Most systems use a single general-purpose processor (PDAs through mainframes)
Most systems have special-purpose processors as well
Multiprocessors systems growing in use and importance
Also known as parallel systems, tightly-coupled systems
Advantages include
1. Increased throughput
2. Economy of scale
3. Increased reliability – graceful degradation or fault tolerance
Two types
1. Asymmetric Multiprocessing
Each processor is assigned a specific task.
A master processor controls the system; the other processors either look
to the master for instruction or have predefined task.
2. Symmetric Multiprocessing
Each processor performs all tasks within the O/S.
Each processors are peers; no master – slave relationship exists between
processors.
Fig. 5. Symmetric Multiprocessing architecture
Fig. 6. A dual-core design
Clustered Systems
Like multiprocessor systems, but multiple systems working together
Usually sharing storage via a storage-area network (SAN)
Provides a high-availability service which survives failures
Asymmetric clustering has one machine in hot-standby mode
Symmetric clustering has multiple nodes running applications, monitoring each
other
Some clusters are for high-performance computing (HPC)
Applications must be written to use parallelization
Operating System Structure
Multiprogramming needed for efficiency
Single user cannot keep CPU and I/O devices busy at all times
Multiprogramming organizes jobs (code and data) so CPU always has one to execute
A subset of total jobs in system is kept in memory
One job selected and run via job scheduling
When it has to wait (for I/O for example), OS switches to another job
Fig. 7. Memory Layout for Multiprogrammed System
Timesharing (multitasking) is logical extension in which CPU switches jobs so frequently that
users can interact with each job while it is running, creating interactive computing
Response time should be < 1 second
Each user has at least one program executing in memory process
If several jobs ready to run at the same time CPU scheduling
If processes don’t fit in memory, swapping moves them in and out to run
Virtual memory allows execution of processes not completely in memory
Operating-System Operations
Interrupt driven by hardware
Software error or request creates exception or trap
Division by zero, request for operating system service
Other process problems include infinite loop, processes modifying each other or the operating
system
Dual-mode operation allows OS to protect itself and other system components
User mode and kernel mode
Mode bit provided by hardware
Provides ability to distinguish when system is running user code or kernel code
Some instructions designated as privileged, only executable in kernel mode
System call changes mode to kernel, return from call resets it to user
Transition from User to Kernel Mode
Timer to prevent infinite loop / process hogging resources
Set interrupt after specific period
Operating system decrements counter
When counter zero generate an interrupt
Set up before scheduling process to regain control or terminate program that exceeds
allotted time
Fig. 8.
Process Management
A process is a program in execution. It is a unit of work within the system. Program is a passive
entity, process is an active entity.
Process needs resources to accomplish its task
CPU, memory, I/O, files
Initialization data
Process termination requires reclaim of any reusable resources
Single-threaded process has one program counter specifying location of next instruction to
execute
Process executes instructions sequentially, one at a time, until completion
Multi-threaded process has one program counter per thread
Typically system has many processes, some user, some operating system running concurrently on
one or more CPUs
Concurrency by multiplexing the CPUs among the processes / threads
Process Management Activities
The operating system is responsible for the following activities in connection with process management:
Creating and deleting both user and system processes
Suspending and resuming processes
Providing mechanisms for process synchronization
Providing mechanisms for process communication
Providing mechanisms for deadlock handling
Memory Management
Memory management determines what is in memory
Optimizing CPU utilization and computer response to users
Memory management activities includes:
Keeping track of which parts of memory are currently being used and by whom
Deciding which processes (or parts thereof) and data to move into and out of memory
Allocating and deallocating memory space as needed
Storage Management
OS provides uniform, logical view of information storage
Abstracts physical properties to logical storage unit - file
Each medium is controlled by device (i.e., disk drive, tape drive)
Varying properties include access speed, capacity, data-transfer rate, access
method (sequential or random)
File-System management
Files usually organized into directories
Access control on most systems to determine who can access what
OS activities include
Creating and deleting files and directories
Primitives to manipulate files and dirs
Mapping files onto secondary storage
Backup files onto stable (non-volatile) storage media
Mass-Storage Management
Usually disks used to store data that does not fit in main memory or data that must be kept for a
“long” period of time
Proper management is of central importance
Entire speed of computer operation hinges on disk subsystem and its algorithms
OS activities
Free-space management
Storage allocation
Disk scheduling
Some storage need not be fast
Tertiary storage includes optical storage, magnetic tape
Still must be managed
Varies between WORM (write-once, read-many-times) and RW (read-write)
Performance of Various Levels of Storage
Movement between levels of storage hierarchy can be explicit or implicit
Fig. 9.
Migration of Integer A from Disk to Register
Multitasking environments must be careful to use most recent value, no matter where it is stored
in the storage hierarchy
Multiprocessor environment must provide cache coherency in hardware such that all CPUs have
the most recent value in their cache
Distributed environment situation even more complex
Several copies of a datum can exist
Fig. 10.
I/O Subsystem
One purpose of OS is to hide peculiarities of hardware devices from the user
I/O subsystem responsible for
Memory management of I/O including buffering (storing data temporarily while it is
being transferred), caching (storing parts of data in faster storage for performance),
spooling (the overlapping of output of one job with input of other jobs)
General device-driver interface
Drivers for specific hardware devices
Protection and Security
Protection – any mechanism for controlling access of processes or users to resources defined by
the OS
Security – defense of the system against internal and external attacks
Huge range, including denial-of-service, worms, viruses, identity theft, theft of service
Systems generally first distinguish among users, to determine who can do what
User identities (user IDs, security IDs) include name and associated number, one per
user
User ID then associated with all files, processes of that user to determine access control
Group identifier (group ID) allows set of users to be defined and controls managed, then
also associated with each process, file
Computing Environments
Traditional computer
Blurring over time
Office environment
PCs connected to a network, terminals attached to mainframe or minicomputers
providing batch and timesharing
Now portals allowing networked and remote systems access to same resources
Home networks
Used to be single system, then modems
Now firewalled, networked
Client-Server Computing
Dumb terminals supplanted by smart PCs
Many systems now servers, responding to requests generated by clients
Compute-server provides an interface to client to request services (i.e. database)
File-server provides interface for clients to store and retrieve files
Fig. 11.
Peer-to-Peer Computing
Another model of distributed system
P2P does not distinguish clients and servers
Instead all nodes are considered peers
May each act as client, server or both
Node must join P2P network
Registers its service with central lookup service on network, or
Broadcast request for service and respond to requests for service via discovery
protocol
Examples include Napster and Gnutella
Web-Based Computing
Web has become ubiquitous
PCs most prevalent devices
More devices becoming networked to allow web access
New category of devices to manage web traffic among similar servers: load balancers
Use of operating systems like Windows 95, client-side, have evolved into Linux and Windows XP, which
can be clients and servers
Open-Source
Operating systems made available in source-code format rather than just binary closed-source
Counter to the copy protection and Digital Rights Management (DRM) movement
Started by Free Software Foundation (FSF), which has “copyleft” GNU Public License (GPL)
Examples include GNU/Linux, BSD UNIX (including core of Mac OS X), and Sun Solaris
References:
005.43/M185/2011 Mchoes, Ann M. Operating systems, Australia Cengage Learning( 2011)
005.43/Si32/2011 A. Silberschatz, P. B. Galvin, and G. Gagne. Applied Operating Systems
Concepts with Java, 8th Edition. John Wiley & sons, Inc. (2011).
005.43/Si32/2010 A. Silberschatz, P. B. Galvin, and G. Gagne. Applied Operating Systems
Concepts, 7th Edition. John Wiley & sons, Inc. (2010).
005.43/F679/2007 A.I. Flynn and A. Mclver McHoes: Understanding Operating Systems, 4th Edition.
Course Technology (2007)
005.4469/H242/2002 J. Archer Harris. Schaum’s Outline of Theory and Problems of Operating
Systems. McGraw-Hill Companies, Inc. (2002)
