Nucleic Acid

A nucleic acid is a polymeric macromolecule made up of repeated

units of monomeric ‘nucleotides’ composed of a nitrogenous
heterocyclic base which is either a purine or a pyrimidine, a pentose
(five carbon) sugar (either ribose or 2′-deoxyribose), and one to three
phosphate groups.
From: Chemical Analysis of Food: Techniques and
Applications, 2012

Related terms:
Biosensor, Nucleoside, Protein, Oligonucleotide, Lipid, Nucleotide, Ligand,
Nanoparticle, Morphine, Peptide

Nucleic Acids
Margaret Scofield, in xPharm: The Comprehensive
Pharmacology Reference, 2007

Nucleic acids are polymers of acidic monomeric subunits

known as nucleotides. The nucleotides form a duplex, or
double-stranded, molecule referred to as deoxyribonucleic
acid (DNA) that stores genetic information within the cell.
The genetic information in DNA is transferred to ribonucleic
acid (RNA), monomeric forms of nucleic acids that are
primarily single-stranded molecules. The three major RNA
species differ in their composition and function. These are
designated ribosomal RNA (rRNA), transfer RNA (tRNA), and
messenger RNA (mRNA). The rRNA represents approximately
80% of cellular RNA, tRNA approximately 15%, and mRNA
3–5%. The RNA molecules participate in the conversion of
the genetic information stored in DNA into proteins that are
crucial for cellular function. Nucleic Acid Building Blocks: The
nucleotide components of the nucleic acids include a
heterocyclic nitrogenous base, a pentose sugar, and a
phosphate (Fig. 1). At physiological pH, the phosphate of the
nucleotide is completely ionized to the anionic form and the
nitrogenous base is linked through an N-beta glycosidic
bond to the 1′ carbon of the pentose sugar. By convention,
the carbon atoms of the pentose sugars are numbered 1′ to
5′, with the phosphate esterified to the 5′ carbon of the sugar.
The pentose sugars, deoxyribose, and ribose, are found in
DNA and RNA, respectively. These sugars differ in the
absence (deoxyribose) or presence (ribose) of a hydroxyl
group at the 2′ carbon of the pentose (Fig. 2). The presence of
the 2′ hydroxyl group is responsible for the instability of RNA
molecules.

Fig.1. Nucleotide. The building block of nucleic acids, the

nucleotide, is composed of a nitrogenous base, a pentose
sugar, and one to three phosphates labeled as α, β, and γ.
Fig. 2. Pentose sugars. Ribose and deoxyribose are found in
RNA and DNA, respectively.

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Food Protected Designation of Origin

Constantin Apetrei, Mahdi Ghasemi-Varnamkhasti, in
Comprehensive Analytical Chemistry, 2013
2.1.5 DNA Biosensors
Nucleic acids such as DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid) or RNA
(ribonucleic acid) are composed of a sugar or derivative of a
sugar (ribose or 2-deoxyribose), a nucleobase (cytosine,
guanine, adenine, thymine, or uracil), and phosphoric acid
and found in cell nuclei. A single-strand nucleic acid
molecule is able to recognize and bind to its complementary
strand in a sample, a property that can be used in developing
a biosensor as gene probe. Consequently, a nucleic acid is a
segment of the nucleic acid that specifically recognizes and
binds to a nucleic acid target. The interaction is based on the
formation of stable hydrogen bonds between the two nucleic
acid strands [21].

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Reactivity of Nucleic Acid Radicals

Marc M. Greenberg, in Advances in Physical Organic
Chemistry, 2016
Abstract
Nucleic acid oxidation plays a vital role in the etiology and
treatment of diseases, as well as aging. Reagents that oxidize
nucleic acids are also useful probes of the biopolymers'
structure and folding. Radiation scientists have contributed
greatly to our understanding of nucleic acid oxidation using a
variety of techniques. During the past two decades organic
chemists have applied the tools of synthetic and mechanistic
chemistry to independently generate and study the reactive
intermediates produced by ionizing radiation and other
nucleic acid damaging agents. This approach has facilitated
resolving mechanistic controversies and lead to the discovery
of new reactive processes.

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Chemical Constituents of Grapes and Wine

Ronald S. Jackson PhD, in Wine Science (Fourth Edition),
2014
Nucleic Acids
Nucleic acids are long polymers of nucleotides that function
in the storage, transmission, translation, and regulation of
genetic information. The molecular weight of nucleic acids is
so great that they are not released in significant amounts
from grapes upon crushing. Although the degradation
products of nucleic acids are readily soluble and easily
assimilated, yeasts synthesize their own nucleotide
requirements.
During extended yeast autolysis, such as during sur lies
maturation, there is considerable release of nucleotides and
nucleic acids. The release is most significant during the first
few months. Several nucleotides (5′-guanosine
monophosphate and 5′-inosine monophosphate) have potent
flavor enhancement attributes; whether these play a
significant role in wine is currently unknown (Courtis et al.,
1998).

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Strategy and Drug Research

E.E. Swayze, ... C.F. Bennett, in Comprehensive Medicinal
Chemistry II, 2007
Nucleic acids represent novel and largely unexploited targets
for therapeutic agents. There are two types of nucleic acid
targets, deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and ribonucleic acid
(RNA). The stable genetic material in cells, double stranded
DNA is folded into higher order structures and is the target
for several anticancer agents. RNA is a relatively unstable
nucleic acid that serves a variety of functions in cells
including providing structure to higher order complexes,
enzymatic activity and as a template for protein synthesis.
Several approved antibacterial agents target RNA structures
and a burgeoning number of drugs in development target
messenger RNAs and small noncoding RNAs for treatment of
a variety of diseases. This review describes various nucleic
acid structures which are targets of existing drugs or drugs
currently in development and strategies for exploiting nucleic
acids as drug targets.

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Physical and Chemical Properties of Viruses

Kenneth Soderstrom, in xPharm: The Comprehensive
Pharmacology Reference, 2007

Nucleic Acid: Viral nucleic acid may consist of ribonucleic

acid (RNA) or deoxyribonucleic acid (DNA) and constitutes
the genome (for detailed review, see Dimmock et al (2001)).
Nucleic acids comprising viral genomes may be in single- or
double-stranded form. Single-stranded genomes may be in
either coding (i.e., the sequence corresponding to messenger
RNA used for ribosomal translation and protein production)
or the complementary anti-coding sequence. These nucleic
acid molecules may be in linear or closed circle form, with
some viral genomes composed of multiple independent
molecular segments. Genome type serves as the basis for
viral classification. The genomes of DNA-containing viruses
are generally replicated and transcribed into messenger RNA
within the nucleus of host cells by appropriation of the host
cell enzymatic machinery. Most RNA-containing viruses are
replicated and expressed within the cytoplasm. The enzymatic
steps involved in replication of viral genomes are targets for
drug therapy. Drugs that inhibit nucleic acid synthesis are
useful in the treatment of viral infections. Inhibitors of
nucleic acid synthesis fall into several classes, including
nucleotide analogs (acyclovir, gancyclovir, cytarabine,
vidarabine, zidovudine), inhibitors of DNA polymerase
(foscarnet), and inhibitors of nucleotide synthesis (ribavirin).

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Electrochemistry of Nucleic Acids and Proteins –

Towards Electrochemical Sensors for Genomics and
Proteomics
Vladimír Vetterl, Stanislav Hasoň, in Perspectives in
Bioanalysis, 2005
Publisher Summary
Nucleic acid bases possess an extraordinarily high ability of
self-association at the electrode surface and undergo a 2-D
condensation forming a monomolecular layer. With this high
condensation ability, nucleic acid bases differ from most of
the other purine and pyrimidine derivatives, which currently
do not occur in nucleic acids. The two-dimensional first-
order phase transitions of molecules adsorbed on
homogeneous surfaces often precede via nucleation and
growth processes. The kinetics of these phase transitions
were investigated by means of current transients using the
double potential step technique. Depending on the start and
final potentials, different shapes of capacitance or current
transients can be detected. Hg-modified graphite electrodes
can be successfully used for the study of adsorption, 2-D
condensation and formation of ordered adlayers and kinetics
of the phase transition between different adlayers of nucleic
acids components. It means that with the mercury film
electrodes (MFEs) the effect of the surface morphology of the
underlying graphite substrates on the adsorption and kinetics
of the 2-D condensation of the nucleic acid components in
the same potential windows as with a hanging mercury drop
electrode (HMDE) can be investigated.

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NUCLEIC ACIDS | Extraction

S.J. Walker, K.E. Vrana, in Encyclopedia of Separation Science,
2000
Summary/Future Directions
Nucleic acid extraction from biological samples was one of
the enabling technologies in the development of molecular
biology. It has remained largely unchanged for the past 20
years and, in its present state, continues to be a mainstay of
the field. Most of the common advances have been in the
automation of the process and the creation of high
throughput technical platforms. The challenge for the
coming years will be the further refinement of these
automated applications and the creation of solid-state
systems. These approaches will involve the liberation of
nucleic acids from the biological samples, capture of the
specific chemical form (DNA or RNA) on a solid matrix, and
the subsequent analysis of the nucleic acid in that physical
environment without further manipulation. Regardless of
these potential technical advances, however, the essential
principles will remain unchanged and the separation of
nucleic acids from complex mixtures of macromolecules will
be a requisite step in the characterization of genomic
systems.
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Biosensing
Agnieszka A. Zuber, ... Akash Bachhuka, in Comprehensive
Nanoscience and Nanotechnology (Second Edition), 2019
3.06.2.2 Nucleic Acid Sensors
Nucleic acids consist of nucleotides which form pairs
(adenine-thymine and guanine-cytosine in DNA and
adenine-uracil in RNA). This complementary nucleotide
sequence property is utilised in biosensors. The nucleic acid-
based sensors which utilise hybridisation of oligonucleotides
for detection of DNA/RNA are called genosensors. The
nucleotide sequence probe, which is highly specific to that
one of the antigen, is immobilised on the sensor. The probe
can be synthesised in situ on the surface of the transducer or
immobilised afterwards [26]. A special structure of the nucleic
acid, called a hairpin, conjugated with a fluorophore forms a
probe called a molecular beacon. It contains a double
stranded region surrounding a single stranded loop with a
sequence complementary to the target DNA or RNA. At the
end of the sequence the fluorophore and the quencher are
attached. In the closed form no fluorescence is detected, but
after binding to the complementary sequence on the antigen
the structure opens, the fluorophore separates from the
quencher, and the fluorescence is observed. Electrochemical
transducers are also used in this kind of biosensors. A single
loop probe is an electrochemical alternative to the hairpin
structure. It induces an electron transfer from a redox label to
an electrode because of the change of conformation after
binding to the target nucleic acid. Using synthetic nucleic
acid is described in Section 2.6. The nucleic acid biosensors
can be used for detection of genetically modified organisms,
miRNA, bacterial contamination and clinical diagnostics.

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