Applied Principles of Optimal

Power Development
Max Schmarzo & Matt Van Dyke
Applied Principles

of Optimal Power

Development

Max Schmarzo

&

Matt Van Dyke

Applied Principles

of Optimal Power

Development

Max Schmarzo

&

Matt Van Dyke

 Table of Contents

Preface…………………………………………………………………………………………i

The Facilitation of Power Development……………………………………....ii

About the Authors……………………

Authors……………………………………………
…………………………………………………
…………………………iii
iii

Section 1

Organization of Power
Power Development in Daily Training…………………1

Section 2

Maximal Intent………………………………………………………………………… .…7

Section 3

Achieve the Highest Level of Readiness…………………………

Readiness …………………………..…………..13
………….. 13

Section 4

Optimal Load………………….…………………………………….……………………30
Load………………….…………………………………….……………………30

Section 5

Maintain Velocity………………………………………………………………………
Velocity……………………………………………………………………… 41
 Section 6

Minimize Fatigue Part I.………………………………………………………….… 62

Minimize Fatigue Part II.…………………..…………………………………….… 74

Section 7

Addendum: Other Power Training Considerations….…………………93

Preface

This manual was created to assist coaches, athletes, and practitioners better understand

the key aspects of power development and how specific training methods can help

ensure power receives the desired amount of stress. This manual is not a cookie-cutter

program claiming to be a “one-size fits all”, but rather it is designed to provide and

teach coaches the scientific theories and concepts of how to optimize the training of

power. It will provide some practical examples of how to implement these methods

along with some theoretical guidelines. The goal of this manual is to provide every coach

the necessary tools to optimize power training and apply the ideas, concepts, and

methods in ways they best see fit for their athletes.

“... The final goal of compet ition exercises in Olympic sports (‘Citius, Altius, Fortius’ -

’Faster, Higher, Stronger’) may almost always be related to the capacity to express

 power produced by the speed of movements and by the force of overcoming external

resistance. Consequently, a training process focused on improving the sports results

represents the process of increasing the  power output of competition exercises” (p.29)

“The final aim of sport training is the improvement of sport results, which is expressed by

the power output of competition exercise. The power output of competition exercise

depends on the athlete's motor potential and on the athlete's capacity to utilize it” (p.65)

-Special Strength Training Manual For Coaches Yuri Verkhoshansky and Natalia

Verkhoshansky

i
The Facilitation of Power

Development

It is imperative to note that this manual describes the most useful, available, and up-to-

date methods to improve the aspect of muscular power. However, power development

is much more complicated than simply following the guidelines provided in this manual.

The adaptations required to improve this aspect of performance involve multiple

cellular, structural, and neurological changes within the body. In order to optimize each

of these individual adaptations, different training methods must be implemented. Some

of these training methods required to achieve these facilitating adaptations may not be

initially associated with “power” training. However, that does not mean that these

specific qualities (absolute strength, cross-sectional area, tendon stiffness, etc.) do not

facilitate and/or further improve the “base” for power development. A well-rounded

foundation is necessary prior to optimal power being realized through specific means.

These specific means will be broken down throughout this manual into five key

components of “power training”. Other facilitating qualities, those which make up the

required base, will be assumed to already exist.

ii
About the Authors

Max Schmarzo

Max Schmarzo is an NSCA Certified Stre ngth and Conditioning Coach (CSCS) and NATA Certified
Athletic Trainer (ATC). He received his MS in Kinesiology from Iowa State University, where he
led investigative research on relationship between the force-velocity profile of the squat and
vertical jump height.

Prior to entering graduate school, Max played four years of NCAA Division III basketball. As an
undergrad, he doubled majored in athletic training and strength and conditioning.

Throughout his undergraduate and graduate schooling, he was able to complete several
internships, including working under Chris Doyle at the University of Iowa, Josh Beauregard at
Iowa State University and Donald Chu at Athercare in Dublin, California.

Max also writes professionally for his website and social media (Instagram),
http://www.strongbyscience.net/ and @Strong_by_Science, respectively.

Matt Van Dyke

Matt Van Dyke is the Associate Director of Sports Performance at the University of Denver
where he is responsible for designing and implementing performance training for men’s
lacrosse, alpine ski, volleyball, and swimming.

Prior to his position with Denver, Matt was the Assistant Director of Strength and Conditioning
for Olympic Sports at the University of Minnesota. Matt completed his Graduate Assistantship at
St. Cloud State University, where he e arned his Masters of Science in exercise physiology and
nutrition in 2015.

Matt completed internships with Iowa State and the University of Minnesota under Yancy
McKnight and Cal Dietz, respectively.

Matt most recently released the Triphasic Lacrosse Training Manual , presented at the 2015
CSCCa National Conference on Advanced Triphasic Training Methods , while also writing for his
professional website vandykestrength.com.

Matt is certified by the CSCCa (SCCC). He earned his Bachelor’s Degree in exercise science from
Iowa State University in 2012.

iii
 Section 1

ORGANIZATION OF POWER

DEVELOPMENT IN DAILY TRAINING

1
The ability of an athlete to produce high levels of power is critical for their success. For

this reason, improving this quality is constantly sought after by all performance and

strength coaches. Power, when looked at from a basic physics standpoint, relies on both

high force and velocity outputs. Maximal strength is of great importance, but if an

athlete is never trained to utilize their force producing capabilities in an appropriate

manner they will not be prepared to the highest possible level for competition.

This is not new information to the majority of performance coaches at this time.

However, the daily training required to maximize an athlete’s power production is not

as well understood and in some cases misused. The goal of this manual is to provide the

proper content to allow an optimal training day to be designed entirely around the

improvement of power production at a desired velocity or force.

As this topic requires specific training methods to be implemented, five basic principles

of power training will be outlined throughout this manual, as they would be used in a

daily training session. These five principles include:

1. Maximal Intent

2. Achieve the Highest Level of Readiness

3. Optimal Load Dosage

4. Importance of Velocity

5. Minimize Fatigue

With each of these, physiological reasoning, along with examples of each principle will

be provided. If any of these five principles are overlooked in training, it is likely the

training adaptations required to improve power production will not be realized to the

greatest extent possible.

2
What Is Power?

Before each of the five principles are fully introduced, it is important that a brief review

of “power” and the underlying principles of physics are covered. Power is equal to force

multiplied by the velocity of the implement, or P = F*V. In training terms this refers to

the weight of the object being moved (athlete’s body, barbell, dumbbells, etc.) and the

velocity at which it is moved. Each of these components of power are of equal

importance in the equation, which is why both optimal load and the importance of

velocity are primary principles covered in this manual.

The force-velocity curve (Figure 1.1), also referred to as the load-velocity curve, is the

relationship between force (weight on the bar) and velocity (speed the load is moved

at). These variables have an inverse relationship, meaning as load (force) goes up

velocity goes down and vice versa. This means the region of highest power is that where

both force and velocity are optimized.

In dynamic movements, the force-velocity relationship movement is linear, as

represented by the blue line in Figure 1.1 (1-4). This is a little different than the parabola

shaped force-velocity curve portrayed, from the original findings of A.V Hill’s work (5).

However, the differences may be due to the fact Hill used a single muscle fiber while

other researchers have investigated the relationship of a whole movement (1-4). Without

diving too far off topic, the linear relationship makes the force-velocity curve much

easier to understand and apply than Hill’s original hyperbolic, single fiber, force-velocity

curve.

3
Figure 1.1: Linear force-velocity-power relationship of a squat

One intricacy of power that is often overlooked is that the same power output can be

generated in two different fashions, as demonstrated in Figure 1.2. Power can be

created by either a high force and low velocity or a low force and high velocity. By

understanding both the force-velocity curve and the equation for determining power,

this should make sense. As an athlete reduces load and increases velocity, at some point

along the continuum two equal amounts of power will be produced.

 Power (a) = FORCE x velocity

 Power (b) = force x VELOCITY

 Optimal Power = FORCE x VELOCITY

4
Figure 1.2: Power production based on both force and velocity

In Figure 1.2 above, power (a) and (b) are equal power outputs, but (a) is developed

with a FORCE emphasis while (b) is developed with a VELOCITY emphasis. Optimal

Power occurs at only one point on the power curve. It is the region where force and

velocity are optimized to generate the highest power output.

What ultimately determines movement time in sport is the velocity in which it is

completed. Meaning as the speed of a movement increases, the time in which it is

completed, decreases. Theoretically, this means if an athlete is unable to produce power

in the specific velocities utilized in competition, optimal performance in this movement

will not be realized. This is due to the athlete’s inability to produce force in the

decreased amount of time available, due to the increased velocity the movement is

completed at. This ability is termed rate of force development (RFD) and is the goal of

the majority of training programs. Without it, there is likely an inability of the athlete to

compete at the highest levels possible as the athlete will have a “missing link” of

transfer in their sport. This specific aspect of power will be covered to a great extent

throughout this manual, as without transfer to competition, training is meaningless.

5
SECTION 1 REFERENCES

1. Jaric, S. 2015. “Force-Velocity Relationship of Muscles Performing Multi-Joint Maximum

Performance Tasks.” International Journal of Sports Medicine  36(9): 699 –704.

2. Jidovtseff, Boris, Nigel K Harris, Jean-Michel Crielaard, and John B Cronin. 2011. “Using

the Load-Velocity Relationship for 1RM Pre diction.” J. Strength Cond. Res. 25(1): 267 –

70. http://www.ncbi.nlm.nih.gov/pubmed/19966589.

3. Rahmani, a, F Viale, G Dalleau, and J R Lacour. 2001. “Force/velocity and Power/velocity

Relationships in Squat Exercise.” Eur. J. Appl. Physiol.  84(3): 227 –32.

4. Conceição, Filipe et al. 2015. “Movement Velocity as a Measure of Exercise Intensity in

Three Lower Limb Exercises.” 414(September).

5. Society, Royal, and Biological Sciences. 2017. “The Heat of Shortening and the Dynamic

Constants of Muscle Author ( S ): A . V . Hill Source : Proceedings of the Royal Society of

London . Series B , Biological Sciences , Vol . 126 , Published by : Royal Society Stable

URL : http://www.jstor.org/stable/82135.” 126(843): 136–95.

6
 Section 2

MAXIMAL INTENT

7
Although this will be the shortest section of the fi ve training principles covered in this

manual, its importance cannot be overstated. Adaptations realized are ultimately

determined by the effort exerted by each athlete during training. If an athlete does not

complete a movement with the highest velocity possible, or with maximal intent, the

power produced during that movement will be insufficient to create true performance

improvements. That being said, maximal intent is likely the most critical aspect in

regards to experiencing the greatest improvements in power production. Every

movement of every training session must be completed at the highest velocity possible

at that moment. As demonstrated throughout this manual, that available velocity will

change based on the current state of the athlete, but the effort, or intent, must remain

present at all times. Regardless of the relative load on the bar, the ability to improve

one’s power producing capabilities is maximized only when each repetition is completed

with the greatest intent. Ultimately, the intended velocity of each repetition is just as

important as the actual velocity it is executed at (1-4). Whether the load is extremely high

or low, the movement must be completed with maximal intent, moving the i mplement

as rapidly as possible.

This can be seen in an example of two athletes, one training the speed-strength quality

(55% of 1RM), while the other is training the absolute strength quality (85% of 1RM).

Even though the athlete training speed-strength is using a lighter load, and therefore

will naturally achieve higher relative velocities than that of the athlete training absolute

strength, a “fast” velocity does not mean it is a maximal velocity. Unless the athlete

training speed-strength moves the load as fast as possible, with maximal intent, the

adaptations may not be fully realized. On the other hand, just because the athlete

training absolute strength will be training at a slower velocity does not mean maximal

intent should be ignored. Even with a naturally high load, slower movement, maximal

intent and maximal velocity for a given load is of great importance and can also lead to

power production adaptations (1-4).

8
As a performance coach, we commonly think in terms of science, programming and

monitoring each aspect of a training program with exact specifications and desires.

Many of these specifications of programming for improved power will be openly

discussed throughout this manual. However, when it comes down to it, the athlete

ultimately dictates the adaptations realized due to the training program. Regardless of

how accurate the load on the bar is, if the athlete is only moving the bar with 80% effort

then is optimal, desired adaptations will not be occurring. The athlete must be moving

the load with 100% effort, every single repetition. If they are not willing to provide

maximal intent in these aspects, particularly when attempting to increase power,

improvements are likely to stall.

This is one reason velocity monitoring systems can be implemented within training

programs with impressive results. Velocity monitoring systems provide immediate

feedback to each athlete. This may seem like an obvious concept, but without proper

monitoring of the athlete’s effort, the entire loading scheme may go to waste. Having a

velocity measuring device on hand to measure velocity can act as the coach’s eye. It can

give immediate feedback to the athlete and coach, allowing both parties to objectively

assess the athlete’s effort based on bar speed and load.

As athletes are competitive by nature, they will continue to push themselves to achieve

the highest number possible. This could be either compared to another athlete at the

same relative load or to a velocity goal a coach provides prior to the training session.

Either way, an athlete will complete each repetition with their maximal available

intention to attempt to achieve this goal. It then falls upon the shoulder of the coach to

dictate appropriate rest times, loads, and volume to ensure athletes are receiving the

appropriate stimulus. Each of these factors will be covered in their individual aspects in

regards to optimizing power production throughout this manual.

9
Feedback to improve intent

One of the issues with maximal intent is that it is hard to assess. As a coach, it is difficult

at times to discern whether or not a given repetition was performed with maximal

intent. This difficulty is not just limited to the coach, the athlete themselves may not

even be aware that their “full effort”, is not truly a maximal effort. This is why giving

quantitative feedback can be extremely useful. How do you know how high you jumped

if you didn't measure it? How do you know how fast the barbell moved if there was no

velocity readout? As an athlete, it is impossible to discern the difference between what

you might have thought as a good rep, and what might actually be a good rep. This is

why trying really hard doesn’t mean the rep was good. You want perfect reps as well as

effort. An athlete can try really hard to squat as fast as they can, but an extremely high

effort rep may go to waste if part of this “high effort” is an alteration in form, which

leads to greater horizontal translation and a lower bar velocity. However, if feedback in

the form of speed or jump height is given, the athlete can see whether or not their high

effort resulted in superior performance. This is how and why feedback, used as an

external cue, can lead to positive improvements in adaptations via increased intent.

What makes up a good rep:

Maximal intent + Most efficient form = Highest achievable jump height or bar velocity

In a study done by Randell and Colleagues (5), the effectiveness of velocity feedback on

training was investigated. Professional rugby players were broken up into two groups,

with each group completing an identical training program. Throughout this program,

one group received velocity feedback on their squat jumps while the other group did

not. After the six weeks, the group that received feedback achieved superior gains to

the non-feedback group. Why? The feedback allowed the subjects to know how their

performance for each jump went and whether or not a good rep was actually

performed. Theoretically, this allowed the subjects to realize what form got them to

10
their best rep and cued them to perform movements at this most efficient form

(through positive reinforcement). This is the same idea as racing against a clock. When

the stopwatch comes out, athletes tend to produce better results. Why? Again, it could

be due to the increase in motivation from the feedback, or it could simply be reinforcing

good habits. When an athlete jumps a new record for their squat jump, they may

mentally retain what the “good form” felt like. When they perform poorly, they look for

better ways to perform (6-7). Essentially, the external cue of feedback might help in

guiding their self-learning process. Think of it in terms of basketball, if you keep missing

shots, you are probably going to change your form. If you make a jump shot, you are

probably going to try and reproduce that form.

Coaches are constantly seeking the most up-to-date methods available to implement in

training for the greatest results. However, without maximal intent, or effort, from

athletes for every repetition, even the most advanced methods will prove fruitless in

their goal of improving power. New technology can further increase an athlete’s

motivation and understanding of what a “maximal effort” feels like. Tools that measure

velocity of an implement or even a jump mat can provide immediate feedback and even

create competition between multiple athletes. This added competition will further

motivate athletes to complete each repetition with their highest intent possible and

continue to reinforce those efforts in a positive manner. Only when athletes are

executing all exercises with maximal intent will the remaining four training principles

described in this manual be capable of improving power production to the fullest

extent.

11
SECTION 2 REFERENCES

1. Oliveira, F., Oliveira, A., Rizatto, and G., Denadai, S. (2013). Resistance training for

explosive and maximal strength; effects on early and late rate of force development.

 Journal of Sports Science and Medicine, 12 (3), 402-408.

2. Tillin, N., and Folland, J. (2014). Maximal and explosive strength training elicit distinct

neuromuscular adaptations, specific to the training stimulus. European Journal of

 Applied Physiology, 114(2) 365-374. doi:10.1007/s00421-013-2781-x.

3. Oliveira, F., Rizatto, G., and Denadai, B. (2013). Are early and late rate of force

development differently influenced by fast-velocity resistance training? Clinical

Physiology and Functional Imaging, 33 (4) 282-287. doi:10.1111/cpf.12025.

4. Moritani, T. Time course adaptations during strength and power training. Mechanisms

of Adaptation  (266-278).

5. Randell, A.D., Cronin, JB, Keogh, JW, Gill N.D., and Pedersen, MC. (2011). Effect of

instantaneous performance feedback during 6 weeks of velocity-based resistance

training on sport-specific performance tests. J Strength Cond Res 25: 87-93,.

6. Dunn-lewis, C., and Hooper, D. R. (2014). Positive Effects of Augmented Verbal Fe edback

on Power Production in NCAA Division I Collegiate…, (April).

7. Scientiarum, A., Science, H., and Antonio, S. (2015 ). Effects of verbal encouragement on

performance of the multistage 20 m shuttle run, (January).

12
 Section 3

ACHIEVE THE HIGHEST LEVEL OF

READINESS

13
Prior to the training of power, coaches must ensure that the body is prepared

appropriately. Like a car sitting outside in the cold needing the engine to warm up prior

to driving, an athlete requires a specific time period to ensure all physiological systems

are “turned on”. In the case of power training, this is much more than just a general

dynamic warm up that includes some movement and a type of mobility series. That

does not mean these are not important aspects of preparing an athlete, but it must be

understood that all aspects of a warm up should be completed with a specific purpose.

One of the best methods to complete this preparatory period for an athlete is through

the use of post-activation potentiation (PAP). Potentiation is experienced due to an

increase in efficiency or speed of each nerve impulse sent through the body (1). PAP is

the enhancement of an athlete’s ability to generate force with moderate or light loads

after an exercise of maximal intensity is performed. PAP is essentially the highest level

of a warm-up a coach can utilize with an athlete, as it requires full engagement of the

nervous system without the accumulation of fatigue prior to the start of training (1).

In order to both “ramp up” the nervous system while also preventing fatigue, PAP is

most typically applied with heavier loads and a low number of repetitions. These include

the highest intensities possible (~85-100%) with minimal volume, as volume leads to

fatigue, and appropriate rest times (1-3). If volume is increased and rest time reduced,

fatigue will accumulate and an athlete will enter the training session i n an already tired

state, preventing optimal power training. These parameters can all be met with short

range of motion movements or isometric exercises, with focus placed on maximal intent

and effort.

As stated above, the dynamic warm-up and movement aspects are still critical for the

preparation of training, but the addition of PAP to a warm-up has the ability to maximize

power production throughout the training session. An example warm-up, including each

of these components, can be seen on the following page. When this warm-up method is

14
implemented correctly, an athlete will enter the training session in a “primed” state,

meaning their nervous system is set to perform highly explosive, powerful movements

to their greatest ability.

15
 Applied Principles of Optimal Power Development
Pre-Training, Multi-Dimensional Warm-Up
Block 1 General Dynamic Series Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Jog w/ Arm Circles 1 x 10Y
B Shuffle w/ Arm Circles 1 x 10Y EA
C Carioca 1 x 10Y EA
D Skipping for Height 1 x 10Y
Perform A-D as a General Dynamic Warm-Up Series
Block 2 Multi-Dimensional Movement Series Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Spiderman-Reach-Hamstring 1 x 5 EA Eyes Follow Reach
B Kneel. 3-Way Hip Flex + OH Reach 1 x 5 EA Max Hip ROM
C Standing T-Up Rotation 1 x 5 EA Max Hip ROM, Knee Locked Out
D Staggered Stance Squat 1 x 5 EA Toes Straight Ahead, Drive Back Knee
E Staggered Stance 3-Way RDL 1 x 3 EA 3-FWD, 3-RT, 3-LT, EA Leg
F Lateral to Cross-Under Lunge 1 x 5 EA Keep Feet Flat, Hips Square
o
G 45  Glute Hydrant 1 x 30s EA Green/Blue Glutes in all three planes
Perform A-G as a Multi-Dimensional Movement Warm-Up Series
Block 3 Neural Prep. Series Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Tuck Jump 1 x 5 Max Height
Perform A as a Neural Prep. Warm-Up Series Prior to Training
Block 4 Post-Activation Potentiation Warm-Up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Hex Bar Pin Pull 3 x 5s Maximal Low Position
Perform A as a Post-Activation Potentiation Warm-Up Prior to Training
Figure 3.1: Possible warm up sequence to “prime” an athlete for power training. Each exercise is hyperlinked for simplicity

16
Post Activation Potentiation

PAP involves a systemic and local response. The high intensity, short range of motion,

minimally fatiguing exercise allows for specific musculature to be targeted while

engaging the system as a whole. All planned contraction begins in the central nervous

system (4), which means excitation and arousal of the nervous system does not

necessarily require a local stimulus (specific muscle group). However, the usage of local

stimulation (targeting specific areas) will increase local muscular activity, blood flow,

temperature, and local neural mechanisms. The combination of both systemic and local

priming will allow for optimal readiness.

As demonstrated above, in the warm up example, isometric movements can be

implemented easily in the PAP model. Exercises such as pin pulls require minimal setup

and can be controlled based on their duration. This allows a maximal contraction for a

brief amount of time, which serves as both a systemic and local stimulator, while also

minimizing possible fatigue.

As there is only a small load initially with these isometric movements, coaching athletes

to “bend the pins” or “move the rack” can be effective for an athlete to realize the level

of force they should be producing during these exercises. These exercises should not be

completed for extended periods of time, because fatigue increases with duration.

Typically, from what we have noted in workouts, timed sets of five seconds are able to

produce effective results due to PAP. For exercises that require repetitions, short sets of

three to five repetitions will elicit an appropriate increase in the neural drive, along with

the other physiological changes realized due to PAP.

It is critical all coaches continue to respect the rest time required in order to ensure

fatigue is not induced during these preparatory PAP exercises. The nervous system

requires “high-quality” training and must be allowed to recover appropriately between

17
each PAP movement. Just as maximal speed training requires rest time between

repetitions, coaches must allow full recovery between PAP exercises to reduce fatigue

accumulation. Due to the intense nature of these training exercises, it is suggested that

at least one minute up to two or more minutes should be allowed between sets for the

timed sets or repetitions suggested above. Performance coaches must understand rest

time if quality repetitions are to be completed. This concept of quality training will be

discussed in greater detail in the “Maintain Velocity” section of this manual.

These PAP principles can be applied to training daily if desired. The maximal isometric

PAP options require minimal setup and can be executed for a short amount of time. This

training not only increases neural drive, but can also be implemented to increase

strength in specific ranges of motion (5). These adaptations can be especially important

for an athlete, or group of athletes, that require increased strength in low positions.

Leading to not only improved neural drive, but an increase in force production, which is

critical to maximizing power output.

18
Physiologically Induced Changes from PAP

Increase in high threshold motor unit recruitment (6)

● Greater utilization of explosive muscle fibers

● Allows greater force in a rapid fashion

Decrease in pennation angle (6)

● Smaller pennation angle allows for greater mechanical advantage for muscle to act

upon the tendon

● Pennation angle change is roughly ~1% change in transmission

Increase in calcium sensitivity (6)

● Potentiation of subsequent muscular contractions

● Regulatory Light Chain phosphorylation increases calcium sensitivity

Theoretical Changes Based On Variables That Positively Influence Power

Increase in rate of coding (7,8)

● Speed of signal being sent to muscle

● Increased “doublets” or reduced time between impulses sent during contraction

● Increases speed and power of contraction

Increase in muscle temperature

● Thermal response to a warm up

● Increases speed of contraction

● Better contractile environment

● Increase in enzymatic activity (5)

19
Increase in central drive (4)

● Central nervous system controls all

● Nervous system is “turned on” or “primed”

● Coordination of muscle activity by CNS

● High level force exertion is a skill in which muscles must be appropriately activated

Examples of PAP exercises

Coaches can implement any of the following movements right into the warm up

provided above in Figure 3.1. In this example, e xercise 1 is used as a demonstration, but

any exercise listed below can replace it to achieve a more specific warm-up based on

the prescribed exercises for the upcoming training session.

For example, if a double leg exercise, such as back squat or deadlift is programmed, an

appropriate PAP exercise would be the trap bar deadlift pin pull, high handle trap bar

lifts, or high pin back squats. If the major exercise of the day is single leg based, such as

a split squat, the split squat pin pulls would be most appropriate. Upper body exercises

should also be matched according to their push or pull demands.

20
PAP Exercise Options

Trap Bar Deadlift Pin Pull:

This exercise is great for double leg, total body force development. The pin height can

be easily adjusted to allow strength adaptations to be made at specific j oint angles while

continuing to potentiate the CNS. Because the athlete is pulling into the locked pins,

minimal setup time is required and if in a group setting there is no need to unload or

load the bar between athletes. Body positioning is critical in this movement as the

athlete is producing maximal tension throughout their body. Athletes with previous

back issues should consider other options that provide a more vertical trunk position,

such as the split squat pin pull.

21
Split Squat Pin Pull:

This exercise is similar to the Trap bar pin pull, but is now completed on a single leg.

Coaches should continue to be aware of both joint angle and body positioning to ensure

the athlete is achieving a safe and appropriate stimulus. Athletes, when first being

taught this exercise, tend to lean too far forward with their trunk. This can usually be

adjusted by coaching them to “pull the bar up through their hips” as they will give

themselves a better vertical lever with this cue.

22
SL Leg Press Max Iso:

This exercise can be implemented for athletes unable to grip a bar due to shoulder

issues, or those that can only train a single leg. For example, this an excellent option for

an athlete with an AC joint sprain or coming off of labral issues. There is still maximal

tension created, so the CNS can be maximized through this exercise. However, as gravity

is no longer a factor, as it is not ground based, kinetics of force transfer will be altered

and it may not be as specific as other barbell movements. Plates are loaded up to a

weight that the athlete is no longer able to move and the safety catch is set to the

desired height (red circle). Again, with the supramaximal weight applied, maximal

tension, and thus the activation of the CNS, occurs to the highest extent. Setup is still

relatively minimal and joint angles can be set according to the desires of the coach. This

exercise can be completed with either a single or double leg.

23
Bench Press Pin Press:

This exercise is an upper body example PAP exercise. Again this requires minimal setup

time and can be adjusted to a specific joint angle according to an athlete’s needs or the

phase of training. There is no need to load the bar, because this is an isometric exercise.

By loading the bar, the coach only makes the movement more dangerous.

24
Prone Max Iso Row:

This exercise is another upper body example PAP exercise. This prone movement can be

incorporated to ensure the posterior side of the upper body is “ramped up”. By loading

up the bar to a weight that cannot be lifted, a coach is able to create another maximal

force contraction in a controlled setting. The prone position also allows maximal force to

be utilized by the pulling musculature, and ensures the low back is kept in a safe

position. This exercise can be implemented when an upper body pull exercise i s the

major exercise of the day.

25
Other PAP Options:

Back Squat Rack Holds

Front Squat Rack Holds

Pin Squats

High Box Squats

Bench Press from Pins

High Handle Trap Bar Deadlifts

Olympic Variants

Block Clean Pull

Block Snatch Pull

Clean from Floor

Snatch from Floor

*With Olympic variants that involve a catch, a coach might want to use a smaller than

usual number of repetitions (1-2), because two movements, a pull and a squat, are being

coupled.

Guidelines for PAP

Figure 3.2 below demonstrates suggested sets, times/repetitions, load, as well as rest

time for the PAP exercises listed above. As you can see, the maximal isometric exercises

consist of timed sets, as repetitions are not possible, while the high load exercises

incorporate few repetitions. This ensures quality is kept and the athlete does not enter

the training session in a fatigued state. Regardless of the method or exercise selected,

appropriate rest time is critical. This time allows an athlete to recover from the high

intensity PAP exercise prior to the completion of their next set. With this longer,

26
required rest time coaches can implement “pre-hab” exercises based on the needs of

their athletes. This could include hip or shoulder preparation training for the upcoming

session. With the low level stress applied by many of these exercises, athletes are still

able to recover from the PAP exercise, which maintains quality training, while also

working on other aspects of performance. This allows coaches to program efficiently

with their limited time while coaching athletes. While completing a PAP exercise an

athlete must produce maximal intent in their maximal isometric or high load exercises.

Without this intent, the goal of training is lost.

Figure 3.2: Guidelines for PAP Exercise utilization. These should be implemented as the final

warm-up prior to the start of power training. Keep volume low and allow rest between sets so

fatigue is not accumulated.

Any of these PAP exercises can be applied within a warm up protocol as shown in the

early pages of this section. That being said there are still general guidelines that should

be followed when programming a PAP exercise. Besides the appropriate volume, load,

and rest time, which ensure the CNS is primed, but not fatigued at the start of the

training session, coaches can also implement an exercise based on the major exercise

programmed for the day.

Coaches can also program PAP exercises based on the requirements of each athlete

and/or sport. For example, a volleyball team that lacks strength in low positions can be

trained using the trap bar deadlift and split squat to improve the strength in these

ranges. However, as the season approaches, more specific exercises such as a lateral

lunge pin pull and split squat pin pull with the knee over the toe can be applied. As

covered already, strength is improved according to the specific joint angles utilized.

27
Ankle position is not excluded from this concept. If the goal of a performance coach is to

produce athletes capable of playing in low hip positions, it is critical they are trained in

those positions, incorporating both the ankle and the hip. When these concepts are

considered, coaches are able to program along a continuum, working from general to

specific. By training athletes to not only be strong in their weakest positions, but to also

be even stronger in the specific positions required in their competitive event, the ability

to maximize transfer of training is increased. Critical thinking and well thought out

application of these principles are both key in the implementation of these PAP

exercises. Never simply choose an exercise to choose one. When utilized efficiently, PAP

exercises can be used to not only potentiate the CNS, but also to improve strength in

the specific positions according to the demands of the sport or needs of the athlete.

28
SECTION 3 REFERENCES

1. Lorenz, D. (2011) Post-Activation Potentiation: An Introduction. International Journal of

Sports Physical Therapy. 6 (3), pp. 234-240.

2. Hodgson M, Docherty D, Robbins D. Post-Activation Potentiation Motor Performance.

2005;35(7):585-595.

3. Matthews M, O'Conchuir C, Comfort P. The acute effects of heavy and light resistances

on the flight time of a basketball push-pass during upper body complex training. J

Strength Cond Res. 2009; 23(7): 1988 –199

4. Verkoshansky, Y, Siff, M. (2009). Supertraining (6th ed.). Rome, Italy.

5. Brooks, G.A., Fahey, T.D., & White, T.P. (2005). Exercise Physiology: Human

bioenergetics and its applications. London: McGraw-Hill Education.

6. Zatsiorsky, VM and Kraemer, W. J. (1995) S cience and practice of strength and

conditioning Champain, IL; Human Kinetics

7. Andersen, L., Andersen, J., Zebis, M., Aagaard, P. (2009). Early and late rate of force

development: differential adaptive responses to resistance training? Scandinavian

 Journal of Medicine & Science in Sports, 20 (1), 162-169. doi:10.1111/j.1600-

0838.2009.00933.x.

8. Tillin, N., Pain, M., Folland, J. (2012) Short-term training for explosive strength c auses

neural and mechanical adaptations. Experimental Physiology, 97 (5), 630-641.

doi:10.1113/expphysiol.2011.063040.

29
 Section 4

Optimal Load

30
Once an athlete’s nervous system has been appropriately prepared for power training

through the use of PAP, the appropriate loads must be implemented throughout the

training session. As covered in an earlier section, power is a direct product of both force

and velocity. With the understanding of the force-velocity curve, previously shown in

Figure 1.1, loads must be utilized that optimize this relationship. Depending on the

exercise, appropriate power loads can range from body weight for jumps to 80% of an

athlete’s one rep max hang clean (1). Clearly this is a wide range of loads available to

train power and depending on the exercise the optimal percentage of 1RM will vary, but

coaches must ensure they are providing an appropriate stimulus for the desired

adaptation.

It is also important coaches understand the training age of their athletes and how that

has the capability of effecting their power production. If an athlete lacks basic strength,

the ability to complete power work to the fulle st extent will be reduced. Strength forms

the foundation of power, which becomes clear with force output being one of the two

aspects determining the power equation (Power = Force x Velocity).

Before actual training within this appropriate range of loads is completed, coaches must

first determine where each individual athlete’s range lies. There is obviously no single

load that will be optimal for all exercises. Ranges between exercises can vary. Even

when focusing on one specific exercise, there may be a range of loads that will be

optimal for different athletes. With the optimal load of power ranging fairly wide within

a given exercise, from 30-50% of a 1RM for the bench press, see Figure 4.1 below, there

is clearly room for some error while still maintaining a relatively high power output (may

not be perfect, but “in the ballpark”). However, as needs become more specific, such as

speed-strength and strength-speed, coaches must be capable of determining the exact

loads an athlete requires. The best test a coach can perform to determine optimal

power loads is to test an athlete using a linear position transducer (LPT) or force plate.

However, this technique is not always available for coaches.

31
For more information on force-velocity profiling, see pages (108)

Figure 4.1. Modified table form Haff and Kawamori (2): Optimal load range for power production

for different exercises along with their original author demonstrating the findings

The Specificity of Power

Specificity is of great importance for a sport coach. However, in the weight room it is

difficult for any “skill” specific movements to be trained. Instead, the weight room is

typically geared towards making the athlete’s physiology more specific, or compatible

with the sport. For example, increasing cross-sectional area of the muscle increases the

muscle’s force producing capabilities. An increase in force producing capabilities

theoretically means a possible increase in performance. However, specificity in the

weight room is much more than just increasing a muscle’s size. Specificity can also be

related to the speed at which the movement is done. For example, it has been shown in

several studies that adaptations realized are velocity specific. Meaning the strength

gains found in testing are most prominent at the vel ocities in which training was

completed (3).

32
This presents an issue for coaches as the ability to train at the exact speeds required in

competition is rarely possible, due to the fact movements are completed at such high

velocities. However, for a given movement in the weight room, power is able to be

easily be targeted. Theoretically, targeting power may bring about more “sport specific”

physiological adaptations that are associated with an increase i n sporting performance

(2)
. With optimal power training loads having this large range, coaches must select

training loads appropriate to the specific desired adaptation. Although the ultimate goal

is to improve power production, there are other avenues of specific adaptations

through the utilization of different training loads which fall within this l arge, available

range.

By splitting up these ranges into categories such as “strength-speed”, “speed-strength”

and “speed”, a coach theoretically has the ability to more specifically program training

sessions to elicit desired adaptations realized by the athlete.

Strength-Speed

● Strength is listed first, thus is the first priority: Higher loading implemented

● Adaptations more aimed at the force aspect of P = F*V

● Even though higher percentage, important to still apply maximal intent (move

the bar as fast as possible)

● Example: Squatting at 65-75% of 1RM, strength based, but still capable of

moving the bar at moderate velocity (NOT maximal strength work)

Speed-Strength

● Speed is listed first, thus is the first priority: Moderate/Lower loads implemented

● Adaptations more aimed at the velocity aspect of P = F*V

● Continue to move the bar as fast as possible

● Example: Squatting at 45-55% of 1RM, still focused on speed, but still moderate

load

33
Speed

● Speed is the only word, thus the only priority: Low loads implemented

● Adaptations entirely aimed at the velocity aspect of P = F*V

● Now about how much force can be produced in minimal time (might not be

highest level of power production

● Most transferrable to sport, but must train all other aspects to see maximal

transfer

● Example: Squat jumps at 0-15% of 1RM

If muscular power is desired, it is theoretically possible that there are intrinsic

adaptations that occur with power training that differs from “traditional” training. It

most likely has to do with neural properties, or muscle fiber shifting. Therefore, training

movements that bring about higher power outputs could theoretically improve these

adaptations for power production (2-6).

These findings, in conjunction with older studies, suggest that training at specific

velocities leads to the greatest increases in strength and power at these executed

velocities. Which means, if we train at a velocity or load related to the highest power

outputs, then we might theoretically be training power in the most effi cient way.

Ultimately adaptations realized by an athlete may be specific to the loads and velocities

in which they are trained. With power depending upon both force and velocity, it is

critical each are trained in an individual manner, with each receiving specific stress at

certain times throughout training. By attacking each of these aspects, power production

can be improved throughout the entirety of the force-velocity curve in the most specific

and efficient manner possible.

The understanding of velocity specific training can be seen in the example shown below.

Figure 4.2 is a force-velocity profile shown from one of the authors. The first column

34
demonstrates the percentage of 1RM utilized in the lift, while column two depicts the

velocity at which the implement was displaced. Columns three and four show the power

output of the movement and the location on the force-velocity curve, respectively. As

the load decreases (column one), the velocity at which the i mplement is moved

increases (column two).

With power output being equivalent to the product of the force and velocity, optimal

power is achieved when both are demonstrated at a high level. This can be seen at the

60% load with the exercise completed at .9 m/s as this yellow row is labeled “Optimal

Power” in the furthest right column. Training goals, such as strength, strength-speed,

speed-strength, and many others are also listed in this figure based on the velocity the

exercise is completed at. This figure should allow coaches to understand how the

manipulation of training loads can drastically change the outcomes of training, and thus

the adaptations realized by an athlete.

35
Figure 4.2: Example of an athlete’s velocity-%of 1RM-power profile. The left column is the

athlete’s percentage of 1RM. The Middle column is the corresponding velocity for a given

percentage of 1RM and the left column is percentage of Power (max power 100% occurring at 9

m/s).

36
Figure 4.3 below depicts the identical information, but now with the relative power

curve also included. The x-axis is the velocity of the movement (column two), while the

y-axis shows the percentage the movement was completed at. Between these two axes

demonstrate both velocity and force, respectively. By using the same color scheme as

Figure 4.2, this athlete’s force-velocity line can be easily viewed. Finally, the relative

power curve of this individual athlete (column three) can be seen in a more applicable

way. By understanding where the athlete produces maximal power for each exercise, a

coach can implement training loads accordingly.

Figure 4.3: Each shaded region is labeled using the ter minology the authors saw best fit. The

graph can be used to help interpret the categories of training while reading the below table

from Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues.

How to specifically train regions of the force-velocity curve

As mentioned above, training specific regions of the force-velocity curve (speed-

strength, strength-speed, speed, etc.) may be of interest when developing a program for

an athlete. This section is going to quickly go over a study to illustrate how such training

can be done, and what kind of evidence there i s to support these specific adaptations.

37
Pedro Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues (8) published one of the most thorough and in

depth investigations (in our opinion) of the effects of f orce - velocity specific training on

the vertical jump. In short, this study highlighted specific deficiencies of individuals

based on their jumping force-velocity profile and then proceeded to develop a training

program geared towards improving those specific deficiencies. In the study, movements

were broken up into either, strength, strength-power, power, power-speed, or speed

emphasis. The nomenclature that they used reflects very closely to the common

nomenclature used here in the United States of, absolute strength, strength-speed,

optimal power, speed-strength, explosive, and speed (see Figure 4.2 and 4.3 above).

In this same study, Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues listed out the exercises and intensities

used to target these specific needs. However, before analyzing their protocol, it is

important to note that the below exercises are designed to improve vertical force vector

production. The below list is not complete, nor perfect, but i t is research proven and

should spark some creative ideas.

38
Figure 4.4: Exercises and the specific perce ntages that correlate with their power development

qualities are listed (8).

By understanding and programming optimal load based on desired power adaptation,

coaches are able to maximize the outcomes of their training protocols.

39
SECTION 4 REFERENCES

1. Cormie P, McBride JM, McCaulley GO. Validation of power measurement tec hniques in

dynamic lower body resistance exercises. J Appl Biomech. 2007;23(2):103-118.

2. Kawamori, N. and Haff, G. (2004) The optimal training load for the development of

muscular power. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning, 18(3), 675-684.

3. Rodgers, M. M., & Whipple, R. H. (1990). Specificity of speed of exercise. The Journal of

Orthopedic and Sports Physical Therapy, 12(2), 72 –78.

4. Kawamori, N., & Newton, R. U. (2006). Velocity Specificity of Resistance Training: Actual

Movement Velocity Versus Intention to Move Explosively. Strength and Conditioning

Journal, 28(2), 86.

5. Sayers, S. P., & Gibson, K. (2012). Effects of high-speed power training on muscle

performance and braking speed in older adults. Journal of Aging Research.

6. Pareja-Blanco, F., Rodriguez-Rosell, D., Sanchez-Medina, L., Gorostiaga, E. M., &

Gonzalez-Badillo, J. J. (2014). Effect of movement velocity during resistance training on

neuromuscular performance. International Journal of Sports Medicine, 35(11), 916 –924.

7. Haff GG, Nimphius S. Training Principles for Power.  J Strength Cond Res. 2012;34(6):2-

12. doi:10.1519/SSC.0b013e31826db467.

8. Jiménez-Reyes P, Samozino P, Brughelli M, Morin JB. Effectiveness of an individualized

training based on force-velocity profiling during jumping. Front Physiol . 2017;7(JAN):1-

13. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00677.

40
 Section 5

MAINTAIN VELOCITY

41
Returning to the power equation (P = F*V), power is ultimately dependent on force and

velocity. The force aspect of power production was covered in the previous section on

optimal loading. With the external force (load) remaining constant throughout the

exercise, which remains true for all free weight exercises unless accommodating

resistance is implemented, power is then reliant on the velocity at which the external

load is moved. As an athlete moves a bar with greater speed, the power will increase.

For this reason, the importance of maintaining velocity for the entirety of the training

session, regardless of the load selected, becomes clear.

In order for coaches to ensure velocity is maintained, quality of repetitions must remain

the goal of training. Power training requires quality training, meaning the number of

repetitions completed must remain short, with a high velocity. High-quality training

maximizes the ability of the performance quality to function at the highest intensities.

For example, a single maximal effort sprint can be applied to increase maximal velocity
(1)
. Work capacity training, on the other hand, focuses on improving the performance

qualities ability to be used for an extended period. The ability of an athlete to complete

repeated, high velocity sprints relies much more on their work capacity. This same high-

quality approach to speed training can also be applied to exercises in the weight room.

As repetitions creep up, the ability of an athlete to recover appropriately and produce

high speed movements, whether that be sprinting or bar speed, decreases (1).

Ultimately, excessive volume will lead to repeated, sub-maximal, power production and

increased focus on capacity training. Clearly this is counterintuitive if the desired

outcome is to increase an athlete’s ability to produce maximal power.

The CNS requires quality training for adaptations to be seen. Training an athlete for

maximal speed is a simple example of this. If coaches are training their athletes to run

faster, then they must very simply do that. RUN FAST. As the total volume of running

experienced by an athlete increases, or the rest time decreases, the ability of an athlete

to produce the same maximal velocity is reduced. This same principle applies to training

42
power output. As the number of repetitions/sets increases, the recovery time required

to continuously produce maximal power is increased. This is due to the accumulated

fatigue experienced by both the CNS and the muscle tissue completing the movement. If

this concept of quality work is not implemented appropriately during power training, an

athlete’s CNS will fatigue rapidly, leading to a decrease in bar velocity and ultimately a

reduction in power output.

Many coaches, in general, tend to excel in work capacity training, or the ability to

continue to push their athletes to the brink of exhaustion. Most athletes would agree

they have endured grueling conditioning drills where, by the end, there is nothing left in

the tank. It is important to note this manual is not stating difficult training sessions,

aimed at improving work capacity, are not vital for sport performance. However, these

workouts are not designed to improve power output to the fullest extent. Coaches must

always remember to “keep the main goal the main goal”. If increasing power output in

an exercise or movement is the goal of training, then every effort must be made to

ensure each athlete is provided the appropriate stimulus to achieve this adaptation.

Methods to ensure quality is maintained include, clusters sets, bar speed measures, and

finally autoregulation of the training session using velocity cut offs. Only when these

methods are implemented appropriately, can a coach ensure each athlete is achieving

the appropriate stimulus for improving power production.

Cluster Sets

One of the best methods available to maintain a high velocity movement, and thus

increase power output, is through the implementation of cluster sets (2,3). Cluster sets

allow an athlete to perform a relatively high volume, with adequate rest, while velocity

is retained than if standard sets are completed. In other words, cluster sets allow

maximal power output for a greater amount of time by utilizing higher quality training
(4)
. As power training requires intense outputs from the athlete, cluster sets allow

43
greater repetitions to be completed with higher velocities than otherwise possible.

Maintaining a small drop off in bar speed during resistance training (which means higher

power outputs) showed greater increases in total power production than those that had

a larger drop off in velocity (5).

For example, if an athlete is squatting 80% of their 1RM and the coach has programmed

3 repetitions with the goal of improving power, the athlete will likely be capable of

completing each of these repetitions with a desired bar speed, or power output.

However, this is a relatively small stimulus for an athlete and will likely not lead to a

large change in their power output. As many understand the concept of overload, a

coach may simply add more sets to increase the stress placed upon an athlete. As the

number of sets are increased, the ability of an athlete to complete sets of 3 reps at 80%

of their 1RM with the highest velocity possible will decrease dramatically. By the third

set, unless ample rest time is provided, it is likely the athlete is no longer able to

produce relative high amounts of power (when compared to their abilities in the first

set), leading to training in the capacity manner rather than quality. This returns to the

concept of speed training discussed earlier, as volume increases and rest time remains

the same or decreases, the ability to train with maximal effort, or quality work, is

diminished.

Through the use of cluster sets, a coach could apply many of those same parameters

(80% 1RM, with the goal of double digit repetitions) to maximize power training. For

example, the same athlete is completing the same load, but now completes a single

repetition, rests for 20 seconds, completes a second repetition, again rests 20 seconds,

and completes a third repetition. This cluster method has still completed a set of three,

but broken up, or clustered the repetitions. The first set of cluster repetitions may show

similar bar speeds compared to the regular set of 3 repetitions, however a large

discrepancy in velocity will be seen by set three as an athlete will experience less fatigue

44
due to the cluster method (Figures 5.1 and 5.2). Cluster sets allow increased quality

stress to be placed upon an athlete, which is critical for velocity to be maintained and

for maximal power output to be achieved. The short rest time between repetitions in

the cluster set allows the re-synthesis, although it be only partial, of the short-burst

energy systems and allows recovery time for the CNS. By including these short rest

times between repetitions, each repetition is accomplished with maximum or near

maximum velocity and force, resulting in maximal power output. These cluster sets

ensure an athlete is completing maximal or near maximal efforts each and every

workout, leading to the greatest improvements in power production possible.

Figure 5.1: Mean velocity is greatly reduced by the end of a six rep set is completed.

45
Figure 5.2: By clustering the set of 6 reps, with a short break for recovery every two reps, mean

velocity remains much higher. This allows increased power production and adaptation.

Fatigue within a Cluster Set

An example of the reduction in fatigue through the use of cluster sets can be seen again

below in Figure 5.3. Two athletes are shown throughout a workout below. Both start at

the power production ability at the beginning of the training session (black dotted line).

However, the athlete on the left, is utilizing sets of 3 repetitions, while the athlete on

the right is implementing cluster sets of 3. Each athlete’s ability declines after each set,

however, the athlete training using clusters (right), declines at a much slower rate as

they are allowed a small recovery time between each repetition. This allows the athlete

on the right to complete a greater number of quality repetitions, meaning an increased

training stress is placed on the power producing capabilities of the athlete.

46
Figure 5.3: Quality compared to capacity training. If appropriate periodization and rest times are

not applied, an athlete will fatigue rapidly, reducing the amount of power they can repeatedly

produce (red solid line). This reduction in power output can be avoided with the implementation

of cluster sets (green solid line).

This is just one example of a cluster set option as there are multiple ways to perform

these sets. Other cluster options will be covered in the upcoming section. Regardless of

the cluster set option selected, there are a few rules that should be followed to ensure

an athlete can produce repetitive, high-effort movements. Firstly, the bar must be

returned to the rack/floor between cluster repetitions. If an athlete is required to hold

the implement during their rest time, they will recover to a lesser extent than if

complete recovery was allowed. Secondly, allow a minimum of ten seconds between

repetitions.

Even with this short amount of rest between repetitions, as little as ten seconds, an elite

level athlete, who has been trained appropriately in their three energy systems, will be

capable of producing repeated, high-intensity movements. Lastly, cluster sets are

designed to prevent accumulated fatigue. This correlates with the second rule, but

coaches must remember when implementing cluster sets that quality, and ultimately

the velocity of movement remains the goal. The greater number of repetitions an

athlete can complete with maximal velocity, the greater improvements in power. This

returns to the idea of training with a high quality to allow maximal adaptations to be

realized in the most efficient manner. This ensures the neurological effect remains high

47
throughout every rep and successive sets. This is a method that can be applied to both

lower and upper body exercises.

There are no black and white answers in training, no one single program will necessarily

elicit the same results in multiple athletes. Clusters must be applied in training with the

same mentality. Coaches must recognize and understand appropriate programming

based on their ultimate goal. If the highest quality of repetitions are desired, then

clusters of single repetitions at maximal intensity should be considered. If the goal of

the training session is to increase repeated power output, then the set and repetition

scheme must be changed to match these needs, commonly through the use of doubles

and occasionally triples, depending upon the level of athlete.

There will never be a “one size fits all” program, or even repetition scheme for cluster

implementation, however a coach can improve training session efficiency by

understanding how different schemes can be applied to achieve different adaptation

outcomes. Regardless of what set and rep scheme you choose, keep in mind that the

reason why the cluster methods are being utilized is to maintain velocity. As soon as this

goal is lost, it is likely the desired adaptation of increased power will likely be reduced.

Measuring Speed Appropriately: Peak vs. Mean Velocities

With recent advances in technology, the ability of coaches to ensure e ach athlete is

receiving the appropriate stress, or stimulus, has been improved tremendously. It is

critical that all coaches understand the desired outcome of the training session prior to

the implementation of technology. These technology options include bar speed

measurements and vertical jump testing. These not only serve as a form of immediate

feedback of athlete output, but can also serve as a determinant of athlete “readiness”.

This “readiness” testing will be discussed in the fatigue management section.

48
It is imperative that the coach is utilizing the correct form of velocity measurement with

this newly available technology. The majority of velocity measuring devices will provide

coaches with a readout of both, peak velocity and mean velocity. These are two entirely

different measurements and must be utilized with the understanding of such. Mean

velocity is most appropriately utilized for non-ballistic movements, while peak velocity

will provide a better predictor of ballistic movement power.

Non-ballistic movements are implemented when the bar, or athlete does not become a

projectile. In these movements the object or athlete is terminated with a complete

stoppage. There is both an acceleration and deceleration phase in these exercises. In

these exercises the knowledge of the mean velocity throughout the movement will be

more beneficial for coaches in determining power output. As the implement does not

become a projectile and there is a natural deceleration phase at the termination of non-

ballistic movements. Coaches will find much more accurate power output readings if the

mean velocity is utilized, as it considers both the acceleration and deceleration phases,

rather than the maximal speed of the bar at just one point in the exercise. Barbell

training exercises such as squat and bench press are both non-ballistic movement

examples.

On the other hand, a ballistic movement is classified as an exercise in which the athlete

or bar does become a projectile and there is no deceleration phase. Ballistic training

methods are classified as the implement or athlete continues to increase in velocity until

the very end of the movement. Peak velocity is more applicable during ballistic

movements as the focus of the exercise is how high or how far the implement will

travel. Peak velocity and exit velocity are strongly correlated with each other (6). It is this

exit velocity, or the velocity at which the projectile is no longer being acted upon by a

force (other than gravity) that will ultimately determine the distance traveled by the

object. A jump, or throw are simple examples of ballistic exercises. When an athlete

performs a jump, coaches are concerned with the height of the jump. It is the velocity at

49
which the athlete leaves the ground, or the speed at which the implement is released

that determines distance traveled. Thus, peak velocity, or the exit velocity, is more

important for these training modalities than mean velocity. Depending on the exercise

the athlete is performing, the kinetic qualities may greatly differ (ballistic or non-

ballistic). By understanding these differences in exercises, coaches are more able to

apply appropriate velocity measurement techniques.

Not only are the velocity monitoring methods different for non-ballistic and ballistic

movements, but the actual velocities throughout an exercise differ between the two

movement types. For example, when an identical load (45%) is implemented with either

a bench press throw (ballistic) or a bench press (non-ballistic), the bench press throw

elicited greater velocities throughout nearly the entire range of motion (7). Not only

were the velocities greater for the matched load ballistic bench throw, it was also

demonstrated that the ballistic version of the exercise induced greater force outputs,

and in turn, greater EMG activity. Meaning, not only was force production maximized

with both increased velocity and force, but there were also a greater number of motor

units recruited in the movement. By recruiting these more explosive muscle fibers,

greater adaptations might be seen over the long-term.

Based on the information provided above, it is easy to assume that ballistic movements

will be preferred in training compared to their non-ballistic counterparts. However,

despite the previously described physiological reasons, coaches do not live in a world

that is governed by only a single principle. Coaches must always consider the safety of

each athlete as well. In the case of the bench press throw, the deceleration of the bar,

which is now a projectile, must be taken into account. If you have an athlete capable of

benching 400lbs, this means 180lbs (45% 1RM) is being hurled through the air at high

velocities. Repeating this exercise for multiple sets and reps only increases the likelihood

of experiencing a catastrophic injury to one or multiple athletes. Although the benefits

of bench throw are greater than the traditional bench press, they do not outweigh the

50
potential for injury of this ballistic method of training.

Besides the already described physical and physiological qualities that differentiate

ballistic and non-ballistic movements, there are theoretical motor learning issues with

non-ballistic exercises as well. As previously described, non-ballistic exercises involve an

active deceleration phase at the end of each repetition. Some argue this deceleration

will actually teach poor movement patterns. In the majority of sporting movements, the

end range is actually where the athlete is moving with the highest velocity. Sprinting is a

simple example of this concept. However, during a squat, this is not the case as the

athlete must decelerate at the top of the movement. At the range of motion where

velocity is typically the highest in a sporting movement (sprinting), velocity is at its

lowest in a non-ballistic movement (squatting). In theory, a non-ballistic exercise could

be teaching the athlete’s body to slow down in its most important phase of movement.

Clearly there are both positives and negatives to both ballistic and non-ballistic training

modalities. With the understanding that ballistic exercises produce the greatest

physiological responses, and with the only negative being the “catch” issue of the

projectile, there have been specific methods developed and utilized to make a non-

ballistic exercise “semi-ballistic”. Ultimately the kinetics are attempted to be created

similar to that of a ballistic exercise, but with no projection of the load or body at the

termination of the movement. One of these more popular methods is the

Compensatory Acceleration Training concept, or CAT.

The CAT method was developed and popularized by Dr. Fred Hatfield, who was also

known as “Doctor Squat”. The concept behind this method is to actively accelerate the

implement throughout the movement and essentially “manually override” the kinetic

principles that typically apply to non-ballistic exercises. Despite the logic behind this CAT

method, it can be theorized that through this active acceleration through the end range

of motion that unnecessary stress will be placed on the passive structures that are now

51
required to stop the implement from becoming a projectile. Returning to the athlete

capable of benching 400lbs, even at lighter loads (45%), that athlete is still attempting to

accelerate 180lbs through their end range of motion. This leads to potentially excessive

stress being placed on the elbow joint and ligaments as the athlete is moving a load with

maximal intention through end range. Obviously this example is extreme as 400lb bench

athletes are rare, but even with a younger athlete this CAT method does have the

potential to place unnecessary stress on both joints and ligaments.

Other Considerations in Ballistic vs. Non-Ballistic Movements

Accommodating Resistance

Accommodating resistance follows a similar principle to that of CAT training. It is

designed around making non-ballistic exercise more ballistic in nature, without having

to make the barbell a projectile. Accommodating resistance is typically done with the

addition of either bands or chains. The concept of bands and chains is to increase the

force aspect of the movement, which in turn will allow the athlete to maintain and

possibly increase velocity as the barbell goes through the full range of motion. By

increasing the mass, the accommodating resistance is attempting to mimic a similar

EMG and force profile to that of a ballistic movement.

Bands versus Chains

There are some subtle, yet important differences between the effects of bands and

chains on a movement. Chains are a concentric only overload. They decrease in load as

the bar is lowered and is increased as the bar is raised. Because they do not have the

same elastic qualities of bands, they will not actively pull the athlete down through the

eccentric range of motion. Another difference is that chains have a linear fit to the

strength curve (each link is a specific weight and bar weight increases linearly with an

52
increase in range of motion), while a band has a more hyperbolic curve of resistance,

decreasing as range of motion increases. The bands increase tension the greatest

through the earlier ranges of motion and decrease the amount of tension i t increases by

as the bar goes through the greater range of concentric range of motion. Finally,

because bands are elastic, they can be used to overload the speed of the eccentric

portion. Bands will actively pull the bar and athlete down to the floor much faster than

that of gravity (amount of stretch and tension will depend speed of eccentric overload)

Olympic Movements and their variations

This manual will categorize Olympic movements, as well as their variations, as ballistic

exercises. This is due to the fact that the bar does itself become a projectile and is

accelerated throughout its entire range of motion the athlete is actively creating force

upon it. These exercise methods also require an athlete to “catch” the projectile,

typically by dropping under the displaced bar. This being said, there i s still some debate

as to how Olympic movements should be categorized as some consider the deceleration

of the athlete’s body dropping under the bar to create a non-ballistic movement. At this

time the authors do not consider this deceleration of the athlete’s body relevant to

remove these exercises from the ballistic category, as the bar itself does become a

projectile. With Olympic movements, coaches should look at peak velocity after the

second pull.

Once again, it is absolutely critical every performance coach both programs and

implements a training regime with specific outcome goals in mind. The advances in

technology are an amazing addition to monitoring training, but they are just that, an

addition. Even the most advanced technology will never be capable of replacing a

coach’s well thought out, and implemented program with a sole purpose in mind.

Coaches must ensure they have a complete understanding of all training aspects prior to

implementing some of the newest gadgets to monitor athletes. These principles will be

53
applied in a later section when the practical aspect of velocity profiling is demonstrated.

Theoretical and physiological reasons for high velocities:

Allows for proper fiber type to be trained

● By training in a ballistic manner (high velocity) type II muscle fibers are trained

● Fatigue most rapidly, why quality must be considered in programming

Allows for proper energy systems

● By focusing on quality training, creatine phosphate is allowed to recover

● Can complete timed sets to ensure appropriate adaptations

Allows for maximal power

● Power is the product of force*velocity

● Must maintain velocity of implement as the force (load) remains the same

throughout the majority of exercises

Allows for optimal motor unit recruitment

● Activates motor units capable of producing the highest force (type II muscle

fibers)

Allows for optimal neural drive

● By focusing on quality, velocity is maintained and neural drive is maximized

Allows for increase in maximal velocity

● Improving maximal velocity when athlete is velocity deficient has been shown to

increase performance

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Example of velocity based workouts and cluster sets

Target Velocity Sets

Target velocity sets are done by first determining a specific velocity the athlete is going

to aim for. In the example below, Figure 5.4, the target velocity i s 1.0 m/s. Secondly, the

coach will start an athlete at a weight they know that the target velocity can easily be

reached. From this point, the coach will increase the weight on the bar every time the

athlete hits at least one rep at or above the target velocity. In the example below, the

athlete will perform two reps at a given load and the fastest velocity will be used. By

providing two reps, it provides the athlete a chance to ‘redeem’ themselves should they

have a subpar first rep. The results of each set will determine the load for the next set. If

the athlete hits the target velocity, then they move up in weight. If the athlete misses

the target velocity, the coach can decide to reduce the weight or give them a second set

to try and perform better. Once the desired number of sets are performed, the athlete

will have a new “one rep max” for this given velocity. Now, each time such a series is

performed, the athlete and coach will have a target weight to beat for this velocity.

55
Using Velocity Based Clusters

Figure 5.4: A demonstration of the use of velocity based clusters in a training exercise

56
Training with Velocity Cutoffs

Cutoff training will use specific drop in bar velocity to determine when a set is complete.

In this method, there are no prescribed repetitions, but rather the athlete completes

the movement until they fall below the desired velocity. The number of sets completed

can also be based on a specific velocity cut off. However, the velocity cutoff for ending a

series of sets may be different than the velocity cutoff for ending the single set. The

example below shows the differences in both set and movement cutoff. In this example

the velocity cutoff for each set is a reduction of 0.10m/s from the original speed while

the cutoff for the workout series is 0.05m/s. This serie s cutoff is determined by the

fastest rep in the first set (1.0m/s from table below) and used for the rest of the sets.

Once the velocity of the first two reps on any set fall below the series cutoff (-0.05 m/s),

the exercise is terminated. In the example below this occurs in the fifth set. This leads to

the two cutoff threshold, with the first determining the end of a set (-0.10m/s) and the

second determining the end of the series (-0.05m/s drop from fastest rep within the first

two reps of the set).

All sets and reps, aside for the reps that do not meet the threshold, will fall within the

range of 1.0 - 0.9 m/s if program is followed.

57
Example of Cutoff/Drop off Sets with Bench Press

 Starting velocity = 1.0m/s

 Rep Cutoff = -0.10m/s

 Series Cutoff = -0.05m/s (within in the first two reps of the set)

Figure 5.5: Example Cutoff/Drop off Sets. *The fastest rep during first set was 1.0 m/s. For that

reason 1.0m/s was used for the series cutoff. If one of the first two reps of any set falls below

0.95m/s, a -0.05m/s reduction, then the exer cise will be ended as the athlete is no longer able

to train with a high enough velocity to maximize power.

*** Side Note: You do not have to go until your first rep velocity falls below your cut off.

You can have it set up so that if they cannot perform more than 2-3 consecutive reps

above the cutoff velocity, then you can cut them off***

58
Aspects to be modified

When using the cutoff/drop off method, coaches are able modify the cutoff/drop off

velocities for both the reps and or sets individually. For example, it is possible to have a

larger prescribed velocity cutoff for the repetitions than the set cutoff. As always it is

important to consider the desired outcomes of the training session, as increased cutoff

velocity will eventually lead to a reduction

reduction in training quality.
quality. Using a 20% velocity

cutoff in the squat preserved a greater number of type IIx fibers a well as increased

vertical jump greater than a 40% velocity cutoff. At the same time, the 20% velocity

cutoff was still able to be a large enough stimulus to induce strength and hypertrophy

gains (8). This clearly demonstrates that excessive volume can be placed on athletes,

which although still allows strength gains, will likely l ead to decreased explosive

performance due to the reduced type IIx fibers.

Barbell Jump Squat Cut off/Drop off Example

0.10m/s cutoff/drop off (reps) X 0.05m/s cutoff/drop off (set)

Reps cut off after a 0.1m/s fall from initial velocity and cut sets off after first rep of the

set falls below 0.05m/s of initial rep.

Figure 5.6: Representation of a potential cut off/drop off set for an individual athlete

59
Figure 5.6 above is an example of using cutoff training for barbell jump squats. Each

set’s designated cutoff decrement was -10% jump height. The red line represents the

prescribed set threshold, meaning once the athlete performs one rep under this desired

threshold the set is terminated. This ensures that the athlete is performing the

movement (in this case jumping) at specific programmed power outputs. Instead of

having to assign specific reps, coaches can simply implement a program based on cutoff

velocities/heights. This allows each individual athlete to perform the maximal number of

repetitions possible while maintaining high power outputs.

With power being ultimately determined by both the force and vel ocity of a movement,

both are critical factors in improving this performance aspect. The speed of every

exercise can be maintained to a greater extent through the use of appropriate cluster

sets. This maintenance of speed will allow the high quality training required to see

power improvements to be continued as fatigue is reduced. New technology also allows

the use of “velocity cutoff” training. Ultimately allowing coaches to quickly determine

when an athlete is no longer capable of producing the highest amounts of power,

regardless of their intent. Each of these methods can be easily i mplemented within a

training program to maximize its efficiency and ensure each athlete is receiving an

optimal amount of stress.

60
SECTION 5 REFERENCES

1. Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Sánchez-Medina L, et al. Effects of velocity loss

during resistance training on athletic performance, strength gains and muscle

adaptations. Scand J Med Sci Sport . 2016;(March). doi:10.1111/sms.12678.

2. Tufano JJ, Conlon JA, Nimphius S, et al. Maintenance of Velocity and Power W ith Cluster

Sets During High-Volume Back Squats. 2016:885-892.

3. Lawrence MM. Effect of cluster set configurations on power clean technique.

2012;(November). doi:10.1080/02640414.2012.736633.Lawrence, M.M. 2012.

4. Tufano JJ, Brown, LE, Haff, GG. (2017). Theoretical and Practical Aspects of Different

Cluster Set Structures: A Systematic Review. Journal of Strength & Conditioning

Research, 31(3): 848-867. doi: 10.1519/JSC.0000000000001581

5. Pareja-Blanco F, Rodríguez-Rosell D, Sánchez-Medina L, Gorostiaga EM, González-Badillo

JJ. Effect of movement velocity during resistance training on neuromuscular

performance. Int J Sports Med . 2014;35(11):916-924. doi:10.1055/s-0033-1363985.

6. Pupo, J. D., & Detanico, D. (2011). Kinetic Parameters as Determinants of Vertical Jump

Performance. Brazilian Journal of Kinanthropometry and Human Performance, 14(1),

41 –51. http://doi.org/10.5007/19800037.2012v14n1p41

7. Newton RU, Kraemer WJ, Hakkinen K, Humphries BJ, Murphy AJ. Kinematics , Kinetics ,

and Muscle Activation During Explosive Upper Body Movements. 1996:37-43.

8. Jiménez-Reyes P, Samozino P, Brughelli M, Morin JB. Effectiveness of an individualized

training based on force-velocity profiling during jumping. Front Physiol . 2017;7(JAN):1-

13. doi:10.3389/fphys.2016.00677

61
 Section 6

MINIMIZE FATIGUE

Part I

62
The purpose of power training is to, put simply, train at high power outputs. A reduction

in power is associated with an increase in metabolic and neurological fatigue (1). If an

athlete begins a training session in a fatigued state, or starts the session fatigued from a

prior training session, the desired power training stimulus might not be achieved. There

are multiple ways to test, monitor and evaluate the fatigue of an athlete. These

methods range from vertical jump height, to bar velocity, questionnaires, and even hand

dynamometers (1). Each of these methods can be applied either i n a pre-training, or

throughout training model.

Pre-Training

Pre-Training testing for fatigue is implemented with the goal of measuring total

accumulated fatigue. The fact that accumulated fatigue plays a large role in an athlete’s

output, specifically in regards to the nervous system, is critical. As the specific training of

power, as well as the nervous system, requires quality training. Coaches must be

capable of determining if an athlete’s current state of fatigue is too great to obtain such

quality of work, these potential monitoring tools will be covered in the upcoming

section. However, if a coach is able to identify the pre-existing fatigue, then an

individualized training adjustment can be made to help aid in recovery and avoid

unwarranted stress.

Throughout Training

Fatigue monitoring can also be completed throughout the training session. This method

is implemented to ensure each athlete is achieving the appropriate stimulus desired.

Even with appropriate clustering and implementation of all other factors, fatigue will

still occur at some point. However, based on their training age, genetics, and many

other factors, each athlete will accumulate fatigue at different rates. By monitoring

throughout the training session, a coach is able to see how rapidly each athlete’s power

63
output, or bar velocity in this case, decreases. This will ensure training time is not

wasted training outside of the coaches desired zones of power output.

For example, if an athlete’s mean bar velocity at a given load, say 220lbs drops from 1.0

m/s to 0.40 m/s within a set, the total power output will drop by 60%. A coach may find

a 60% reduction in power output too great for their specific training goal.

What to look for

There are two trends you want to look for. You want to look for the micro, day-to-day

fluctuations and the macro, long term changes.

Day-to-Day

The day-to-day fluctuations can give you some insight as to how “ready” the athlete is. If

the mean velocities dip below a specific percentage of their normal output, then the

coach may want to make sure what to modify the training.

You can also look for day-to-day relationships between velocity changes and other

aspects of training. For example, it is possible that the coach may begin to predict how

much of a velocity fall off they expect to see from different kinds of training days. These

day-to-day changes can be extremely useful for in season peaking, monitoring and

overall training evaluation. Theoretically, one might be able to tell whether or not a

given workout is going to be facilitating the next day’s work out (higher velocities the

next day after a workout) or hindering the next day's work out (reduction in velocity).

Monitoring velocity also might allow the coach to predict supercompensation patterns.

Depending on the accumulated reduction in velocity over a given time frame by an

athlete, the coach may start to see trends of how the velocity may rebound above

baseline levels.

64
Once a coach has gotten an idea of how the workouts affect velocity changes, a coach

can implement specific workouts to get specific results for game day. Instead of

accidentally performing a “fatiguing” workout the day before a game, a coach can more

confidently perform a “facilitating” workout that is backed by some level of confidence

based on their velocity monitoring findings.

Long-Term Trends

Long term trends can help the coach understand how a program is affecting their

athletes. They can inform the coach how an athlete is progressing throughout a training

cycle without having to max them out. A coach can see how athletes are re sponding

during both the in-season and pre-season training cycles by comparing changes in

velocity compared to the baseline. Secondly, long-term trends can give the coach an

understanding of how their loading cycles tend to affect their athletes performance if by

comparing velocity losses to other field tests, such as vertical jump and ten yard sprint

time. Based on these comparisons, a coach might be able to see how certain blocks

influence velocity and in turn, how velocity loss may influence sport specific field tests.

This can give insights in how to accurately time different loading patterns to get the

most out of a long-term training plan

65
Figure 6.1: Long term and short ter m trends can be derived from acute and chronic changes in

velocity at a given load. Measurements were taken over a period of 16 weeks, two eight week

cycles.

Stress Managing and Autoregulation

Both of these techniques for monitoring fatigue, pre- and throughout training, allow for

the autoregulation of each individual athlete. These methods, when utilized

appropriately, provide a snapshot of where the athlete’s nervous system is at before,

and during, each training session. Ultimately allowing a coach to provide the optimal

stress to each athlete based on their individual requirements.

A performance coach is ultimately a stress manager and must realize that balance is

crucial in order for optimal performance to be achieved by each athlete. A simple way to

view the stress being applied in training is to consider training on a continuum. If stress

is applied at an extreme amount with limited recovery, the athlete will be unable to

cope with the excessive levels of stress and begin to respond poorly. At the opposite

end of the continuum, if not enough stress is applied during training, the desired

training adaptations will not occur and optimal performance will never be reached.

66
In either case, too much or too little stress in the training process will hinder the

improvement of power production. This less than optimal stress application, either too

much or too little, will hinder an athlete’s development over the course of time and

ultimately lead to detrimental effects on their performance. Managing and balancing

stress is a crucial aspect in coaching athletes at any le vel.

The application of appropriate stress and its outcome in performance also can be seen

in the simple General Adaptation Syndrome (GAS) provided in the figures below (2). The

first figure (6.2) displays the improvements possible when stress is applied in an

appropriate amount for the desired adaptation, in this case power output, which leads

to improved performance to the fullest extent. The second figure (6.3) shows the results

of an athlete that is stressed using insufficient means in training. This training method

results in a poor training response and no performance gains in power production due

to the training applied. The final figure (6.4) represents the results of an overtrained

athlete, or one that has experienced excessive levels of stress. When this approach is

implemented, the athlete’s body does not have the resources or capabilities to adapt to

the demands being placed upon it in training. Thus, a negative, or poor, training

response occurs and an athlete will end in a decreased performance state than pre-

training levels.

67
Figure 6.2: Adaptation Response with Appropriate Stress in Training (Desired Adaptation)

Figure 6.3: Adaptation Response with Insufficient Stress in Training (No Response)

68
Figure 6.4: Adaptation Response with Excessive Stress in Training (Decreased Performance)

The ability to manage stress appropriately is a skill that allows the autoregulation of

training to be utilized to the highest extent. Autoregulated training sessions, according

to each athlete’s abilities, can be utilized to increase the likelihood that power is being

targeted specifically in a training session. As each athlete is truly an individual, fatigue

monitoring methods allow programming to be completed according to their exact needs

in that specific training session.

Maintaining Quality of Training and Minimizing Intra-Workout Fatigue

For example, two athletes are completing a training program using cluster repetitions

with a set rest time and the ultimate goal of finishing as many sets as possible before

passing a three percent drop-off in bar velocity (this method is outlined in the

maintaining velocity chapter). This is an example of quality power training as the athlete

is stopped as soon as they reach the small drop-off. Athlete one is able to complete

fifteen repetitions before they pass the three percent drop-off, while the second athlete

is able to complete twenty-eight repetitions of the movement. By monitoring fatigue a

coach can program specifically to each athlete’s needs. If both athletes were trained

according to the abilities of athlete one, athlete two will be under trained as they will

69
not experience enough stress. If both are trained according to the needs of athlete two,

athlete one will be overtrained and unable to adapt to the training. By applying these

methods appropriately, coaches are able to ensure power is trained to the highest

extent according to the exact desired amount for each training session.

The chart below depicts this exact scenario and what each athlete is experiencing

throughout the cluster training session described above. Again, athlete 1 is able to train

for fifteen repetitions prior to surpassing a three percent drop-off, while athlete 2 can

sustain the desired bar velocity for twenty-eight repetitions. The ability of each athlete

to train with a high-quality level of power output, which is the desired goal of this

training session, is demonstrated based on the color of the cell. Green cells represent

when the goal adaptation is achieved, while red cells represent a repetition in which an

undesired adaptation is likely to be realized.

70
Figure 6.4: Two athletes and their individual responses to identical training stressors.
These differences could be the accumulation of previous training stressors, training age,
and/or multiple other factors
71
The adaptations realized will depend entirely on the training program prescribed for the

athlete and the desired amount of time prior to training with high-quality again. Keeping

in mind the goal of a three percent drop-off requires high-quality, even when an athlete

reaches this percent they will still be training power. This is shown in the red cells for

both athlete 1 and athlete 2 in the chart above. However, once this percent drop-off is

reached, the quality of that power adaptation is no longer reached based on the set-

parameters of the daily training session. Meaning the goal of the training session is no

longer being achieved. As fatigue is accumulated, whether within a single session or

multiple training days, the ability to train with high-quality is reduced. This should be a

review at this point. Keeping this in mind, a coach is able to implement specific drop-off

percentages based on when quality training will be completed again. These two

concepts allow a coach to ensure they are monitoring fatigue individually and ensure

the exact goals of power training are met to their fullest extent.

Below is a potential guideline of when power training is available to be trained at the

highest extent based on the percent drop-off implemented. These rest periods may

allow an athlete to recover and train with zero or limited residual neuromuscular fatigue

in the next session. It is important to emphasize that this is merely an attempted

guideline and individual athletes may respond with different required rest times

between training sessions.

Figure 6.6: Potential rest days required between training based on percent drop-off achieved.

Remember these are merely guidelines and each athlete will require different amounts of

recovery time.

72
It should be clear at this point the importance of fatigue monitoring for optimal stress

and adaptations. In the above example athlete 1 may have entered the training day in

an already somewhat fatigued state, or they simply do not have the same ability to

maintain quality power repetitions for repeated efforts. Either way, training stressors

applied must be relative to each individual athlete’s abilities at that specific moment

(training session in this case). Once again, this returns to the concept that if an athlete is

not running at their highest velocities, they will not improve maximal speed. These

simple monitoring aspects can be utilized to apply optimal stress level s to each

individual. Potential physiological reasons for an athlete to experience fatigue are listed

below. It is important to note that this is in no way an all-encompassing list and there

are many other factors that will impact fatigue on an athlete.

Short List of Physiological reasons for fatigue:

● Metabolic accumulation (1)

● Muscle breakdown (3)

● Reduction in central drive

● Disruption in neural pathways

● Outside stressors (school, social life, any psychological stressor)

● Malnutrition (4)

The remainder of this section will demonstrate other methods in which fatigue

monitoring can be implemented. It is important to remember that many of these

methods can be applied at either the beginning of a training session, throughout the

training session, or even both.

73
 Section 6

MINIMIZE FATIGUE

Part II

74
Fatigue Monitoring Options

There is no one, “best” method. The goal of these assessment tools are to help the coach

 form ideas and understandings of how their athletes respond to different stimuli.

Vertical Jump Test

Vertical jump test is commonly used to test the athlete's readiness. It can arguably be

considered one of the easiest and most accurate measurements of relative power. It is

non-invasive and has been shown to predict neuromuscular changes (5).

Athletes should perform this test only once completely warmed up and should be

allowed multiple attempts with adequate rest periods between jumps. The movement

should be done with the athletes’ hands on their hips or across their chest (stick with

whichever way you choose to remain consistent). The athletes should go down to a

standardized knee angle, pause for two seconds to eliminate the aid of the stretch reflex

and then jump as high as they can. Testing procedures should be standardized and easy

to reproduce. With the knowledge that the vertical jump method is correlated to the

ability of an athlete to produce high-neural drive efforts, a performance coach can

theoretically monitor and control the stress levels experienced throughout the week

and autoregulate according to their specific needs.

Bar Velocity Pre and Post Testing

The method of using pre and post differences i n bar velocity as a measure of fatigue was

research by Sanchez-Medina and colleagues. This method is quite simple and only

involves a total of 6 reps (3 pre and 3 post) with a sub-maximal load to be performed at

the beginning and end of a working set. The decrease in average bar velocity from pre

and post training has been correlated to lactate and ammonia accumulation.

75
Prior to the working sets of the exercise, the athlete will perform three repetitions with

a load that corresponds to 1.0 m/s. If the athlete can move 185lbs at 1m/s, they will

perform three repetitions and the average velocity will be taken (should be ~ 1.0m/s).

Then, post exercise, the athlete will perform three repetitions with the same load,

185lbs. This time, it is expected that average bar velocity will have decreased. The

amount of velocity loss depends on how fatiguing the set was. Once you have your pre

and post measurements, the difference between the two average velocities will be your

average percentage loss of velocity.

For example, if your athlete performed 185lbs for an average of 1.0 m/s as a pre-test

and then performed 185lbs for an average of 0.7 m/s post-tests, then we know the

difference between pre and post is 1.0 - 0.7 = 0.3m/s and 0.3m/s is 30% of the original

pre-test average of 1.0 m/s, so the pre-post velocity loss was 30%. By understanding the

underlying physiological requirements of training power, coaches are able to prescribe

specific “pre-post velocity loss” to achieve desired adaptations.

Why does pre and post velocity loss matter? Pre and post velocity loss can give the

coach some insights into how difficult the training session was and how much recovery

time the athlete may need to fully recuperate. This knowledge can allow coaches to

program rest days appropriately based on the percent of decrement each athlete

achieves. A general guideline of rest days required depending on fatigue l evel is shown

above in Figure 6.6 (page 72). Sanchez-Medina and colleagues found that a mean

velocity loss (pre-post) over three working sets of ~15% f or the squat, ~20% for the

bench press and ~12% decrease in jump height (CMJ) are associated with increases in

ammonia concentrations above resting values (1). High correlations were also found

between lactate levels and pre and post average velocity loss of the squat, bench, and

 jump height. Theoretically, the larger the decrease in velocity between pre and post

testing the longer the athlete may need to recover. Monitoring these decreases can aid

76
in creating more accurate training protocols and allow for greater understanding of the

impact and direction of training.

Hand Grip Test

The handgrip test is performed using a handgrip dynamometer. This is simple device

that is used to measure the isometric force of an athlete’s grip. Unlike the vertical jump

test, the handgrip test will be more reliant of maximal strength and not limited by any

time variable. Differences in daily handgrip measurements could possibly be influenced

by neural output and central drive. Central drive meaning that if something is

neurologically fatigued (motivation or disruption in homeostatic), they may score lower

than usual, despite minimal disruption in the contractile properties of the muscles.

As coaches are aware, the neural state of the athlete plays a large role and being able to

monitor this system is imperative. Research suggests that isometric handgrip tests are a

good tool for measuring autonomic nervous system function (6). The handgrip test is

similar in nature and idea to an isometric mid-thigh pull. It is a maximal effort

movement performed in an isometric state. Because the movement is isometric, there

will be minimal physiological breakdown of the muscle tissue and is considered

relatively much less invasive than other dynamic tests.

Testing of the handgrip test needs to be standardized. Despite it being a relatively non-

invasive assessment tool, the athlete should be adequately warmed up prior to testing.

The athlete should test both hands in a standardized fashion, with arm position and grip

position the same for each testing session. Proper rest time should be allowed between

sets. Athletes should be limited on the amount of time they are allowed to squeeze the

dynamometer for (coach’s decision) and should be allowed multiple attempts each side

(coach’s decision).

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Figure 6.7: Hand dynamometer and correct usage (Lafayette Instrument Company, Lafayette, IN)

Wearable technology

Wearable technologies are becoming more and more popular. They are slowly making

the subjective, objective. From GPS to heart rate monitors, wearable technology is

aimed at measuring training loads. Depending on the type of equipment you are using

and the company it is made by, the developers may provide their own scores for

measuring workloads. The majority of these products have algorithms built in, which

makes it very appealing to the coach because it eliminates a lot of the “busy work”.

Instead of having to worry about all of the calculations, the coach only has to focus on

applying the information it provides.

Wearable technology can provide a feature that most other pieces of equipment do not.

It allows for immediate, actionable feedback. This will allow coaches to acutely manage

the training loads and adjust volume in the middle of the workout. This is arguably one

of the most valuable features of some wearable technology. The best way to avoid

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fatigue is to quantify when the athlete is approaching it.

Questionnaires

The questionnaire is a subjective measure, meaning that it is not actually directly

assessing an unbiased value, instead it is based on the athlete’s opinions and feelings.

Questionnaires can range from being a couple of questions to an entire page.

Depending on what the coach is looking for, either option may be applicable.

Questionnaires are heavily dependent on the athletes’ honesty. If the athletes do not

buy into the importance of the questionnaire and do not take them seriously, the results

might be meaningless. However, unlike the objective measures (vertical jump and

handgrip) the questionnaires can offer unique valuable insights.

To make the questionnaire easier to understand the coach may want to quantify the

results of the answers. This can help give the coach a working number that they can use

to analyze how the athletes are responding.

Figure 6.8: Example Questionnaire utilizing RPE.

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This specific scale was developed by Dr. Zourdos for in training auto-regulatory purposes
(6)
. It was used to help athlete’s correlate the level of difficulty of the movement with

the number of reps they could achieve in the movement. This would not be used for a

post workout team questionnaire, however, something similar in nature to quantify the

difficulty of the entire workout can be used.

Coach’s Observations

Coach’s observations are not easy to quantify and can be hard to measure, but when

used it might be one of the most effective forms of fatigue monitoring. This is arguably

one of the biggest facets of a good coach and can embody many qualities of the “art of

coaching”. As a strength coach, you are one of the few people that see and work with

your athletes on a near daily basis. You are the one who designed the workout, so you

naturally have an inclination of how it might affect them. By simply watching your

players interact with one another, look at you, carry themselves and go through the

workout can give you a good understanding of how they are responding to your

workouts.

For example, as a coach you might design what are called “facilitating workouts”. These

workouts are not supposed to be highly fatiguing, but instead are supposed to ready the

athlete for the following day. However, if you see that during the workout bar velocity

drastically drops, athlete’s begin to slump over and overall “energy” in the room

dramatically decreases, you might be correct in assuming that the workout became too

demanding and is no longer “facilitating”, but instead very taxing. By simply jotting

down a couple of notes to yourself as a reminder, the next day the athletes come in you

can compare how they are carrying themselves. If they appear to be too taxed from the

day before, you can reference your observations and make the coaching decisions as to

whether or not you want to modify the program.

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A way to make a coach’s observation actionable is by having each coach record notes on

a set series of questions. The questions can range from “how do you think the players

responded?” to “how difficult do you think the workout was?” At the end of each

session or day, the coaches can all gather together and quickly discuss their

observations and how they felt. By having all coaches perform this note taking process,

you are not only getting a diverse range of feedback, but you are making it a

requirement for all coaches to be engaged in actively observing the players.

Figure 6.9: A list of possible questions a coach can consider/answer while observing. This sheet

can be utilized to track notes from session to session.

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Talking to your athletes

Talking to your athletes is very similar to the coach’s observations and at times they can

be nearly synonymous. However, the “talking” to your athletes portion involves active

discussion and communication while coach’s observations are non-verbal. Talking to

your athletes is a great way of getting an understanding of how they are actually feeling.

Surveys are great, but at times athletes may find them to be too tedious and blow them

off. However, an active conversation is not scripted like a survey and may allow for

more information to be extracted. Remember, it is the athletes who are the ones going

through the training, by not taking their input, it is similar to a chef never asking

whether or not the customers like the food.

As mentioned earlier, coaches do not need to have a scripted conversation with every

athlete. Engaging with athletes on a regular basis will allow for coaches to understand

how they are responding, as well as better build their relationship with them. Coaches

do not need to take notes in front of the athletes, but it might be beneficial to jot down

a couple key points from the conversation on a notepad. This way, when the staff meets

up to go over the daily training sessions, coaches can have a couple of sentences to

reflect on and discuss instead of trying to do i t all by memory. It also requires coaches to

be active listeners. If you require some level of note taking, the coaches cannot just

blow off the conversation.

Using the metrics

Metrics are great, but they only hold value when you know how to use them. For

quantifiable metrics (vertical jump and handgrip) you may want to develop standard

deviations from your collected data. This will allow you to actually use your data and

compare results from one day to the next. Finding the standard deviation is very easy. It

doesn’t take more than a couple of steps in excel and you can have it up and running in

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minutes.

For example, if you are using bar velocity at a given load, vertical jump height, or hand

grip strength, a coach might find it useful to modify their program if the athlete falls one

to two standard deviations outside of their “norm”.

Using the metrics in combination with one another

Metrics can be used in combination with one another. For example, you might run

correlations to see that if fluctuations in vertical jump change in conjunction with

isometric handgrip performance. If you are doing some type of on the field

measurement that day, you may want to compare the fatigue metrics to the fie ld tests

and see whether or not you believe there was any influence. You can also use your

vertical test and handgrip metrics and compare them to your surveys. Depending on the

survey you provide, you have numerical scores associated with each day. By comparing

metrics, you can start to discern which tools are reliable, which ones might possibly be

valid and which ones are useless.

Not every tool you use will be perfect and quite frankly, some might be a waste of time.

Some coaches may find the surveys and observations are more useful while other may

find that a mixture of technology and human interaction works best. The goal is to find a

tool that helps you get a competitive edge and works well for your situation

How to use correlations

Correlations are fairly straightforward. With correlations you are comparing to see

whether or not one variable is related to another. For example, you might want to see

whether or not maximal strength in the back squat is correlated to vertical jump height.

Correlations can help the strength coach get an understanding of how training metrics,

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tools, and modalities are related with one another.

Correlations range from values of +1.00 to -1.00. A relationship’s significance is

determined by how close the correlation coefficient (r-value) is to +1.00 or -1.00. A

perfect correlation is either +1.00 or -1.00 while no correlation is a value of 0.00.

Negative correlations are not “bad”. A negative correlation can be desirable. For

example, the correlation between vertical jump and 10 meter sprint time i s negative,

depending upon the athlete’s level of training. This means as jump height increases the

sprint time will decrease and vice versa. If you want to run faster, you want your sprint

time to decrease (If sprint time decreases average velocity increases). However, this

does not mean all negative correlations are good.

No correlations simply mean that there is likely not a link between the two factors being

looked at by the coach.

Positive Correlation

Figure 6.10: An example of a positive corr elation.

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 Negative Correlation

Figure 6.11: An example of a negative correlation.

No Correlation

Figure 6.12: An example of no correlation.

Correlations can easily be setup in excel or any other type of statistical software. All you

need to do is setup two columns (X and Y variables). Each column is going to be holding

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the values of one of one variable. All X values (one variable) go in the X column and all Y

values (the other variable) go in the Y column.

Figure 6.13: Column example to set up correlation graphs (Figures 6.10-6.12)

The rows of each column must correspond with each other at all times. Their connection

in the example below is the athlete’s results in two different testing protocols. This is

demonstrated in the green highlighted column. In this scenario a coach may have been

looking to see if one testing result was at all related to the other. It is important to note

that this highlighted green column could also represent two individual athletes but the

same testing. This method could be applied in a situation to determine the

requirements of successful sport performance. Correlations are capable of being utilized

in many different ways and serve as valuable tools for coaches.

Figure 6.14: Example of a potential correlation between pe rformance/testing parameters

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We can use the foundation of correlations to build regression models, which can help us

predict future scores. For example, we might be able to predict how high someone can

 jump based on their maximal squat strength to bodyweight ratio. However, these

predictions will never be perfect, unless the correlation is perfect (+1 or -1). Instead,

there will be an amount of error in our prediction. This can be done by calculating

standard error and then finding a confidence interval. The confidence interval

essentially tells us where we think this predicted score might fall. Depending on the

strictness of the confidence interval, the interval can range in size.

For example, using a regression model, we might find that for every .3 increase in squat

to body weight ratio the vertical jump height may increase from 1-3 inches in a 95%

confidence interval.

Correlation is not causation

Just because something has a correlative relationship doesn’t mean it has a causative

relationship. Causative relationships are what we strive to better understand. However,

finding a correlation is often the first step in determining a causative relationship.

Application in Training

Data is useless without application. In the example below figure 6.15, weekly averages

for vertical jump were recorded. During this 13 week period, the athletes went through

different phases of their program, which means as a coach, one might expect to see

specific changes in average vertical jump height depending on the phase. For example, a

planned overreaching might have occurred between week 6 and week 10. As indicated

by the graph and as expected by the coach, there was a decrease in average vertical

 jump height. However, once the stimulus was reduced after week 10, super

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compensation was allowed to occur and a positive spike in average vertical jump height

can be noted.

Figure 6.15: Example of jump monitoring over the course of a training program

Using the same example as above, we could imagine this 13 week period occurring in

season. During weeks 1 through 6 the vertical jump height averages remain relatively

stable. However, from week 7 to week 10 the vertical jump height averages decrease.

This is not ideal, but at least the decrease in performance can be caught before fatigue

accumulation becomes too great and the athletes begin to enter into an overtrained

state. As a coach, in order to prevent further fatigue, action can be taken to reduce

some of the overall loading of the in-season program, which in turn allows the vertical

 jump height to stabilize around week 11.

More in depth statistical analysis can be done on the data gathered to give you even

better insights. Whether it is a z-score, t-score, variance or a confidence interval, all can

be used to help better understand what the data means. However, this text will not

cover these methods and referencing an outside resource might be beneficial.

In order to minimize fatigue, a coach has to monitor fatigue. There is currently no one

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best option and because of this, different coaches my find different methods useful. The

most important aspect regarding monitoring fatigue is finding a reliable method that

can easily be implemented into a program. Whether one chooses a vertical jump test or

a simple questionnaire, fatigue monitoring can help aid in autoregulating training, thus

making it more accurate. However, in order to actually understand whether or not your

methods are useful, which at times can be hard to discern upon first glance, simple

statistical methods can be used to help. Using something as simple as a correlation can

help the coach understand whether or not what they are testing is actually associated

with fatigue.

Fatigue Summary

As an athlete accumulates fatigue, their ability to produce the highest levels of power

will be drastically reduced. This can be easily seen in the P = F*V equation, as volume

experienced throughout a training session increases, the ability of the athlete to achieve

the highest velocities of a movement diminishes and power is reduced. The importance

of velocity was covered in an earlier section in this manual. The ability of a coach to

minimize and monitor fatigue induced throughout training is vital to maximizing power

adaptations.

Methods such as cluster training and appropriate rest times can be applied practically

within a training program to ensure athletes are able to continually produce high

velocity movements. Monitoring for fatigue can be completed both before, and

throughout the training session as fatigue can be accumulated from either previous

training sessions/stressors, or throughout the training session itself. By monitoring each

athlete, optimal stress is placed on every individual. This will lead to greater adaptations

and more specific programming to be completed based on each athlete’s needs.

There are many potential methods available for monitoring fatigue, some being simple

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while others extravagant. However, more than anything else, it is more i mportant that

whatever method is implemented is done so in the correct manner. Some of the most

advanced methods possible will bear no fruit for a coach if they are not utilized

appropriately and even the most basic tools available can prove to be highly efficient

and effective when applied correctly.

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 Applied Principles of Optimal Power Development
Pre Pre-Training, Multi-Dimensional Warm-Up
Block 1 Lower Body Warm-up
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Hex Bar Deadlift 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
Perform A as a Warm-Up for Heavier Sets
1:00 Minute Rest Between Sets
Block 2 Lower Body Power
Order Exercise SetsReps/Duration Load Notes
A Jump Mat Vertical Testing AMAP x 2 BW Max Height Jump, Best of 2 Jumps
B Hex Bar Deadlift AMAP x 1,1 65-70% Cluster Singles
C JOP Plyo AMAP x 3 EA SL Deceleration, Low Impact
Perform A-C Simultaneously until 5% Drop in Vertical Jump
10 Seconds Rest Between Cluster Repetitions; 1:30 minutes between Rounds
Block 3 Upper Body Warm-up
Order Exercise SetsReps/Duration Load Notes
A Bench Press 1,1,1 x 5,3,3 50-80% Warm-Up
B Mini-Band Scap Press 3 x 10 EA Green
Perform A & B Series Simultaneously for 3 Sets as a Warm-Up for Heavier Sets
1:00 Minute Rest Between Sets
Block 4 Upper Body Power
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A Bench Press 4 x 2,2 65-70% Cluster Doubles
B One Arm Med Ball Pass 4 x 5 EA Use Hips
Perform A-B Simultaneously for 4 Sets
25 Seconds Rest Between Exercises; 2:00 minutes between Rounds
Block 5 Lower Auxiliary Power
Order Exercise Sets Reps/Duration Load Notes
A DB Step Up 3 x 5 EA 65-70%
B Split Stance Cable Rot. Row 3 x 5 EA
C DB RDL 3 x 5 65-70%
Perform A-C Simultaneously for 3 Sets
30 Seconds Rest Between Exercises

Figure 6.16: Full training program with the goal of improving power production

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SECTION 6 REFERENCES

1. Sánchez-Medina, L., and González-Badillo, J. J. (2011). Velocity loss as an indicator of

neuromuscular fatigue during resistance training. Medicine & Science in Sports &

Exercise, (22), 1725 1734.

 – 

2. Selye H. (1976) The Stress of Life (rev. edn.). New York: McGraw-Hill.

3. Judelson A., Maresh, C., Anderson, j., Armstrong, L., Casa, D., and William Kraemer

(2014). Hydration and muscular performance : Does fluid balance affect strength ,

power and high- intensity endurance , (June).

4. Lopes, J., Russell, D.M., Whitwell, J., Jeejeebhoy, K.N. (1982). Ske letal muscle function in

malnutrition. The American Society for Clinical Nutrition, Inc. 36(4), 602-610.

5. Taylor, K., Chapman, D. W., Cronin, J., Newton, J., and Nicholas, G. (2012). Fatigue

Monitoring in High Performance Sport. Journal of Australian Strength and Conditioning.

20(1) 12-23.

6. Khurana, RK., and Setty, A. (1996). The value of the isometric hand-grip test- studies in

various autonomic disorders. Clinical Autonomic Research.

7. Zourdos, M.C., Klemp, A., Dolan, C., Quiles, J.M., Schau, K.A., Jo, E. Helms, E., Esgro, B.,

Garcia Merino, S., and Blanco, R. (2016) Novel Resistance t raining-specific RPE scale

measuring repetitions in reserve. The Journal of Strength and Conditioning Research.

30(1):267-275.

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Conclusion

It is important for coaches to remember that exercises are merely movements

programmed to accomplish specific training adaptations. It is the ability of a

performance coach to implement an exercise in a manner that elicits the desired

response that ultimately determines its effectiveness. In the specific case of this manual,

power is the desired adaptation which is most efficiently achieved with the methods,

exercises, and tools described throughout this manual.

On the surface, power might seem as simple as a simple formula, as it only includes

force and velocity. However, as demonstrated throughout this manual with the wide

variety of training possibilities, power is a much more complex than what it may first

appear. Power is predicated on optimization. In order to achieve the highest power

outputs, mental and physical states must each be functioning to their fullest capacity.

The process and framework of achieving this optimization is what this manual attempts

to provide.

As noted by Verkhoshanky, improved power during the sporting movement is the most

desired positive physiological adaptation an athlete can achieve. Moving with greater

speed and force (power) is part of the complex equation that separates the recreational

from the elite level athlete. However, despite the conceptual simplicity of improving

power, the multi-faceted adaptable and transferable process is more complex and

requires coaches to consider many aspects.

We believe power is best developed by: Optimizing maximal intent through usage of

feedback, incorporating specific post activation potentiation methods to put the athlete

in their highest state of readiness, implementing appropriate training loads and

velocities that elicit the desired power outputs, programming that allows velocity to be

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maintained throughout the training session while also minimizing fatigue experienced.

Each of these methods can be implemented and measured on a daily basis when power

is the desired outcome of training. Only when these methods are all implemented and

are utilized in conjunction with statistical assessment can more specific methods be

determined for each individual athlete.

It should be noted that even with all of the advancements in technology and

improvements in training means, sport specific transfer remains one of the more

difficult aspects of performance to predict. Although it remains the ultimate goal, it is

commonly not realized to the fullest desired extent. The reasons for this lack of transfer

can fall outside of the performance coach’s control, making it difficult to predict. Even

with this “lack of predictability”, the development of key physiological and neurological

traits should still be considered to a great extent in training. More often than not, the

athlete capable of producing greater amounts of power will experience increased

success than a less powerful athlete.

If this manual has sparked a greater interest in the area of power production and

improvement in sports performance, an entire annual plan, which demonstrates each of

these concepts is available here.

This manual does not claim to hold all of the answers and anyone reading this should

not consider this manual to have the answer to every power related question. The goal

of this manual is to outline the theory and evidence based processes that may best lead

to desired, power improving adaptations. As research continues to improve and the

literature continues to grow the details of such adaptations will come to the surface in

greater detail.

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 Section 7

Addendum:

Other Power Considerations

Rate of Force Development

Band Accelerated Movements

Eccentric Power Development

Velocity Profiling

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Band Accelerated Movements

This final section in this power manual will demonstrate some of the remaining

concepts, methods, and applications in training that have not been covered. Ranging

from the broad category of rate of force development, to more specific training means

such as accelerated band training, power training is an extremely broad topic. This

section should provide a few final theories while also demonstrating the use of these

through an individual “velocity profile” creation as well as in-season monitoring. With

many portions of this manual delegated to the importance of the nervous system and its

role in power production, it is vital all coaches have an example to utilize when

beginning to create their own training programs. These concepts and practical

applications should serve as the “icing on the cake” of power training, with the

foundation being covered in the previous six sections.

Rate of Force Development

Power production and rate of force development go hand in hand. To develop high

power outputs, an athlete must develop high amounts of force at high velocities. When

movements are occurring at high velocity, the amount of time available to complete the

action is reduced. Sprinting is an example of this, the ground contact time in maximal

velocity sprinting is typically between 0.08 and 0.12 seconds for elite level sprinters. This

is a much shorter time than needed for the athlete’s body to produce maximal force,

which takes up to 0.3-0.4 seconds (1,2). Both thresholds are demonstrated below in

figure 7.1. During this brief amount of ground contact time available to produce force, it

is the rate at which force is

i s developed, rather than the absolute amount of force they

are capable of expressing which leads to the greatest change in performance. With this

knowledge, a coach can see that high power outputs occurring at high velocities must

have high levels of rate of force production.

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 (3)
Figure 7.1: Time force analysis based on specific training adaptations realized

Rate of force development can be trained in a biphasic manner, with an early and late

phase. Each of these phases require specific training for improvement and are both

required for optimal on-field performance. The early phase is i nfluenced primarily by

neural drive while the late phase is more dependent upon the muscle cross sectional

area and maximal force production capabilities (1,4,5).

With early and late phases of RFD affected by different processes, it is not surprising

that different training methods bring about differ ent adaptations to the two phases.

Training programs that place focus on explosive strength, or high velocity movements

increases early force development by increasing neural drive (1,2,4-6). It appears that the

early phase of force development may also be improved when the intention of training

is maximal acceleration. This returns to the concept demonstrated in the previous

section of executing every movement with maximal intent. Programs that focus training

on high loads lead to improvements in maximal strength and maximal force

development. These adaptations are involved in the late phase, as the movements allow

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enough time for maximal force to be developed during muscle contraction.

These differences due to training can be seen above i n figure 7.1. Note the

improvement in the early phase in explosive/ballistic trained athletes, while the heavy

resistance trained athletes have an increased late phase. Each of these improvements

can be related back to the CNS or tissue adaptations realized when the early and late

phases are trained, respectively. This returns to the optimal loading and velocity training

discussed in previous sections. It is paramount a coach understands the adaptations that

are likely to be experienced post-stress to the highest extent possible. Athletes can be

trained specifically according to their individual requirements.

One method that can be utilized to increase the early phase of rate of force

development is the use of accelerated methods. These training exercises, which have

received a lot of attention recently, allow an athlete to complete a movement at

supramaximal speeds. One example of this method is an accelerated band jump,

although there are countless possibilities for accelerated movements to be completed.

However, prior to providing the training guidelines and exercise options, it is important

to first cover the physics and concepts as to why these methods are applied.

In order to fully understand the application of accelerated movements, it is imperative

that the physics of these exercises are understood. Referring back to the force-velocity

curve, it can be noted that maximal concentric force can be seen right before movement

velocity becomes zero. This is seen in a one rep max. The athlete moves the most

maximal load possible, which creates a slow movement velocity. On the other end of

the spectrum, maximal velocity occurs when force is near zero. Both of these can be

seen in the force-velocity profile demonstrated in Figures 4.2 and 4.3 on pages 36 and

37, respectively. As the load increases or decreases, the potential velocity of the

movement decreases or increases, respectively. However, without the use of assistance,

it is nearly impossible to achieve an external force of zero. This is due to the force

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experienced by all people due to their body weight. Although often forgotten, gravity

constantly provides force on the body that every athlete must overcome. This external

force leads to every exercise not being trained at the highest possible velocities. Body

weight movements are obviously faster than loaded movement, but if velocity i s our

goal, we must ensure speed is trained to the fullest extent.

For example, take a 220 pound athlete performing a vertical jump. When the athlete

performs the movement, they have to overcome their 220 pounds of external load. This

means without assistance, 220 pounds is the lowest load this athlete can complete a

movement against. However with assistance, bands are one example, the athlete can

now achieve movement velocities against loads that are less than their body weight.

This allows the athlete to continue to train with closer to maximal velocities. Meaning

training to improve every aspect of the entire force-velocity curve becomes possible.

It is important to note that the bands are not “pulling” the athlete up, but are rather

counteracting gravity by acting on the body as an upward, vertical force. So, while

gravity is constantly pulling the person downward, thus giving their mass weight, the

bands are working in the opposite direction, reducing the force required to overcome

their own body weight (without changing their mass).

Simple Physics

220lb athlete - 40lbs of band tension (opposite direction of gravity) = 180lb the athlete

must now overcome in movement. This is almost a 20% change in loading, which has the

ability to lead to significant changes in velocity when maximal intent is applied.

This allows athlete to now train at an external load (body weight) that would otherwise

not be achievable without bands working against gravity.

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This means, the athlete can now truly train at maximal velocities. As demonstrated by

Jimenez-Reyes and colleagues (7), who used a similar stimulus to train velocity (used a

reduced body weight vertical push off exercise). In order to i mprove velocity, the athlete

has to train at a high velocity. In order to best understand this concept of why an athlete

may want to train at a velocity faster than their external load (body weight) allows, think

of it in terms the weight room. If a coach wanted to increase an athlete’s ability to

produce power, at say a 300lbs squat, the coach would train at loads above and below

300lbs. So, if we want to improve power of a body weight movement, without bands we

can only train above body weight, not below. However, with the inclusion of bands, the

coach can now train above and below the desired load (body weight) in order to achieve

maximal adaptation through strategically placed stimuli.

As discussed multiple times throughout this manual, adaptations realized in power

production may be specific to the velocities they are trained at. Meaning an athlete

might experience the greatest gains in power production abilities at the specific speeds

in which they are trained. When implemented correctly, accelerated movements are

simply another method in which power production in the highest velocity ranges can be

improved. As athletes continue to develop basic strength and power production, means

of training must become more specific to the demands of their sport. This includes both

the motor pattern as well as the velocity it is completed in. By using an accelerated

version of an explosive motion, the athlete is able to train at the highest velocities

possible, or a supramaximal speed state, as these velocities are otherwise impossible

due to the athlete’s body weight. These otherwise unobtainable velocities ultimately

lead to adaptations to the early phase of rate of force development.

Accelerated methods have been applied for years in track in the form of towing, or

supramaximal sprinting. Although there are no exact recommendations for accelerated

movements and their use in the weight room, we feel it is important that technique

does not change while utilizing this method. This idea is based off of appropriate

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transfer of training and the concept that as athletes develop they require more specific

means of training. These can be accomplished by training appropriate motor patterns,

or muscle sequencing, as well as the velocity they are training at.

As the improvement goals of this training method are aimed at not only improving

power production but also the motor pattern, or specific recruiting pattern/movement,

desired in competition, it is critical these movement patterns are not changed to a large

extent. As soon as this changes, the accelerated movement will likely produce much less

transfer of power to the sport, as a different movement pattern is used.

The amount of assistance applied prior to significant changes in motor patterning will

vary based on both the exercise prescribed and the individual athlete, with the biggest

factor being body weight. For example the 220lb athlete described above will require

much greater assistance than a 160lb athlete to achieve the same maximal velocity

training. Although this does not provide an exact cut-off, there will be clear instances in

which there has been too much assistance provided, such as an athlete floating as the

bands assisting them are producing greater force than the athlete's body. This is an

obvious example of inappropriate use of accelerated training as the athlete is not able

to produce force through the ground with that much assistance. As stated previously,

there are no exact specifications to our knowledge currently provided for optimal

accelerated or supramaximal training. That being said it is ultimately up to a coach’s eye

to ensure these accelerated movements are implemented with appropriate assistance.

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Figure 7.2: External Load in comparison with vertical jump height

As training with the assistance of bands is completed at the highest velocities possible,

the neural drive required might be different than other methods of training. This is due

to the limited time an athlete has to produce force prior to them leaving the ground.

The depth at which an athlete completes these movements at will also vary the training

stimulus. Just as range of motion can be altered in exercises such as the squat and

bench, the depth each movement is programmed and completed at can lead to slight

variations in the training adaptations. For example, as an athlete gets into a l ower

position on band accelerated jumps ground contact times will increase. However, if the

athlete completes the movement with minimal knee bend (joint range of motion) the

ground contact time will decrease. These subtle differences will change the training

stimulus. For example, a longer ground contact time and greater knee flexion may result

in greater emphasis on the contractile force of the knee extensors, while a shorter

ground contact time and smaller range of motion may rely more on the stretch

shortening cycle and elastic qualities of the athlete. On the other end of the spectrum,

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It is important coaches realize all of the small details that can be programmed with

accelerated training to match the exact outcomes desired of training. Exercises are

merely methods in which to apply training principles to achieve a desired response.

Examples of accelerated band training to maximize rate of force development are

shown below.

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Accelerated Band Jumps

Figure 7.3: Accelerated band jumps allow the gre atest adaptations to the early phase of rate of

force development, which is critical for success in athletics.

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Accelerated Rack Band Push Up

Figure 7.4: Accelerated methods can also be applied to upper body movements. By reducing an

athlete’s body weight (through the assistance of bands), the highest velocities possible are able

to be trained.

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Eccentric Power (rate of force absorption)

Up to this point this manual has focused entirely on power production in the concentric

phase of movement, placing emphasis upon the velocity a movement is completed at.

With power production and rate of force development playing important roles in

athletic performance, the ability to decelerate high levels of force is often overlooked in

training. This ability to rapidly absorb force, or the eccentric rate of force development,

is both critical for optimal power production and injury reduction.

Eccentric rate of force development is ultimately referring to the amount of force and

speed an athlete is able to safely decelerate in a rapid fashion. A simple example of this

can be seen in an athlete who desires to be quick, explosive, and agile. Clearly this

athlete must be capable of completing a change in direction in a rapid, explosive

fashion. However, these movements require more than just the concentric power

production, which has been covered extensively to this point. These explosive changes

in direction require an improved ability to rapidly decelerate prior to accelerating in the

new desired direction. Ultimately the athlete that is able to “throw on their brakes” the

fastest (eccentric), complete the short isometric phase, and then re-accelerate

(concentric) in the most rapid fashion will demonstrate the most explosive agility. If any

of these three phases are lacking in their training, change of direction will not be

demonstrated in the most optimal manner.

Rate of force absorption is not just important for being quick and explosive, it is

important for safety and reduction of injury. Athletics in nature require high velocity and

high force movements over short periods of time. If an athlete’s body is not capable of

handling these forces appropriately, they are increasing their risk for injury. Whether

the athletic movement is landing after a volleyball spike, making a cut as a wide receiver

fights to get open, or a basketball player executing a crossover, all movements involve

the rapid absorption of high forces. If an athlete’s muscular system cannot adequately

absorb these forces, the body will find alternative, and commonly incorrect, methods to

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execute these movements.

As an example, it is common to see an athlete with poor rate of force absorption round

their back. This position forces the lower back to compensate and complete a

movement in a pattern that is less than optimal. Another common occurrence is the

knees caving inwards after a jump. This is seen as the athlete’s hips and lower

extremities are not capable of handling the required eccentric load and ultimately leads

to stress being placed on passive structures to aid in force absorption. Whether the

cause of these commonly experienced issues is purely due to a lack of an athlete’s rate

of force abortion, or more correlated to a mechanical issue is hard to discern. However,

it is quite possible the two go hand in hand. As each improves individually, the

optimization of rate of force absorption is realized.

Just as rate of force development is trained specifically, this ability to quickly absorb

high levels of force must also be trained. Through specific eccentric training, for both

strength and at high velocities, the rate of force absorption for an athlete can be

improved dramatically. These methods include the use of rapid eccentric training, push-

pull training (AFSM), and oscillatory training. A description of these methods as well as

their adaptations can be viewed by clicking here.

With the training of power allowing a broad spectrum of methods, coaches must realize

each of the potential methods available. Rate of force development, or the ability to

produce force in the most rapid fashion, is one of, if not the, most transferrable skills

trainable. Improvements can be seen in this when focus is placed on achieving maximal

velocities, such as those available with accelerated band training. However, rate of force

acceptance also plays an important role in both maximizing power production while also

reducing injury likelihood. These methods can be applied at specific times within

training programs to create an optimal situation for each athlete in their power

production.

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Velocity Profiling

Velocity Profiling is the process of measuring and evaluating an individual's force-

velocity relationship of a specific exercise. Depending on the athletes being tested and

their training backgrounds, their profiles may differ quite a bit. For example, two

athletes with the same one rep max will not always have the same profile. Depending

on the slope (rate at which force decreases in relation to velocity) one athlete might be

more proficient at speed-strength versus strength-speed.

How to set up a velocity profile

Velocity Based Training (VBT) is an outstanding tool that can provide many benefits.

However, in order to get the most out of it, depending on the situation, a coach may

want to set up an individual velocity profile for each athlete.

*** In a large team setting you may want to do a modified velocity profile for your

athletes. This will save you time and make it much more manageable**

Jovanovic and Flanagan’s Proposed Method

The method outlined is the method proposed by Jovanovic and Flanagan (8). It takes

about 15-20 minutes for an athlete to complete this protocol. A coach can have several

athletes per rack when performing this testing in a large group setting.

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Figure 7.5: Table modified from Jovanovic and Flanagan 2014

In order for this process to work, it is imperative that the athlete moves the weights as

fast as they can and receive adequate rest (3-5 minutes) in between sets. As previously

covered, coaches should utilize the mean velocity from each set for non-ballistic

movements, and should only use peak velocity for ballistic movements. For a reminder

of what determines these movement types or why, refer to page 48.

Step 1) Once the data is collected, the coach can throw the numbers into a simple excel

spreadsheet. A set up might look like Figure 7.6 below. Make sure that the weight lifted

and fastest mean velocity are from the same set. For example, when the athlete lifted

135lbs, their fastest mean velocity was 1.09m/s

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Figure 7.6: Excel sheet to show the correlation between fastest mean velocity and the weight

lifted

Step 2) Highlight the columns and select graph. The graph icon is in the top right corner

of Figure 7.7

Figure 7.7: “Graph” button is the rectangle located at the top right of this figure. Ensure the

desired data is highlighted

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Step 3) After the graph icon has been selected, choose the XY scatter plot option shown

in Figure 7.8. Make sure that the load is on the y-axis and the velocity is on the x-axis.

This will help make sure that you are predicting load based on velocity. The Y-variable is

always the information that is being predicted. If the X and Y axis are flipped, you can

either switch the columns in Figure 7.6, or in the graph editor, select the “flip axis”

option.

Figure 7.8:

Step 4) Select a linear “Line of best fit” or “trend line”. This can be done in the

“customization” tab.

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Figure 7.9: A line of best fit appears when checked. This will make non-graphed points more

easily predictable

Step 5) Select “use equation”. This option can be found under the “label” option.

Figure 7.10: Select the “use equation” option

Step 6) Look at your graph and you should see a linear equation in the top right corner.

It might look something like Figure 7.11 below.

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Figure 7.11: Completed force-velocity profile

For this particular person, their linear regression formula is Y=-409*X+574.014. This will

be used to predict your weights at a given velocity.

Step 7) Once the regression formula has been obtained, the rest is fairly

straightforward. All the coach needs to do from here is set up two columns in excel.

Take one column and label it “predict load” and make another formula and label it as

“velocity”. Your velocity column should start with the minimal voluntary threshold for

whatever exercise you are using. The minimal voluntary threshold is just the velocity at

which the one rep max occurs at. For the squat, its 0.30m/s and for the bench press its

0.15m/s. When plugging the minimal voluntary threshold into the excel column, you do

not need to include the m/s part. Your set up for the squat, with a minimal voluntary

threshold may look Figure 7.12.

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Figure 7.12: Table utilized to predict weight lifted at different velocities

Step 8) In the predicted load column, plug in your linear regression formula

(=409*X+574.014). Now, instead of having the “X” in the equation, delete it and replace

it will the velocity across from it. When you replace the “X”, your equation might have a

cell number in it, something like C20, this is supposed to happen. Once you have

plugged in the equation, you can copy and paste it and add it to all of the other

velocities. Basically, by replacing the “X” with the cell which has the velocity number in

it, you are telling the equation, “tell me how much weight will I lift at this velocity”. It

might look something like Figure 7.13.

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Figure 7.13: Predicted weight lifted at different velocities. This is created entirely from the

previous force-velocity equation previously shown (Figure 7.11)

Now that a force-velocity profile is built, a coach can calculate what weight should be

lifted at a given speed. To see percentage of body weight or percentage of one rep max

for the “weight lifted”, one can simply divide that number by the athlete’s body weight

or projected one rep max. Remember, the projected one rep max occurs at minimal

voluntary threshold, recall different exercises will achieve different bar speeds (Squat:

0.30 m/s vs Bench: 0.15 m/s).

Bosco’s and JB Morin’s Methods

JB Morin’s methods have been popularized through advent of the My Jump App, which

allows coaches to use a phone to set up a force-velocity profile of an athlete. Validated

by research, this method has been shown to be effective at analyzing deficiencies. The

method is similar in nature to the velocity profiling methods mentioned above, but

instead of only using bar speed and load, J B Morin and Colleagues have developed a

biomechanical equation based on limb lengths to determine an “optimal profile”. By

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using a phone, it does all of the calculations for the coach and even suggests specific

training methods based on deficiencies. The issue is, this type of profiling is limited to

sprinting and jumps and does not involve the usage of non-ballistic movements.

However, not every coach may want to use their phone in the weight room. Instead of

using the above velocity profiling methods proposed by JB Morin and colleagues, which

requires a phone, a coach can use Jovanovic and Flanagan’s method and use

displacement measure (peak velocity or jump) height to obtain a force-velocity profile.

From there, all one needs to do is follow the same steps as mentioned above and use

the regression formula to predict how high an athlete will jump with a given load. Once

this equation is gathered, the coach can use Carmelo Bosco’s formula to determine if an

athlete is speed-strength or strength-speed deficient.

Carmelo Bosco’s Method

If an athlete can jump 65 + 5% of their max vertical jump height with a load that is 50%

of their bodyweight then they are proficient, if they are less they are deficient.

If an athlete can jump 35 + 5% of their max vertical jump height with a load that is 100%

of their bodyweight then they are proficient, if they are less they are deficient.

The reason why we suggest that a coach may want to use projected jump heights from a

force-velocity profile, instead of just testing the athletes with the given percentages of

body weight, is that when dealing with heavier athletes it may not be wise to have them

 jump and land with a load that is equal to their body weight.

Making Life Simple

We have made an easy to use velocity profile builder (Click Here). This velocity profile

builder includes jump height calculations from peak velocity, bar displacement

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calculations from peak velocity, Bosco’s profiling method, Jovanovics and Flanagan’s

profiling method, daily two-load 1rm estimations, a velocity cutoff/drop off calculator

and many more tools. It is an easy to use, premade spreadsheet that many coaches

have already put to use. Please feel free to use and share this tool with any other

coaches that may find this useful.

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