OVER SPEED & UNAUTHORIZED VEHICLE DETECTION USING IR

BASED SPEED SENSORS

Technical Specifications:

Name of the Project : Over speed & unauthorized vehicle detection using
IR based speed sensors

Domain : Embedded Systems

Microcontroller : AT89S52

IR (Tx,Rx) : 3 (Pairs)

Software languages : Embedded C, Keil software

Power Supply : +5V, 500mA Regulated Power Supply

Crystal : 11.0592MHz for MCU

ABSTRACT

It is important to know the road traffic density real time especially in mega cities for signal
control and effective traffic management. In recent years, video monitoring and surveillance
systems have been widely used in traffic management. Traffic control is a very difficult task for
traffic control department, especially in metro cities. The Project is designed to check the density
of traffic in particular place and the information is conveyed to traffic control station.

This project is designed with AT89S52 microcontroller. Three pairs of IR Tx-Rx are used
here to indicate the density of the traffic. The module consists of a IR emitter and TSOP receiver
pair. The high precision TSOP receiver always detects a signal of fixed frequency. Due to this,
errors due to false detection of ambient light are significantly reduced. Status will be displayed
on 16X2 LCD.

This project uses regulated 5V, 500mA power supply. 7805 three terminal voltage
regulator is used for voltage regulation. Bridge type full wave rectifier is used to rectify the ac
out put of secondary of 230/12V step down transformer.

BLOCK DIAGRAM

Power

Supply

16x2 LCD

IR Tx-Rx pair1

AT 89S52
IR Tx-Rx pair2

Crystal
oscillator
IR Tx-Rx pair3

Reset
 Step Bridge Filter
down Regulator
Rectifier Circuit
T/F Power supply to all sections

CHAPTER – 1

INTRODUCTION

2.1 Embedded Systems:

An embedded system is a combination of software and hardware to perform a dedicated task.

Some of the main devices used in embedded products are Microprocessors and Microcontrollers.
Microprocessors are commonly referred to as general purpose processors as they simply accept the
inputs, process it and give the output. In contrast, a microcontroller not only accepts the data as inputs
but also manipulates it, interfaces the data with various devices, controls the data and thus finally gives
the result.

An embedded system can be defined as a computing device that does a specific focused job.
Appliances such as the air-conditioner, VCD player, DVD player, printer, fax machine, mobile phone etc.
are examples of embedded systems. Each of these appliances will have a processor and special
hardware to meet the specific requirement of the application along with the embedded software that is
executed by the processor for meeting that specific requirement. The embedded software is also called
“firm ware”. The desktop/laptop computer is a general purpose computer. You can use it for a variety of
applications such as playing games, word processing, accounting, software development and so on. In
contrast, the software in the embedded systems is always fixed listed below:

Embedded systems do a very specific task they cannot be programmed to do different things.
Embedded systems have very limited resources, particularly the memory. Generally, they do not have
secondary storage devices such as the CDROM or the floppy disk. Embedded systems have to work
against some deadlines. A specific job has to be completed within a specific time. In some embedded
systems, called real-time systems, the deadlines are stringent. Missing a deadline may cause a
catastrophe-loss of life or damage to property. Embedded systems are constrained for power. As many
embedded systems operate through a battery, the power consumption has to be very low. Some
embedded systems have to operate in extreme environmental conditions such as very high
temperatures and humidity.

2.1.1 Categories of Embedded System.

2.1.1.1 Application specific systems.

Embedded systems are not general-purpose computers. Embedded system designs are Optimized
for a specific application. Many of the job characteristics are known before the hardware is designed.
This allows the designer to focus on the specific design constraints of a well defined application. As such,
there is limited user reprogram ability. Some embedded systems, however, require the flexibility of
reprogrammability. Programmable DSPs are common for such applications.

2.1.1.2 Distributed Systems

A common characteristic of an embedded system is one that consists of communicating processes

executing on several CPUs or ASICs which are connected by communication links. The reason for this is
economy. Economical 4 8-bit microcontrollers may be cheaper than a 32-bit processors. Even after
adding the cost of the communication links, this approach may be preferable. In this approach, multiple
processors are usually required to handle multiple time-critical tasks. Devices under control of
embedded systems may also be physically distributed.

2.1.1.3. Reactive Embedded systems.

A typical embedded systems model responds to the environment via Sensors and control the
environment using actuators. This requires embedded systems to run at the speed of the environment.
This characteristic of embedded system is called “reactive”. Reactive computation means that the
system (primarily the software component) executes in response to external events.

External events can be either periodic or aperiodic. Periodic events make it easier to schedule
processing to guarantee performance. Aperiodic events are harder to schedule. The maximum event
arrival rate must be estimated in order to accommodate worst case situations. Most embedded systems
have a significant reactive component.

2.1.1.4. Heterogeneous

Embedded systems often are composed of heterogeneous architectures (Figure 4). They may
contain different processors in the same system solution. They may also be mixed signal systems. The
combination of I/O interfaces, local and remote memories, and sensors and actuators makes embedded
system design truly unique. Embedded systems also have tight design constraints, and heterogeneity
provides better design flexibility.

2.1.2. Requirements
Embedded systems are unique in several ways, as described above. When designing
Embedded systems, there are several categories of requirements that should be Considered:
· Functional Requirements
· Temporal Requirements (Timeliness)
· Dependability Requirements.
Functional Requirements
Functional requirements describe the type of processing the system will perform. This
Processing varies, based on the application. Functional requirements include the Following;
· Data Collection requirements
· Sensor requirements
· Signal conditioning requirements
· Alarm monitoring requirements
· Direct Digital Control requirements
· Actuator control requirements
· Man-Machine Interaction requirements
(Informing the operator of the current state of a controlled object for example. These interfaces
can be as simple as a flashing LED or a very complex GUI-based system. They include the ways
that embedded systems assist the operator in controlling the object/system.

2.1.2.2. Temporal Requirement

Embedded systems have many tasks to perform, each having its own deadline.
Temporal requirements define the stringency in which these time-based tasks must complete.
Examples include;
Minimal latency jitter
Minimal Error-detection latency
Temporal requirements can be very tight (for example control-loops) or less stringent
(for example response time in a user interface).

2.1.2.3. Dependability Requirements

Most embedded systems also have a set of dependability requirements. Examples of
dependability requirements include;
Reliability: this is a complex concept that shoulda always be considered at the System rather than
the individual component level. There are three dimensions to Consider when specifying system
reliability;

Hardware reliability: Probability of a hardware component failing

 Software reliability: Probability that a software component will produce an Incorrect result
Operator reliability: How likely that the operator of a system will make an Error.

2.1.3.Processor selection.

2.1.3.1. General factors that govern the selection are:

· Complexity of overall design
· Design reuse.
· Performance
· Power size
· Cost tools.
· OS Support and availability.
The design's complexity helps determine the CPU to use. If the design calls for the
deployment of a single state machine with interrupts from a small set of peripherals, then a small
CPU and/or micro controller such as the MCS51 or the Z80 could be the best choice. Many
systems such as industrial timer may fit this category, as the memory footprint is small, the signal
is slow and battery consumption must be extremely low. The application and its interaction will
dictate the design's complexity and may also determine whether it requires a real-time operating
system (RTOS).

Typically, as the application complexity increases, the need for a greater bit-width
processor increases. The selection of the CPU will greatly impact performance of the overall
system. Specifically, features like 8 / 16 / 24 / 32 bit architecture, RISC / CISC / DSP
architecture, cache, MMU, pipelining, branch prediction and super-scalar architecture, all affect
the speed of a system.Depending on system needs, these features may be necessary to achieve
peak performance of the system.

There are various benchmarking threshold data available for various 8/16/32 bit processors
like MIPS (Million Instructions per Second), EEMBC, Dhrystone, MIPS/MHz etc, which can be
taken as reference or comparison base.
CISC Vs RISC.
 CISC is an acronym for Complex Instruction Set Computer and are chips that are easy to
program and which make efficient use of memory. Since the earliest machines were programmed
in assembly language and memory was slow and expensive, the CISC philosophy made sense,
and was commonly implemented in such large computers as the PDP-11 and the DECsystem 10
and 20 machines. Most common microprocessor designs such as the Intel 80x86 and Motorola
68K series followed the CISC philosophy. But recent changes in software and hardware
technology have forced a re-examination of CISC and many modern CISC processors are
hybrids, implementing many RISC principles.

The design constraints that led to the development of CISC (small amounts of slow memory
and fact that most early machines were programmed in assembly language) give CISC
instructions sets some common characteristics:
· A 2-operand format, where instructions have a source and a destination. Register to
register, register to memory, and memory to register commands. Multiple addressing modes
for memory, including specialized modes for indexing through arrays
· Variable length instructions where the length often varies according to the addressing
mode
· Instructions which require multiple clock cycles to execute.
· Most CISC hardware architectures have several characteristics in common:
· Complex instruction-decoding logic, driven by the need for a single instruction to support
multiple addressing modes.
· A small number of general purpose registers. This is the direct result of having
instructions which can operate directly on memory and the limited amount of chip space not
dedicated to instruction decoding, execution, and microcode storage.
· Several special purpose registers. Many CTSC designs set aside special registers for the
stack pointer, interrupt handling, and so on. This can simplify the hardware design somewhat,
at the expense of making the instruction set more complex.
· A 'Condition code" register which is set as a side-effect of most instructions. This register
reflects whether the result of the last operation is less than, equal to, or greater than zero and
records if certain error conditions occur.
 At the time of their initial development, CISC machines used available technologies to
optimize computer performance.

· Microprogramming is as easy as assembly language to implement, and much less

expensive than hardwiring a control unit.
· The ease of microcoding new instructions allowed designers to make CISC machines
upwardly compatible: a new computer could run the same programs as earlier computers
because the new computer would contain a superset of the instructions of the earlier
computers.
· As each instruction became more capable, fewer instructions could be used to implement
a given task. This made more efficient use of the relatively slow main memory.
· Because microprogram instruction sets can be written to match the constructs of high-
level languages, the compiler does not have to be as complicated.

Designers soon realized that the CISC philosophy had its own problems, including:
· Earlier generations of a processor family generally were contained as a subset in every
new version - so instruction set & chip hardware become more complex with each generation
of computers.
· So that as many instructions as possible could be stored in memory with the least possible
wasted space, individual instructions could be of almost any length - this means that different
instructions will take different amounts of clock time to execute, slowing down the overall
performance of the machine.
· Many specialized instructions aren't used frequently enough to justify their existence -
approximately 20% of the available instructions are used in a typical program.
· CISC instructions typically set the condition codes as a side effect of the instruction. Not
only does setting the condition codes take time, but programmers have to remember to
examine the condition code bits before a subsequent instruction changes them.

As memory speed increased, and high-level languages displaced assembly language, the
major reasons for CISC began to disappear, and computer designers began to look at ways
computer performance could be optimized beyond just making faster hardware.
One of their key realizations was that a sequence of simple instructions produces the same results
as a sequence of complex instructions, but can be implemented with a simpler (and faster)
hardware design. (Assuming that memory can keep up.) RISC (Reduced Instruction Set
Computers) processors were the result. CISC and RISC implementations are becoming more and
more alike. Many of today’s RISC chips support as many instructions as yesterday's CISC chips.
And today's CISC chips use many techniques formerly associated with RISC chips.

2.2 SCOPE OF EMBEDDED SYSTEMS

Nearly 99 per cent of the processors manufactured end up in embedded systems. The
embedded system market is one of the highest growth areas as these systems are used in very market
segment- consumer electronics, office automation, industrial automation, biomedical engineering,
wireless communication, data communication, telecommunications, transportation, military and so on.

2.2.1 Consumer appliances:

At home we use a number of embedded systems which include digital camera, digital diary, DVD
player, electronic toys, microwave oven, remote controls for TV and air-conditioner, VCO player, video
game consoles, video recorders etc. Today’s high-tech car has about 20 embedded systems for
transmission control, engine spark control, air-conditioning, navigation etc. Even wrist watches are now
becoming embedded systems. The palmtops are powerful embedded systems using which we can carry
out many general-purpose tasks such as playing games and word processing.

2.2.2 Office automation:

The office automation products using embedded systems are copying machine, fax machine, key
telephone, modem, printer, scanner etc.
2.2.3 Industrial automation:

Today a lot of industries use embedded systems for process control. These include
pharmaceutical, cement, sugar, oil exploration, nuclear energy, electricity generation and transmission.
The embedded systems for industrial use are designed to carry out specific tasks such as monitoring the
temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc., and then take appropriate action based on the
monitored levels to control other devices or to send information to a centralized monitoring station. In
hazardous industrial environment, where human presence has to be avoided, robots are used, which are
programmed to do specific jobs. The robots are now becoming very powerful and carry out many
interesting and complicated tasks such as hardware assembly.

2.2.4 Medical electronics:

Almost every medical equipment in the hospital is an embedded system. These equipments
include diagnostic aids such as ECG, EEG, blood pressure measuring devices, X-ray scanners; equipment
used in blood analysis, radiation, endoscopy etc. Developments in medical electronics have paved way
for more accurate diagnosis of diseases.

2.2.5 Computer networking:

Computer networking products such as bridges, routers, Integrated Services Digital Networks
(ISDN), Asynchronous Transfer Mode (ATM), X.25 and frame relay switches are embedded systems
which implement the necessary data communication protocols. For example, a router interconnects two
networks. The two networks may be running different protocol stacks. The router’s function is to obtain
the data packets from incoming pores, analyze the packets and send them towards the destination after
doing necessary protocol conversion. Most networking equipments, other than the end systems
(desktop computers) we use to access the networks, are embedded systems.

2.2.6 Telecommunications:
 In the field of telecommunications, the embedded systems can be categorized as subscriber
terminals and network equipment. The subscriber terminals such as key telephones, ISDN phones,
terminal adapters, web cameras are embedded systems. The network equipment includes multiplexers,
multiple access systems, Packet Assemblers Dissemblers (PADs), sate11ite modems etc. IP phone, IP
gateway, IP gatekeeper etc. are the latest embedded systems that provide very low-cost voice
communication over the Internet.

2.2.7 Wireless technologies:

Avances in mobile communications are paving way for many interesting applications using
embedded systems. The mobile phone is one of the marvels of the last decade of the 20’h century. It is a
very powerful embedded system that provides voice communication while we are on the move. The
Personal Digital Assistants and the palmtops can now be used to access multimedia services over the
Internet. Mobile communication infrastructure such as base station controllers, mobile switching
centers are also powerful embedded systems.

2.2.8 Insemination:

Testing and measurement are the fundamental requirements in all scientific and engineering
activities. The measuring equipment we use in laboratories to measure parameters such as weight,
temperature, pressure, humidity, voltage, current etc. are all embedded systems. Test equipment such
as oscilloscope, spectrum analyzer, logic analyzer, protocol analyzer, radio communication test set etc.
are embedded systems built around powerful processors. Thank to miniaturization, the test and
measuring equipment are now becoming portable facilitating easy testing and measurement in the field
by field-personnel.

2.2.9 Security:
 Security of persons and information has always been a major issue. We need to protect our
homes and offices; and also the information we transmit and store. Developing embedded systems for
security applications is one of the most lucrative businesses nowadays. Security devices at homes,
offices, airports etc. for authentication and verification are embedded systems. Encryption devices are
nearly 99 per cent of the processors that are manufactured end up in~ embedded systems.

Embedded Systems find applications in every industrial segment consumer electronics,

transportation, avionics, biomedical engineering, manufacturing, process control and industrial
automation, data communication, telecommunication, defense, security etc used to encrypt the
data/voice being transmitted on communication links such as telephone lines. Biometric systems using
fingerprint and face recognition are now being extensively used for user authentication in banking
applications as well as for access control in high security buildings.

2.2.10 Finance:

Financial dealing through cash and cheques are now slowly paving way for transactions using
smart cards and ATM (Automatic Teller Machine, also expanded as Any Time Money) machines. Smart
card, of the size of a credit card, has a small micro-controller and memory; and it interacts with the
smart card reader! ATM machine and acts as an electronic wallet. Smart card technology has the
capability of ushering in a cashless society. Well, the list goes on. It is no exaggeration to say that eyes
wherever you go, you can see, or at least feel, the work of an embedded system.

Overview of Embedded System Architecture

Every embedded system consists of custom-built hardware built around a Central Processing
Unit (CPU). This hardware also contains memory chips onto which the software is loaded. The software
residing on the memory chip is also called the ‘firmware’.
 Fig 2.1 The building blocks diagram

The operating system runs above the hardware, and the application software runs above the
operating system as shown in figure. The same architecture is applicable to any computer including a
desktop computer. However, there are significant differences. It is not compulsory to have an operating
system in every embedded system. For small appliances such as remote control units, air conditioners,
toys etc., there is no need for an operating system and you can write only the software specific to that
application.

For applications involving complex processing, it is advisable to have an operating system. In

such a case, you need to integrate the application software with the operating system and then transfer
the entire software on to the memory chip. Once the software is transferred to the memory chip, the
software will continue to run for a long time you don’t need to reload new software.

Now, let us see the details of the various building blocks of the hardware of an embedded system.

As shown in Fig. the building blocks are;

· Central Processing Unit (CPU)

· Memory (Read-only Memory and Random Access Memory)

· Input Devices

· Output devices

· Communication interfaces

.Application-specific circuitry

Fig 2.2 Working of cpu in arm7

Central Processing Unit (CPU):

The Central Processing Unit (processor, in short) can be any of the following: microcontroller,
microprocessor or Digital Signal Processor (DSP). A micro-controller is a low-cost processor. Its main
attraction is that on the chip itself, there will be many other components such as memory, serial
communication interface, analog-to digital converter etc. So, for small applications, a micro-controller is
the best choice as the number of external components required will be very less. On the other hand,
microprocessors are more powerful, but you need to use many external components with them. D5P is
used mainly for applications in which signal processing is involved such as audio and video processing.

Memory:

The memory is categorized as Random Access 11emory (RAM) and Read Only Memory (ROM).
The contents of the RAM will be erased if power is switched off to the chip, whereas ROM retains the
contents even if the power is switched off. So, the firmware is stored in the ROM. When power is
switched on, the processor reads the ROM; the program is program is executed.

Input devices:

Unlike the desktops, the input devices to an embedded system have very limited capability.
There will be no keyboard or a mouse, and hence interacting with the embedded system is no easy task.
Many embedded systems will have a small keypad-you press one key to give a specific command. A
keypad may be used to input only the digits. Many embedded systems used in process control do not
have any input device for user interaction; they take inputs from sensors or transducers 1’fnd produce
electrical signals that are in turn fed to other systems.

Output devices:

The output devices of the embedded systems also have very limited capability. Some embedded
systems will have a few Light Emitting Diodes (LEDs) to indicate the health status of the system modules,
or for visual indication of alarms. A small Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) may also be used to display some
important parameters.

Interfaces:
 The embedded systems may need to, interact with other embedded systems at they may have
to transmit data to a desktop. To facilitate this, the embedded systems are provided with one or a few
communication interfaces such as RS232, RS422, RS485, Universal Serial Bus (USB), IEEE 1394, Ethernet
etc.

Application-specific circuitry:

Sensors, transducers, special processing and control circuitry may be required fat an embedded
system, depending on its application. This circuitry interacts with the processor to carry out the
necessary work. The entire hardware has to be given power supply either through the 230 volts main
supply or through a battery. The hardware has to design in such a way that the power consumption is
minimized.

Wireless Communication:

Wireless communication, as the term implies, allows information to be exchanged between

two devices without the use of wire or cable. A wireless keyboard sends information to the computer
without the use of a keyboard cable; a cellular telephone sends information to another telephone
without the use of a telephone cable. Changing television channels, opening and closing a garage door,
and transferring a file from one computer to another can all be accomplished using wireless technology.
In all such cases, information is being transmitted and received using electromagnetic energy, also
referred to as electromagnetic radiation. One of the most familiar sources of electromagnetic radiation
is the sun; other common sources include TV and radio signals, light bulbs and microwaves. To provide
background information in understanding wireless technology, the electromagnetic spectrum is first
presented and some basic terminology defined.

POWER SUPPLY:
The input to the circuit is applied from the regulated power supply. The a.c. input i.e., 230V from

the mains supply is step down by the transformer to 12V and is fed to a rectifier. The output

obtained from the rectifier is a pulsating d.c voltage. So in order to get a pure d.c voltage, the

output voltage from the rectifier is fed to a filter to remove any a.c components present even after

rectification. Now, this voltage is given to a voltage regulator to obtain a pure constant dc

voltage.

230V AC
D.C
50Hz Output

Step down Bridge Regulator

transformer Rectifier Filter

Fig: Power supply

Transformer:Usually, DC voltages are required to operate various electronic equipment and

these voltages are 5V, 9V or 12V. But these voltages cannot be obtained directly. Thus the a.c

input available at the mains supply i.e., 230V is to be brought down to the required voltage level.

This is done by a transformer. Thus, a step down transformer is employed to decrease the voltage

to a required level.
Rectifier:The output from the transformer is fed to the rectifier. It converts A.C. into pulsating

D.C. The rectifier may be a half wave or a full wave rectifier. In this project, a bridge rectifier is

used because of its merits like good stability and full wave rectification.

The Bridge rectifier is a circuit, which converts an ac voltage to dc voltage using both half cycles
of the input ac voltage. The Bridge rectifier circuit is shown in the figure. The circuit has four
diodes connected to form a bridge. The ac input voltage is applied to the diagonally opposite
ends of the bridge. The load resistance is connected between the other two ends of the bridge.

For the positive half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D1 and D3 conduct, whereas diodes D2
and D4 remain in the OFF state. The conducting diodes will be in series with the load resistance
RL and hence the load current flows through RL.

For the negative half cycle of the input ac voltage, diodes D2 and D4 conduct whereas, D1 and
D3 remain OFF. The conducting diodes D2 and D4 will be in series with the load resistance
RL and hence the current flows through RL in the same direction as in the previous half cycle.
Thus a bi-directional wave is converted into a unidirectional wave.
Filter:

Capacitive filter is used in this project. It removes the ripples from the output of rectifier and

smoothens the D.C. Output received from this filter is constant until the mains voltage and load

is maintained constant. However, if either of the two is varied, D.C. voltage received at this point

changes. Therefore a regulator is applied at the output stage.

Voltage regulator:

As the name itself implies, it regulates the input applied to it. A voltage regulator is an

electrical regulator designed to automatically maintain a constant voltage level. In this project,

power supply of 5V and 12V are required. In order to obtain these voltage levels, 7805 and 7812

voltage regulators are to be used. The first number 78 represents positive supply and the numbers

05, 12 represent the required output voltage levels. The L78xx series of three-terminal positive

regulators is available in TO-220, TO-220FP, TO-3, D2PAK and DPAK packages and several

fixed output voltages, making it useful in a wide range of applications. These regulators can

provide local on-card regulation, eliminating the distribution problems associated with single

point regulation. Each type employs internal current limiting, thermal shut-down and safe area

protection, making it essentially indestructible. If adequate heat sinking is provided, they can
deliver over 1 A output current. Although designed primarily as fixed voltage regulators, these

devices can be used with external components to obtain adjustable voltage and currents.

MICROCONTROLLERS:

Microprocessors and microcontrollers are widely used in embedded systems

products. Microcontroller is a programmable device. A microcontroller has a CPU in addition to
a fixed amount of RAM, ROM, I/O ports and a timer embedded all on a single chip. The fixed
amount of on-chip ROM, RAM and number of I/O ports in microcontrollers makes them ideal
for many applications in which cost and space are critical.

The Intel 8052 is Harvard architecture, single chip microcontroller (µC) which was
developed by Intel in 1980 for use in embedded systems. It was popular in the 1980s and early
1990s, but today it has largely been superseded by a vast range of enhanced devices with 8052-
compatible processor cores that are manufactured by more than 20 independent manufacturers
including Atmel, Infineon Technologies and Maxim Integrated Products.
 8052 is an 8-bit processor, meaning that the CPU can work on only 8 bits of data at a
time. Data larger than 8 bits has to be broken into 8-bit pieces to be processed by the CPU. 8052
is available in different memory types such as UV-EPROM, Flash and NV-RAM.

The present project is implemented on Keil uVision. In order to program the device,
proload tool has been used to burn the program onto the microcontroller.

The features, pin description of the microcontroller and the software tools used are
discussed in the following sections.

FEATURES

• Compatible with MCS-51® Products

• 8K Bytes of In-System Programmable (ISP) Flash Memory

– Endurance: 1000 Write/Erase Cycles

• 4.0V to 5.5V Operating Range

• Fully Static Operation: 0 Hz to 33 MHz

• Three-level Program Memory Lock

• 256 x 8-bit Internal RAM

• 32 Programmable I/O Lines

• Three 16-bit Timer/Counters

• Eight Interrupt Sources

• Full Duplex UART Serial Channel

• Low-power Idle and Power-down Modes

• Interrupt Recovery from Power-down Mode

• Watchdog Timer

• Dual Data Pointer

• Power-off Flag
DESCRIPTION

The AT89S52 is a low-power, high-performance CMOS 8-bit microcontroller with 8K

bytes of in-system programmable Flash memory. The device is manufactured using Atmel’s
high-density nonvolatile memory technology and is compatible with the industry- standard
80C51 instruction set and pinout. The on-chip Flash allows the program memory to be
reprogrammed in-system or by a conventional nonvolatile memory programmer. By combining a
versatile 8-bit CPU with in-system programmable Flash on a monolithic chip, the Atmel
AT89S52 is a powerful microcontroller which provides a highly-flexible and cost-effective
solution to many embedded control applications.

The AT89S52 provides the following standard features: 8K bytes of Flash, 256 bytes of
RAM, 32 I/O lines, Watchdog timer, two data pointers, three 16-bit timer/counters, a six-vector
two-level interrupt architecture, a full duplex serial port, on-chip oscillator, and clock circuitry.
In addition, the AT89S52 is designed with static logic for operation down to zero frequency and
supports two software selectable power saving modes.

The Idle Mode stops the CPU while allowing the RAM, timer/counters, serial port, and
interrupt system to continue functioning. The Power-down mode saves the RAM contents but
freezes the oscillator, disabling all other chip functions until the next interrupt or hardware reset.
PIN CONFIGURATIONS
PIN DESCRIPTION

VCC

Supply voltage.

GND

Ground.

Port 0

Port 0 is an 8-bit open drain bidirectional I/O port. As an output port, each pin can sink eight
TTL inputs. When 1s are written to port 0 pins, the pins can be used as high impedance inputs.
Port 0 can also be configured to be the multiplexed low order address/data bus during accesses to
external program and data memory. In this mode, P0 has internal pullups. Port 0 also receives the
code bytes during Flash programming and outputs the code bytes during program verification.
External pullups are required during program verification.

Port 1

Port 1 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 1 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 1 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 1 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. In addition, P1.0 and P1.1 can be
configured to be the timer/counter 2 external count input (P1.0/T2) and the timer/counter 2
trigger input (P1.1/T2EX), respectively, as shown in the following table. Port 1 also receives the
low-order address bytes during Flash programming and verification.
Port 2

Port 2 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 2 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 2 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 2 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the internal pullups. Port 2 emits the high-order address
byte during fetches from external program memory and during accesses to external data memory
that use 16-bit addresses (MOVX @ DPTR). In this application, Port 2 uses strong internal pull-
ups when emitting 1s. During accesses to external data memory that use 8-bit addresses (MOVX
@ RI), Port 2 emits the contents of the P2 Special Function Register. Port 2 also receives the
high-order address bits and some control signals during Flash programming and verification.

Port 3

Port 3 is an 8-bit bidirectional I/O port with internal pullups. The Port 3 output buffers can
sink/source four TTL inputs. When 1s are written to Port 3 pins, they are pulled high by the
internal pullups and can be used as inputs. As inputs, Port 3 pins that are externally being pulled
low will source current (IIL) because of the pullups. Port 3 also serves the functions of various
special features of the AT89S52, as shown in the following table. Port 3 also receives some
control signals for Flash programming and verification.
RST

Reset input. A high on this pin for two machine cycles while the oscillator is running resets the
device. This pin drives High for 96 oscillator periods after the Watchdog times out. The DISRTO
bit in SFR AUXR (address 8EH) can be used to disable this feature. In the default state of bit
DISRTO, the RESET HIGH out feature is enabled.

ALE/PROG

Address Latch Enable (ALE) is an output pulse for latching the low byte of the address during
accesses to external memory. This pin is also the program pulse input (PROG) during Flash
programming. In normal operation, ALE is emitted at a constant rate of 1/6 the oscillator
frequency and may be used for external timing or clocking purposes. Note, however, that one
ALE pulse is skipped during each access to external data memory. If desired, ALE operation can
be disabled by setting bit 0 of SFR location 8EH. With the bit set, ALE is active only during a
MOVX or MOVC instruction. Otherwise, the pin is weakly pulled high. Setting the ALE-disable
bit has no effect if the microcontroller is in external execution mode.
PSEN

Program Store Enable (PSEN) is the read strobe to external program memory. When the
AT89S52 is executing code from external program memory, PSEN is activated twice each
machine cycle, except that two PSEN activations are skipped during each access to external data
memory.

EA/VPP

External Access Enable. EA must be strapped to GND in order to enable the device to fetch code
from external program memory locations starting at 0000H up to FFFFH. Note, however, that if
lock bit 1 is programmed, EA will be internally latched on reset.

EA should be strapped to VCC for internal program executions. This pin also receives the 12-
volt programming enable voltage (VPP) during Flash programming.

XTAL1

Input to the inverting oscillator amplifier and input to the internal clock operating circuit.

XTAL2

Output from the inverting oscillator amplifier.

XTAL1 and XTAL2 are the input and output, respectively, of an inverting amplifier that can be

configured for use as an on-chip oscillator, as shown in Figure. Either a quartz crystal or ceramic

resonator may be used. To drive the device from an external clock source, XTAL2 should be left

unconnected while XTAL1 is driven, as shown in the below figure. There are no requirements on

the duty cycle of the external clock signal, since the input to the internal clocking circuitry is
through a divide-by-two flip-flop, but minimum and maximum voltage high and low time

specifications must be observed.

Fig: Oscillator Connections

C1, C2 = 30 pF ± 10 pF for Crystals

= 40 pF ± 10 pF for Ceramic Resonators

 Fig: External Clock Drive Configuration

8052 MICROCONTROLLER MEMORY ORGANIZATION

The microcontroller memory is divided into Program Memory and Data Memory. Program
Memory (ROM) is used for permanent saving program being executed, while Data Memory
(RAM) is used for temporarily storing and keeping intermediate results and variables. Depending
on the model in use (still referring to the whole 8052 microcontroller family) at most a few Kb of
ROM and 128 or 256 bytes of RAM can be used. However…

All 8052 microcontrollers have 16-bit addressing bus and can address 64 kb memory. It is
neither a mistake nor a big ambition of engineers who were working on basic core development.
It is a matter of very clever memory organization which makes these controllers a real
“programmers’ tidbit“.

Program Memory

The oldest models of the 8052 microcontroller family did not have any internal program
memory. It was added from outside as a separate chip. These models are recognizable by their
label beginning with 803 (for ex. 8031 or 8032). All later models have a few Kbytes ROM
embedded, Even though it is enough for writing most of the programs, there are situations when
additional memory is necessary. A typical example of it is the use of so called lookup tables.
They are used in cases when something is too complicated or when there is no time for solving
equations describing some process. The example of it can be totally exotic (an estimate of self-
guided rockets’ meeting point) or totally common (measuring of temperature using non-linear
thermo element or asynchronous motor speed control). In those cases all needed estimates and
approximates are executed in advance and the final results are put in the tables (similar to
logarithmic tables).

How does the microcontroller handle external memory depend on the pin EA logic state?
EA=0 In this case, internal program memory is completely ignored, only a program stored in
external memory is to be executed.

EA=1 In this case, a program from built-in ROM is to be executed first (to the last location).
Afterwards, the execution is continued by reading additional memory.

in both cases, P0 and P2 are not available to the user because they are used for data and address
transmission. Besides, the pins ALE and PSEN are used too.
SWITCHES AND PUSHBUTTONS

There is nothing simpler than this! This is the simplest way of controlling appearance of some
voltage on microcontroller’s input pin. There is also no need for additional explanation of how
these components operate.

Nevertheless, it is not so simple in practice... This is about something commonly unnoticeable

when using these components in everyday life. It is about contact bounce- a common problem
with m e c h a n i c a l switches. If contact switching does not happen so quickly, several
consecutive bounces can be noticed prior to maintain stable state. The reasons for this are:
vibrations, slight rough spots and dirt. Anyway, whole this process does not last long (a few
micro- or miliseconds), but long enough to be registered by the microcontroller. Concerning
pulse counter, error occurs in almost 100% of cases!
Introduction
Infrared technology addresses a wide variety of wireless applications. The main areas are sensing and
remote controls. In the electromagnetic spectrum, the infrared portion is divided into three regions: near
infrared region, mid infrared region and far infrared region.

The wavelengths of these regions and their applications are shown below.

 Near infrared region — 700 nm to 1400 nm — IR sensors, fiber optic

 Mid infrared region — 1400 nm to 3000 nm — Heat sensing

 Far infrared region — 3000 nm to 1 mm — Thermal imaging

The frequency range of infrared is higher than microwave and lesser than visible light.

For optical sensing and optical communication, photo optics technologies are used in the near infrared
region as the light is less complex than RF when implemented as a source of signal. Optical wireless
communication is done with IR data transmission for short range applications.

An infrared sensor emits and/or detects infrared radiation to sense its surroundings.

The working of any Infrared sensor is governed by three laws: Planck’s Radiation law, Stephen –
Boltzmann law and Wien’s Displacement law.

Planck’s law states that “every object emits radiation at a temperature not equal to 00K”. Stephen –
Boltzmann law states that “at all wavelengths, the total energy emitted by a black body is proportional to
the fourth power of the absolute temperature”. According to Wien’s Displacement law, “the radiation curve
of a black body for different temperatures will reach its peak at a wavelength inversely proportional to the
temperature”.

The basic concept of an Infrared Sensor which is used as Obstacle detector is to transmit an infrared
signal, this infrared signal bounces from the surface of an object and the signal is received at the infrared
receiver.

There are five basic elements used in a typical infrared detection system: an infrared source, a
transmission medium, optical component, infrared detectors or receivers and signal processing. Infrared
lasers and Infrared LED’s of specific wavelength can be used as infrared sources. The three main types
of media used for infrared transmission are vacuum, atmosphere and optical fibers. Optical components
are used to focus the infrared radiation or to limit the spectral response. Optical lenses made of Quartz,
Germanium and Silicon are used to focus the infrared radiation. Infrared receivers can be photodiodes,
phototransistors etc. some important specifications of infrared receivers are photosensitivity, detectivity
and noise equivalent power. Signal processing is done by amplifiers as the output of infrared detector is
very small.

BACK TO TOP

Types of IR Sensors
Infrared sensors can be passive or active. Passive infrared sensors are basically Infrared detectors.
Passive infrared sensors do not use any infrared source and detects energy emitted by obstacles in the
field of view. They are of two types: quantum and thermal. Thermal infrared sensors use infrared energy
as the source of heat and are independent of wavelength. Thermocouples, pyroelectric detectors and
bolometers are the common types of thermal infrared detectors.

Quantum type infrared detectors offer higher detection performance and are faster than thermal type
infrared detectors. The photosensitivity of quantum type detectors is wavelength dependent. Quantum
type detectors are further classified into two types: intrinsic and extrinsic types. Intrinsic type quantum
detectors are photoconductive cells and photovoltaic cells.

Active infrared sensors consist of two elements: infrared source and infrared detector. Infrared sources
include an LED or infrared laser diode. Infrared detectors include photodiodes or phototransistors. The
energy emitted by the infrared source is reflected by an object and falls on the infrared detector.

BACK TO TOP

IR Transmitter
Infrared Transmitter is a light emitting diode (LED) which emits infrared radiations. Hence, they are called
IR LED’s. Even though an IR LED looks like a normal LED, the radiation emitted by it is invisible to the
human eye.

The picture of a typical Infrared LED is shown below.

There are different types of infrared transmitters depending on their wavelengths, output power and
response time.

A simple infrared transmitter can be constructed using an infrared LED, a current limiting resistor and a
power supply. The schematic of a typical IR transmitter is shown below.

When operated at a supply of 5V, the IR transmitter consumes about 3 to 5 mA of current. Infrared
transmitters can be modulated to produce a particular frequency of infrared light. The most commonly
used modulation is OOK (ON – OFF – KEYING) modulation.

IR transmitters can be found in several applications. Some applications require infrared heat and the best
infrared source is infrared transmitter. When infrared emitters are used with Quartz, solar cells can be
made.
 BACK TO TOP

IR Receiver
Infrared receivers are also called as infrared sensors as they detect the radiation from an IR transmitter.
IR receivers come in the form of photodiodes and phototransistors. Infrared Photodiodes are different
from normal photo diodes as they detect only infrared radiation. The picture of a typical IR receiver or a
photodiode is shown below.

Different types of IR receivers exist based on the wavelength, voltage, package, etc. When used in an
infrared transmitter – receiver combination, the wavelength of the receiver should match with that of the
transmitter.

A typical infrared receiver circuit using a phototransistor is shown below.

It consists of an IR phototransistor, a diode, a MOSFET, a potentiometer and an LED. When the
phototransistor receives any infrared radiation, current flows through it and MOSFET turns on. This in turn
lights up the LED which acts as a load. The potentiometer is used to control the sensitivity of the
phototransistor.

BACK TO TOP

Principle of Working
The principle of an IR sensor working as an Object Detection Sensor can be explained using the following
figure. An IR sensor consists of an IR LED and an IR Photodiode; together they are called as Photo –
Coupler or Opto – Coupler.

When the IR transmitter emits radiation, it reaches the object and some of the radiation reflects back to
the IR receiver. Based on the intensity of the reception by the IR receiver, the output of the sensor is
defined.

BACK TO TOP

Obstacle Sensing Circuit or IR Sensor Circuit

A typical IR sensing circuit is shown below.
It consists of an IR LED, a photodiode, a potentiometer, an IC Operational amplifier and an LED.

IR LED emits infrared light. The Photodiode detects the infrared light. An IC Op – Amp is used as a
voltage comparator. The potentiometer is used to calibrate the output of the sensor according to the
requirement.

When the light emitted by the IR LED is incident on the photodiode after hitting an object, the resistance
of the photodiode falls down from a huge value. One of the input of the op – amp is at threshold value set
by the potentiometer. The other input to the op-amp is from the photodiode’s series resistor. When the
incident radiation is more on the photodiode, the voltage drop across the series resistor will be high. In the
IC, both the threshold voltage and the voltage across the series resistor are compared. If the voltage
across the resistor series to photodiode is greater than that of the threshold voltage, the output of the IC
Op – Amp is high. As the output of the IC is connected to an LED, it lightens up. The threshold voltage
can be adjusted by adjusting the potentiometer depending on the environmental conditions.

The positioning of the IR LED and the IR Receiver is an important factor. When the IR LED is held directly
in front of the IR receiver, this setup is called Direct Incidence. In this case, almost the entire radiation
from the IR LED will fall on the IR receiver. Hence there is a line of sight communication between the
infrared transmitter and the receiver. If an object falls in this line, it obstructs the radiation from reaching
the receiver either by reflecting the radiation or absorbing the radiation.

BACK TO TOP
Distinguishing Between Black and White Colors
It is universal that black color absorbs the entire radiation incident on it and white color reflects the entire
radiation incident on it. Based on this principle, the second positioning of the sensor couple can be made.
The IR LED and the photodiode are placed side by side. When the IR transmitter emits infrared radiation,
since there is no direct line of contact between the transmitter and receiver, the emitted radiation must
reflect back to the photodiode after hitting any object. The surface of the object can be divided into two
types: reflective surface and non-reflective surface. If the surface of the object is reflective in nature i.e. it
is white or other light color, most of the radiation incident on it will get reflected back and reaches the
photodiode. Depending on the intensity of the radiation reflected back, current flows in the photodiode.

If the surface of the object is non-reflective in nature i.e. it is black or other dark color, it absorbs almost all
the radiation incident on it. As there is no reflected radiation, there is no radiation incident on the
photodiode and the resistance of the photodiode remains higher allowing no current to flow. This situation
is similar to there being no object at all.

The pictorial representation of the above scenarios is shown below.

The positioning and enclosing of the IR transmitter and Receiver is very important. Both the transmitter
and the receiver must be placed at a certain angle, so that the detection of an object happens properly.
This angle is the directivity of the sensor which is +/- 45 degrees.

The directivity is shown below.

In order to avoid reflections from surrounding objects other than the object, both the IR transmitter and the
IR receiver must be enclosed properly. Generally the enclosure is made of plastic and is painted with
black color.

INTRODUCTION TO KEIL:

Keil Software manufactures software development tools for the 8051, 251 and C16x/ST10 micro
controller families. The Keil µVision IDE, ANSI Standard C Compilers, Macro Assemblers,
Simulators, Debuggers, Real-time Operating Systems, and other products help you complete your
projects on schedule.

The µVision IDE from Keil Software, combines project management, make facilities, source code
editing, program debugging, and complete simulation in one powerful environment. µVision helps
you get programs working faster than ever while providing an easy-to-use development platform. The
editor and debugger are integrated into a single application and provide a seamless embedded project

development environment.

MICRO-VISION PROVIDES UNIQUE FEATURES LIKE:

The Device Database, which automatically sets the assembler, compiler, and linker options for the
chip, you select.  This prevents you from wasting your time configuring the tools and helps you get
started writing code faster.
 A robust Project Manager, which lets you create several different configurations of your target
from a single project file.  Only the Keil µVision IDE allows you to create an output file for
simulating, an output file for debugging with an emulator, and an output file for programming an
EPROM--all from the same Project file.

An integrated Make facility with automatic dependency generation.   You don't have to figure out
which header files and include files are used by which source files.  The Keil compilers and
assemblers do that automatically.

Interactive error correction.  As you project compiles, errors and warnings appear in an output
window.  You may make corrections to the files in your project while µVision continues to
compile in the background.  Line numbers associated with each error or warnings are automatically
resynchronized when you make changes to the source.

10 REASONS TO CHOOSE KEIL:

All Keil software development tools, A51, CA51, and PK51 include one year of technical
support and software maintenance. This means you can get assistance and download the latest
updates for a period of 1 year from the time you purchase the product. Other compiler companies

offer only 90 days of technical support and product updates with very expensive support alternatives .

1. Value:

The Keil tools provide a great deal of value for the price. They help you create embedded
applications quickly and efficiently and save you hours of time and effort.

2. Third-Party Support:

Most evaluation board's ship with the Keil Monitor so you can get started working on your project
without wasting precious time. All emulator vendors support Keil C51. High-end emulators support
Keil code banking and far memory features.
3. Product Reliability:

The Keil compiler is robust and reliable. Code generated by the Keil tools has been used in

thousands of critical applications all over the world.

4. Peripheral Simulation:

The Keil µVision Debugger/Simulator is the only tool chain that provides complete simulation
support for the on-chip peripherals of most 8051 devices. Simulation helps you validate code at your
desk without target hardware. It reduces the time spent debugging in-system and helps you create a
reliable product faster.

5. Code Efficiency:

By adding new optimizations that reduce program size and increase execution speed. In real
applications, the Keil compiler generates up to 20% less code. Target applications require less data
space and have considerably faster execution speed.

6. Architecture Extensions:

Keil C51 includes numerous chip-specific 8051 architecture extensions like 16MB addressing,
extended stack, arithmetic unit, and accelerated data pointers. As new extensions are added to the

8051 family, support is added to the Keil tool chain.

7. Device Support:

Keil C51 supports over 500 different 8051 variants. The device database selects specific tool
options for you and avoids programming problems. Datasheets and programmer's guides for almost
every device are included on our CD-ROM.

8. Documentation and Training:

Keil tools come with very clear user guides. Application Notes help solve specific problems and the
Support Knowledgebase provides answers to more than 2,000 questions.

9.Ease-of-use:
 Keil tools are easy to use. By default each toolset is pre-configured to deliver optimal code for most
applications. When you start a project and select the device you use from the Device Database, all
chip-specific options for the compiler, assembler, and debugger are enabled for you. The example
programs that are provided help you get started quickly and save valuable time by minimizing your

learning curve.

10. Completeness:

Keil Developers Kits include everything professional software developers need (compiler,
assembler, linker, library manager, object-HEX converter, IDE, debugger, and more). The
IDE, debugger, and simulator (which are included) really do support chip-specific features.
When we say simulation support for a specific chip, we mean instruction-set simulation AND
on-chip peripheral simulation (with chip-specific dialog boxes and debugger virtual target
registers).

Simulator/Debugger:

The simulator/ debugger in KEIL can perform a very detailed simulation of a micro controller
along with external signals. It is possible to view the precise execution time of a single assembly
instruction, or a single line of C code, all the way up to the entire application, simply by entering the
crystal frequency. A window can be opened for each peripheral on the device, showing the state of the
peripheral. This enables quick trouble shooting of mis-configured peripherals. Breakpoints may be set
on either assembly instructions or lines of C code, and execution may be stepped through one instruction
or C line at a time. The contents of all the memory areas may be viewed along with ability to find
specific variables. In addition the registers may be viewed allowing a detailed view of what the
microcontroller is doing at any point in time.

The Keil Software 8051 development tools listed below are the programs you use to
compile your C code, assemble your assembler source files, link your program together, create HEX
files, and debug your target program. µVision2 for Windows™ Integrated Development Environment:
 combines Project Management, Source Code Editing, and Program Debugging in one powerful
environment.

 C51 ANSI Optimizing C Cross Compiler: creates relocatable object modules from your C source
code,
 A51 Macro Assembler: creates relocatable object modules from your 8051 assembler
source code,
 BL51 Linker/Locator: combines relocatable object modules created by the compiler and
assembler into the final absolute object module,
 LIB51 Library Manager: combines object modules into a library, which may be used by the
linker,
 OH51 Object-HEX Converter: creates Intel HEX files from absolute object modules.

EVALUATION OF KEIL SOFTWARE

Start the µVision Program
After the program has started:

Type your assembly file. The following is an example of a toggle program.

Select File, Save… from the program menu

The first time you save the program a dialog box will popup and allow you to name your file and file type.

Save program with filename: xxxxx.asm

The File type is mentioned at last (.asm) means assembly language

Select Project, New Project… from the program menu

Give some project name: xxxx.prj
Click on the Add button
A dialog-box appears, allowing you to add files to the project

Change the file type to Assembly.

Select your assembly file.

Click on the Add button then close the Add dialog box.

RELAY
 A relay is an electrically operated switch. Many relays use an electromagnet to operate a
switching mechanism mechanically, but other operating principles are also used. Relays are used
where it is necessary to control a circuit by a low-power signal (with complete electrical isolation
between control and controlled circuits), or where several circuits must be controlled by one
signal. The first relays were used in long distance telegraph circuits, repeating the signal coming
in from one circuit and re-transmitting it to another. Relays were used extensively in telephone
exchanges and early computers to perform logical operations.A type of relay that can handle the
high power required to directly drive an electric motor is called a contactor. Solid-state relays
control power circuits with no moving parts, instead using a semiconductor device to perform
switching. Relays with calibrated operating characteristics and sometimes multiple operating
coils are used to protect electrical circuits from overloadfaults; in modern electric power systems
these functions are performed by digital instruments still called "protective relays".

Fig 6.1: Automotive-style miniature relay, dust cover is taken off

BASIC DESIGN AND OPERATION:

 Fig 6.2: Simple electromechanical relay

Fig 6.3: Small relay as used in electronics

A simple electromagnetic relay consists of a coil of wire surrounding a soft iron core, an
iron yoke which provides a low reluctance path for magnetic flux, a movable iron armature, and
one or more sets of contacts (there are two in the relay pictured). The armature is hinged to the
yoke and mechanically linked to one or more sets of moving contacts. It is held in place by a
spring so that when the relay is de-energized there is an air gap in the magnetic circuit. In this
condition, one of the two sets of contacts in the relay pictured is closed, and the other set is open.
Other relays may have more or fewer sets of contacts depending on their function. The relay in
the picture also has a wire connecting the armature to the yoke. This ensures continuity of the
circuit between the moving contacts on the armature, and the circuit track on the printed circuit
board (PCB) via the yoke, which is soldered to the PCB.

When an electric current is passed through the coil it generates a magnetic field that
attracts the armature and the consequent movement of the movable contact either makes or
breaks (depending upon construction) a connection with a fixed contact. If the set of contacts
was closed when the relay was de-energized, then the movement opens the contacts and breaks
the connection, and vice versa if the contacts were open. When the current to the coil is switched
off, the armature is returned by a force, approximately half as strong as the magnetic force, to its
relaxed position. Usually this force is provided by a spring, but gravity is also used commonly in
industrial motor starters. Most relays are manufactured to operate quickly. In a low-voltage
application this reduces noise; in a high voltage or current application it reduces arcing.
 When the coil is energized with direct current, a diode is often placed across the coil to
dissipate the energy from the collapsing magnetic field at deactivation, which would otherwise
generate a voltage spike dangerous to semiconductor circuit components. Some automotive
relays include a diode inside the relay case. Alternatively, a contact protection network
consisting of a capacitor and resistor in series (snubber circuit) may absorb the surge. If the coil
is designed to be energized with alternating current (AC), a small copper "shading ring" can be
crimped to the end of the solenoid, creating a small out-of-phase current which increases the
minimum pull on the armature during the AC cycle.

A solid-state relay uses a thyristor or other solid-state switching device, activated by the
control signal, to switch the controlled load, instead of a solenoid. An optocoupler (a light-
emitting diode (LED) coupled with a photo transistor) can be used to isolate control and
controlled circuits.

TYPES:

a) LATCHING RELAY:

Fig : Latching relay with permanent magnet

A latching relay has two relaxed states (bistable). These are also called "impulse",
"keep", or "stay" relays. When the current is switched off, the relay remains in its last state. This
is achieved with a solenoid operating a ratchet and cam mechanism, or by having two opposing
coils with an over-center spring or permanent magnet to hold the armature and contacts in
position while the coil is relaxed, or with a remanent core. In the ratchet and cam example, the
first pulse to the coil turns the relay on and the second pulse turns it off. In the two coil example,
a pulse to one coil turns the relay on and a pulse to the opposite coil turns the relay off. This type
of relay has the advantage that it consumes power only for an instant, while it is being switched,
and it retains its last setting across a power outage. A remanent core latching relay requires a
current pulse of opposite polarity to make it change state.

b) REED RELAY:

A reed relay is a reed switch enclosed in a solenoid. The switch has a set of contacts
inside an evacuated or inert gas-filled glass tube which protects the contacts against atmospheric
corrosion; the contacts are made of magnetic material that makes them move under the influence
of the field of the enclosing solenoid. Reed relays can switch faster than larger relays, require
only little power from the control circuit, but have low switching current and voltage ratings.

Fig: Top, middle: reed switches, bottom: reed relay

c) MERCURY-WETTED RELAY:

A mercury-wetted reed relay is a form of reed relay in which the contacts are wetted with
mercury. Such relays are used to switch low-voltage signals (one volt or less) where the mercury
reduces the contact resistance and associated voltage drop, for low-current signals where surface
contamination may make for a poor contact, or for high-speed applications where the mercury
eliminates contact bounce. Mercury wetted relays are position-sensitive and must be mounted
vertically to work properly. Because of the toxicity and expense of liquid mercury, these relays
are now rarely used. See also mercury switch.
d) POLARIZED RELAY:

A polarized relay placed the armature between the poles of a permanent magnet to
increase sensitivity. Polarized relays were used in middle 20th Century telephone exchanges to
detect faint pulses and correct telegraphic distortion. The poles were on screws, so a technician
could first adjust them for maximum sensitivity and then apply a bias spring to set the critical
current that would operate the relay.

e) MACHINE TOOL RELAY:

A machine tool relay is a type standardized for industrial control of machine tools,
transfer machines, and other sequential control. They are characterized by a large number of
contacts (sometimes extendable in the field) which are easily converted from normally-open to
normally-closed status, easily replaceable coils, and a form factor that allows compactly
installing many relays in a control panel. Although such relays once were the backbone of
automation in such industries as automobile assembly, the programmable logic controller (PLC)
mostly displaced the machine tool relay from sequential control applications.

f) CONTACTOR RELAY:

A contactor is a very heavy-duty relay used for switching electric motors and lighting
loads, although contactors are not generally called relays. Continuous current ratings for
common contactors range from 10 amps to several hundred amps. High-current contacts are
made with alloys containing silver. The unavoidable arcing causes the contacts to oxidize;
however, silver oxide is still a good conductor.[2] Such devices are often used for motor starters.
A motor starter is a contactor with overload protection devices attached. The overload sensing
devices are a form of heat operated relay where a coil heats a bi-metal strip, or where a solder pot
melts, releasing a spring to operate auxiliary contacts. These auxiliary contacts are in series with
the coil. If the overload senses excess current in the load, the coil is de-energized. Contactor
relays can be extremely loud to operate, making them unfit for use where noise is a chief
concern.
g)SOLID-STATE RELAY:

Fig:Solid state relay, which has no moving parts

Fig:25 A& 40 A solid state contactors

A solid state relay (SSR) is a solid state electronic component that provides a similar
function to an electromechanical relay but does not have any moving components, increasing
long-term reliability. With early SSR's, the tradeoff came from the fact that every transistor has a
small voltage drop across it. This voltage drop limited the amount of current a given SSR could
handle. As transistors improved, higher current SSR's, able to handle 100 to 1,200 Amperes,
have become commercially available. Compared to electromagnetic relays, they may be falsely
triggered by transients.
h) SOLID STATE CONTACTOR RELAY:

A solid state contactor is a heavy-duty solid state relay, including the necessary heat sink,
used for switching electric heaters, small electric motors and lighting loads; where frequent
on/off cycles are required. There are no moving parts to wear out and there is no contact bounce
due to vibration. They are activated by AC control signals or DC control signals from
Programmable logic controller (PLCs), PCs, Transistor-transistor logic (TTL) sources, or other
microprocessor and microcontroller controls.

i) BUCHHOLZ RELAY:

A Buchholz relay is a safety device sensing the accumulation of gas in large oil-filled
transformers, which will alarm on slow accumulation of gas or shut down the transformer if gas
is produced rapidly in the transformer oil.

j) FORCED-GUIDED CONTACTS RELAY:

A forced-guided contacts relay has relay contacts that are mechanically linked together,
so that when the relay coil is energized or de-energized, all of the linked contacts move together.
If one set of contacts in the relay becomes immobilized, no other contact of the same relay will
be able to move. The function of forced-guided contacts is to enable the safety circuit to check
the status of the relay. Forced-guided contacts are also known as "positive-guided contacts",
"captive contacts", "locked contacts", or "safety relays".

k) OVERLOAD PROTECTION RELAY:

Electric motors need over current protection to prevent damage from over-loading the
motor, or to protect against short circuits in connecting cables or internal faults in the motor
windings. One type of electric motor overload protection relay is operated by a heating element
in series with the electric motor. The heat generated by the motor current heats a bimetallic strip
or melts solder, releasing a spring to operate contacts. Where the overload relay is exposed to the
same environment as the motor, a useful though crude compensation for motor ambient
temperature is provided.
l) POLE AND THROW:

Fig : Pole and Throw

Circuit symbols of relays. (C denotes the common terminal in SPDT and DPDT types.)

Since relays are switches, the terminology applied to switches is also applied to relays. A relay
will switch one or more poles, each of whose contacts can be thrown by energizing the coil in
one of three ways:

 Normally-open (NO) contacts connect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
disconnected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form A contact or "make" contact. NO
contacts can also be distinguished as "early-make" or NOEM, which means that the contacts will
close before the button or switch is fully engaged.
 Normally-closed (NC) contacts disconnect the circuit when the relay is activated; the circuit is
connected when the relay is inactive. It is also called a Form B contact or "break" contact. NC
contacts can also be distinguished as "late-break" or NCLB, which means that the contacts will
stay closed until the button or switch is fully disengaged.

 Change-over (CO), or double-throw (DT), contacts control two circuits: one normally-open
contact and one normally-closed contact with a common terminal. It is also called a Form C
contact or "transfer" contact ("break before make"). If this type of contact utilizes a "make
before break" functionality, then it is called a Form D contact.
The following designations are commonly encountered:

 SPST – Single Pole Single Throw. These have two terminals which can be connected or
disconnected. Including two for the coil, such a relay has four terminals in total. It is ambiguous
whether the pole is normally open or normally closed. The terminology "SPNO" and "SPNC" is
sometimes used to resolve the ambiguity.
 SPDT – Single Pole Double Throw. A common terminal connects to either of two others.
Including two for the coil, such a relay has five terminals in total.

 DPST – Double Pole Single Throw. These have two pairs of terminals. Equivalent to two SPST
switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Including two for the coil, such a relay has six
terminals in total. The poles may be Form A or Form B (or one of each).

 DPDT – Double Pole Double Throw. These have two rows of change-over terminals. Equivalent
to two SPDT switches or relays actuated by a single coil. Such a relay has eight terminals,
including the coil.

The "S" or "D" may be replaced with a number, indicating multiple switches connected to a
single actuator. For example 4PDT indicates a four pole double throw relay (with 14 terminals).

EN 50005 are among applicable standards for relay terminal numbering; a typical EN 50005-
compliant SPDT relay's terminals would be numbered 11, 12, 14, A1 and A2 for the C, NC, NO,
and coil connections, respectively.

APPLICATIONS:

Relays are used to and for:

 Control a high-voltage circuit with a low-voltage signal, as in some types of modems or audio
amplifiers,
 Control a high-current circuit with a low-current signal, as in the startersolenoid of an
automobile,

 Detect and isolate faults on transmission and distribution lines by opening and closing circuit
breakers (protection relays),

Fig: A DPDT AC coil relay with "ice cube" packaging

 Isolate the controlling circuit from the controlled circuit when the two are at different
potentials, for example when controlling a mains-powered device from a low-voltage switch.
The latter is often applied to control office lighting as the low voltage wires are easily installed in
partitions, which may be often moved as needs change. They may also be controlled by room
occupancy detectors in an effort to conserve energy,
 Logic functions. For example, the boolean AND function is realised by connecting normally open
relay contacts in series, the OR function by connecting normally open contacts in parallel. The
change-over or Form C contacts perform the XOR (exclusive or) function. Similar functions for
NAND and NOR are accomplished using normally closed contacts. The Ladder programming
language is often used for designing relay logic networks.

o Early computing. Before vacuum tubes and transistors, relays were used as logical
elements in digital computers. See ARRA (computer), Harvard Mark II, Zuse Z2, and Zuse
Z3.

o Safety-critical logic. Because relays are much more resistant than semiconductors to
nuclear radiation, they are widely used in safety-critical logic, such as the control panels
of radioactive waste-handling machinery.
  Time delay functions. Relays can be modified to delay opening or delay closing a set of contacts.
A very short (a fraction of a second) delay would use a copper disk between the armature and
moving blade assembly. Current flowing in the disk maintains magnetic field for a short time,
lengthening release time. For a slightly longer (up to a minute) delay, a dashpot is used. A
dashpot is a piston filled with fluid that is allowed to escape slowly. The time period can be
varied by increasing or decreasing the flow rate. For longer time periods, a mechanical
clockwork timer is installed.

Selection of an appropriate relay for a particular application requires evaluation of many

different factors:

 Number and type of contacts – normally open, normally closed, (double-throw)

 Contact sequence – "Make before Break" or "Break before Make". For example, the old style
telephone exchanges required Make-before-break so that the connection didn't get dropped
while dialling the number.

 Rating of contacts – small relays switch a few amperes, large contactors are rated for up to 3000
amperes, alternating or direct current

 Voltage rating of contacts – typical control relays rated 300 VAC or 600 VAC, automotive types
to 50 VDC, special high-voltage relays to about 15 000 V

 Coil voltage – machine-tool relays usually 24 VAC, 120 or 250 VAC, relays for switchgear may
have 125 V or 250 VDC coils, "sensitive" relays operate on a few milliamperes

 Coil current

 Package/enclosure – open, touch-safe, double-voltage for isolation between circuits, explosion

proof, outdoor, oil and splash resistant, washable for printed circuit board assembly

 Assembly – Some relays feature a sticker that keeps the enclosure sealed to allow PCB post
soldering cleaning, which is removed once assembly is complete.

 Mounting – sockets, plug board, rail mount, panel mount, through-panel mount, enclosure for
mounting on walls or equipment

 Switching time – where high speed is required

  "Dry" contacts – when switching very low level signals, special contact materials may be needed
such as gold-plated contacts

 Contact protection – suppress arcing in very inductive circuits

 Coil protection – suppress the surge voltage produced when switching the coil current

 Isolation between coil circuit and contacts

 Aerospace or radiation-resistant testing, special quality assurance

 Expected mechanical loads due to acceleration – some relays used in aerospace applications are
designed to function in shock loads of 50 g or more

 Accessories such as timers, auxiliary contacts, pilot lamps, test buttons

 Regulatory approvals

 Stray magnetic linkage between coils of adjacent relays on a printed circuit board.

Conclusion:

We conclude that main objective of this project is to develop an embedded

system based application .It has been developed by integrating features of all
the hardware components used. Presence of every module has been reasoned
out and placed carefully thus contributing to the best working of the unit.

Advantages:
 It reduces the man power
 efficiency is high.

 Accuracy is high.

Applications:
 Can be used in geographical Departments.

Future scope & Aspects

------------------------------------------------------------------

REFERENCES
REFERENCES:

1. www. howstuffworks.com

2. EMBEDDED SYSTEM BY RAJ KAMAL

3. 8052 MICROCONTROLLER AND EMBEDDED SYSTEMS BY MAZZIDI

4. Magazines

5. Electronics for you

6. Electrikindia

7. WWW.google.com

8. WWW.Electronic projects.com