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Field Report -Exploration Geophysics

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 Universidad de Los Andes

SCIENCE FACULTY

Field Report - Exploration Geophysics

Members:
Felipe Arrubla Arango 201325858
Sergio Silva 201414836
Nicolas Bedoya 201413649
Laura Botero 201415696
Date : November 21, 2016

Field Report
Professor: Jean Baptiste Tary
 Field Report - Exploration Geophysics
Sergio E. Silva Sánchez - Felipe Arrubla - Nicolas Bedoya - Laura Botero Barragán

November 21, 2016

Abstract : Geophysical studies were carried out based on different geophysics methods in several places of the
university estate Hacienda El Noviciado, located near Cota, Cundinamarca.The results are shown in the present
report which aims is to explain the methods used, the data obtained and the corrections made to them. Methods
of gravimetry, electrical resistivity, magnetometry and Ground Penetrating Radar (GPR) were used. Each method
research a specific target, that is a characteristic of the ground. Using different computational tools we try to
interpret the data which must be correlated with the geological information of the area. In this context, geophysical
data should make sense with those seen in geology, to ensure that the instruments are well calibrated and provide
relevant data that are accurate.

Key words: Exploration Geophysics - Resistivity - Gravity Survey - GPR - Magnetometry - Survey - Vertical
electrical sounding (SEV) - Induced Polarization (IP)

1 Introduction On the other hand, due to geophysics, it could be

measured global properties of the Earth. For example,
the conduction of metal materials in the core produces
Geophysical Exploration its a fundamental part of stud- a dynamo that forms the magnetic field of the Earth.
ies in Geosciences which give us insight of subsurface Which could be measured in different locations on the
features based on the physical properties of the earth. surface looking for the changes that it presents. More-
Thanks to this science, scientist and researchers have over, other important field in the planet is the gravita-
been able to determine different changes in depth, such as tional. Which also change according to the geographic
rheological behavior, electrical and magnetic properties, position due to differences in the surface shape of the
among others, thus allowing greater knowledge about the earth and because of compensations of material with dif-
structure of the land. ferent densities in the crust.

There are many different physical properties in the In this field report, it will be showed different geo-
rocks than could give information about the mineralogy, physical methods that we used for find electrical, mag-
structure, shape, composition, among others, that are netic and gravitational changes in an area located in
found based on geophysical studies. For example, in ore Cota, Cundinamarca. In order to find anomalies and
deposits studies, it is common to use the self potential data about this zone, taking into account the specifica-
method. In this method, the oredoby generates a elec- tion of the use and properties of machines like the CG-5
tric field that can be measured with a base electrode and gravimeter, GDD IP Receiver Model GRx2 and softwares
a roving electrode on a gridded survey or along profile like IPI2WIN, res2div, among others.
lines. Following that, based on electrical properties it
could be sketched deposits of pyrite, chalcopyrite, mag-
netite, among other minerals. Furthermore, other prop- 2 Geologic Framework
erties like the resistivity could give information about the
grain size in sedimentary rocks, the difference of material
by water presence, which are very useful for geological The Sabana de Bogotá is conformed by a complex struc-
studies. tural system composed of failed SSW-NNE course syn-

1
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 2

clines. In all this region sediments that date from the 3 Methods
Middle Cretaceous until the Quaternary arise. To this
period of time belong: the Villeta and the Guadalupe
Group and the formations: Guaduas, Cacho, Bogotá, 3.1 Gravimeter and GPS
Regadera, Usme, Tilatá, Sabana and Tunjuelo .
3.1.1 Theory
On the other hand, La Sabana is characterized by the
presence of lagoon deposits, fluvial and glacial-alluvial
deposits. These have been deposited in the center GPS
and the edges of the basin during the last 3.5 million
years. To this group belong the Tilatá (Pliocene), Sa- The GPS (global positional system), is a device based
bana (Pliocene, Pleistocene and Holocene) Formations, on a satellite navigation system, which consists of a net-
and Tunjuelo (Pleistocene and Holocene) Formations. work of 24 orbiting satellites that are eleven thousand
nautical miles in space and in six different orbital path.
In the greater valleys there are long synclines and in It serves to know the location, speed and height under
the part of the mountainous hills anticlines narrow. All any atmospheric condition and any part in the globe.
these structures present inverse faults that mainly bor- This location is obtained by the localization of, at least,
der the anticlines. Within these structures, the Bogotá 4 satellites and their distances of each others, beacuse
Fault is observed, which, despite its importance, is not with this information, the desired location is deduced
studied.

Of the most characteristic formations of the region is Gravimetry

the Guadalupe Formation which is a discontinuous re-
gional aquifer with a medium permeability and a high
saturation scatter. This training serves as a water sup- Corrections
ply, which is of a medium-good quality.Like the previous
one, the Tilatá, Sabana and Tunjuelo Formations con- Measure the variations of gravity in the stations
tain continuous, semi-confined, unconsolidated regional around the loop. This corrections, allow a better inter-
aquifers; With great thicknesses of saturation and good pretation of data thought the addition and subtraction
quality of the water. of different values of gravity that are not accord with the
real data because of differences in density, distance to the
core, presence of mountains, among others.

Free air correction:

Correction given by the variation of gravity with al-

titude, in which data is modified in order to make as
if it had been measured at a reference level. It should
be stood out, that a gravity station, at high elevations,
tends to have a gravitational acceleration lower than a
station at the lowest elevation.

To obtain this correction we have:

h
g(h) = g(1 − 2 ) (1)
As we see this region has a great hydrological im- r
portance, which is exploited by thousands of wells that
Then, by a derivation:
currently generate severe problems. Currently, the po-
tentiometric level of the groundwater of this basin is de- dg 2
= −g (2)
scending at rates between 3 and 5 m / year. The drop dh r
in the pressure level is one of the main causes of the
disturbing phenomena of the region. Replacing g and r with their values:
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 3

dg
∆h = 0.3086h mgal (3) ∆L = l (5)
dl

If ||h|| = m If we take
dl = Rφdφ (6)
Bouguer correction:
Then:

∆L = 8, 1669 × 10−4 lsin2φ mgal

Topography correction:

If the topography is not like a slab, it needs another

correction, the Topography correction. This correction,
For this correction, the adjustment is made with a is necessary because of the presence of changes in the
measurement of the gravitational acceleration to account topography could induce a excess or deficit of material
for the elevation and density of the rock, between the near to the station. Is important to take into account
measuring station and a reference level. Therefore, the that this correction is always positive.
Bouger correction, adopts an infinite density slab (p),
with a thickness (h), equal to the elevation of the station, Free air anomaly:
where it counts the rock thickness between the elevation
This is made by adjusting the gravity measures taken,
of the current station and the base. It is important to
and is the combination of drift correction, latitude cor-
mention, that the extra mass of the mountains results
rection and free-air correction.
in a greater gravity in relation to the areas near the sea
level Then:
It can be expressed mathematically as the product of
rock density, height relative to sea level or other refer- ∆F A = gm ± ∆D ± ∆L ± ∆h (7)
ence, and a constant, in units of mgal:
Bouguer anomaly:
∆P = 2πGph = −0, 04193ph (4) Is an anomaly of gravity, corrected for the height at
which it is measured and the attraction of the terrain.
For h > 0 substract ∆P Also, we need: drift, latitude, free-air, plate an topogra-
phy correction.
Latitude correction:
Then:
This correction, is made due to the variation given by
latitude effects on gravity, as the acceleration is greater
as we approach the Poles, and lower in Ecuador. Like-
gcorr = gm ± ∆D ± ∆L ± ∆h ± ∆P + ∆gt (8)
wise, it is also affected (in less quantity), by centrifugal
force, which causes an effect on the rotation because, in
general, tends to move the objects away from their ro- Gravimeter used
tation axis. This effect is lower in the Poles and greater
in Ecuador; in addition, has a direction contrary to the First of all, a gravimeter is an instrument used to
measure the local gravitational field of the Earth. These
force of gravity. For this reason, if the station measured,
respect to the base station, is closer to the Equator, thedevices have a high sensitivity in order to measure small
correction must be added, but subtracted if it is closer changes within the gravity of the Earth (can be since
to the Poles. It should be relevant to mention, that this 1 gal); these changes are given by geological structures
correction is not made for E-W displacements. close to the measurement point, or by the Earth’s own
shape. However, external vibrations, such as noise, tend
Due to this variation, a series of formulas have been to accelerate movements and affect the sensitivity. Nor-
proposed to calculate the theoretical or ”normal” grav- mally, gravimeters measure the vertical component of the
ity on the surface, considering the Earth as a revolution value of gravity.
ellipsoid or spheroid.
In this specific studies, the CG-5 AUTOGRAV
To obtain the latitude correction ∆L for a movement GAVIMETRY METER was used. This device, has a res-
l along a meridian, we take the derivative: olution of 1 µGal with a deviation smaller than 5 µGal
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 4

and an operating range of 8.000 mGal without resetting. sink holes; for geoid mapping, changes on gravity are
This device, has automated corrections as tide, instru- used to make corrections on GPS data; and for archeol-
ment tilt, temperature, noisy sample filter and seismic ogy, gravity can be used to locate buried walls, buildings,
noise filter; in addition, the GPS accuracy is Standard: and tombs.
≺ 1.5 m.
The CG-5 AUTOGRAV GAVIMETRY METER, also
has other benefits. It is easy to operate as it can quickly
collect and record reliable gravity data; additionally, it
has a good measure of the performance of a gravity gauge
and represent a standard deviation. On the other hand,
its fastening element is based on a molten quartz spring
system, which is of great importance as it allows the
device to be operated without having to fix it contin-
uously; moreover, its residual drift is very small. The
CG-5 AUTOGEN can also compensate for errors in tilt-
ing the instrument when working on unstable terrain, as
it can calculate and automatically apply a correction in
real time to each reading.

Measurement

To develop the work with the gravimeter, it is im-

portant to follow a series of steps. First, it is important
to have the gravimeter rested for about 4 hours so that
it can stabilize with the respective gravity at the stud-
ied site. Then, it should be noted that when performing
measurements, the values do not drop steeply. When
Figure 1: Gravimeter used in field. this is ready, it is proceeded to determine the land where
it is going to work, necessarily locating the north, by a
compass, and taking into account that the area used to
On the other hand, the operational specifies are: work needs to be a grid, where a base is determined, and
Touch Free Operation with a Keyfob, which transmits on it, must begin and finalize the work, since the opening
up to 30 m line of sight; furthermore, the battery ca- and closing time also helps to make corrections. On the
pacity is of all day operation at 25o C with rechargeable other hand, drift correction is done automatically.
lithium smart batteries, and only consumes 4.5 watts. Its
ideal operating temperature is from −40o C to 45o C. The When all this is ready, we proceed to create a new
dimensions are: 30 cm x 21 cm x 22 cm and has a weight work to be differentiated from previous or later. How-
of 8 kg. It is important to mention that the digital data ever, at each base, it is necessary that the operating user
is output by an USB memory. of the machine is standing in front of the gravimeter to
level it, this is done by opening or closing the nuts of the
This device, has many applications. For oil and gas tripod; starting with the front and then the back, until
exploration, gravity can be used to determine the loca- the lines intersect on the screen and a happy face comes
tion of a Salt dome in which oil or gas could be present; out. In order to take good measures, it is important to
for mineral exploration, gravity can detect Volcanic Mas- develop several cycles in each stop to have several data
sive Sulphides deposits associated with nickel deposits, from where to choose the best, which, for this case, are
diamond bearing Kimberlites, Banded Iron Formations, those with a lower standard deviation. Finally, pass data
and Impact Basins; for geotechnical, gravity can detect through USB ports to a computer or other USB device
Voids or Cavities whether they are tunnels, washouts or in a .txt file.
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 5

3.1.2 Results

Name Latitude Longitude High (m) g (mGal)

Domin 1 4.83339 -74.0942 2588.418 1279.01
Domin 2 4.83346 -74.09418 2589.26 1174.126
Domin 3 4.8343 -74.09387 2589.497 1101.074
Domin 4 4.83495 -74.09466 2594.123 1098.335
Domin 5 4.8353 -74.09544 2600.971 1096.901
Domin 6 4.83453 -74.09614 2606.475 1086.717
Domin 7 4.83606 -74.09684 2653.618 1065.439
Domin 8 4.83722 -74.09847 2751.066 1039.017
Domin 9 4.83876 -74.09905 2864.723 1008.731
Domin 10 4.83934 -74.10233 2989.488 1002.728
Domin 11 4.83766 -74.10469 3010.916 1023.765
Domin 12 4.83615 -74.10364 2935.904 1039.085
Domin 13 4.83615 -74.10363 2935.701 1100.949
Domin 14 4.83531 -74.10265 2874.095 1096.604
Domin 15 4.83346 -74.09417 2589.941 1102.998

Table 1: Results Sunday

According to the relation between the anomalies, we etc; in addition, we obtained that in the highest point
can say that the data are very different. This is due to the of the mountain, we have the maximum value in both
fact that Free Air anomaly, only takes into account the corrections, indicating that the density does not change
variation of the gravity with the altitude; on the other in a significant way; furthermore, the body we worked
hand, Bouguer correction not only takes into account this on, was homogeneous and of only one type. Also, it is
factor, but also relates density. Therefore, the larger the important to mention, that the values given on the table
data modified by this correction, follows that there is a are not so accurate because on the corrections, we are
body with a higher density. However, for this case, the missing the ones of the topography; this was because of
changes are not so abrupt, indicating that there is no some faults on the Matlab code.
strange body present, or anomalies as faults, intrusions

Name Latitude Longitude High (m) g (mGal)

Lunes pto uno 4.83345 -74.09416 2589.704 1102.185
Lunes pto dos 4.83367 -74.09422 2584.8 1102.132
Lunes pto tres 4.8341 -74.09409 2584.191 1102.159
Lunes pto cuatro 4.83452 -74.09391 2585.624 1102.214
Lunes pto cinco 4.83471 -74.09433 2588.751 1101.757
Lunes pto seis 4.83429 -74.09443 2587.458 1101.916
Lunes pto 7 4.83386 -74.09466 2587.553 1101.963
Lunes pto 8 4.83398 -74.09493 2591.308 1101.537
Lunes pto 9 4.83441 -74.09482 2590.368 1101.37
Lunes pto 10 4.83494 -74.09465 2589.852 1101.309
Lunes pto 11 4.83343 -74.09415 2587.74 1102.383

Table 2: Results Monday afternoon

Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 6

Name Latitude Longitude High (m) g (mGal)

Lunes primer 4.83342 -74.09416 2592.139 1101.98
Lunes segundo 4.83217 -74.0945 2594.381 1101.908
Lunes segundo gr 4.83195 -74.09409 2593.074 1102.092
Lunes tercer gs 4.8317 -74.09369 2594.17 1102.144
Lunes cuarto gt 4.83148 -74.09332 2594.312 1102.21
Lunes quinto gu 4.83115 -74.09361 2594.963 1102.026
Lunes sexto gv 4.83136 -74.09404 2594.772 1102.105
Lunes siete gw 4.83152 -74.09442 2595.022 1102.102
Lunes octavo gx 4.83169 -74.09484 2594.839 1101.97
Lunes noveno gy 4.83133 -74.09511 2595.38 1101.972
Lunes decimo gz 4.8311 -74.09475 2594.4 1101.995
Lunes onceavo ha 4.83086 -74.09437 2592.405 1102.032
Lunes doceavo hb 4.83062 -74.09398 2591.824 1102.03
Lunes cierre 4.83344 -74.09416 2592.081 1102.238

Table 3: Results Monday morning

According to the relation between the anomalies, we these groups is around 11 meters. According to these
can say that the data are very different. This is due to the data, compared to Sunday, we can evidence the effect
fact that Free Air anomaly , only takes into account the that height has on corrections; for example, we can ob-
variation of the gravity with the altitude; on the other serve that in the correction of Free Air and Bouguer, val-
hand, Bouguer’s correction not only takes into account ues increase on Sunday, when taking the data on a small
this factor, but also relates density. Therefore, the larger mountain; however, even if we worked on the mountain,
the data modified by this correction, follows that there there are not so abrupt changes, because the difference
is a body with a higher density. However, for this case, of heights is not so great. On the other hand, we can see
the changes are not so abrupt, indicating that there is that it is different for the correction of Bouguer, where,
no strange body present, or anomalies as faults, diapiros for the data taken on Monday, corrections are very sim-
etc; in addition, we obtained that in the highest point ilar, but compared to Sunday, they vary significantly.
of the mountain, we have the maximum value in both From the above, we can determine that, likewise, the Free
corrections, indicating that the density does not change Air anomalies do not vary much between the days, but
in a significant way; furthermore, the body we worked those of Bouguer, yes. Also, it is important to mention,
on, was homogeneous and of only one type. This, is the that the values given on the table are not so accurate
relation for Sunday. For Monday, we found that for both because on the corrections, we are missing the ones of
groups of measured data (morning and afternoon), the the topography; this was because of some faults on the
values obtained are very similar. This is due to the fact Matlab code. With this corrections, it could be possible
that the terrains in which the study was made, are very take into account the presence of the mountain near to
similar, not only in terms of composition, but also in re- the area analyzed and then the different anomalies could
lation to heights, since the maximum difference found in have great changes.

Figure 2: Map with the GPS points where Data of gravimeter was measure.
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 7

Station x (m) g (mgal) ∆f a (mgal)

3.1.3 Process and correction of data 1 0 1279.01 798.7857948
2 8.238940024 1174.126 799.045636
3 105.8131649 1101.074 799.1187742
4 217.6028453 1098.335 800.5463578
5 313.8075432 1096.901 802.6596506
6 427.53089 1086.717 804.358185
To begin, there was found the free air and Bouguer cor- 7
8
613.0165768
833.3906956
1065.439
1039.017
818.9065148
848.9789676
rections based on the equations given previously. There 9
10
1016.00149
1384.913601
1008.731
1002.728
884.0535178
922.5559968
is important to take into account that the density of the 11 1702.354686 1023.765 929.1686776
12 1910.760261 1039.085 906.0199744
terrain was found with the Nettleton method for the Sun- 13 1911.827481 1100.949 905.9573286
14 2054.044389 1096.604 886.945717
day. But, when it was plotted the values of the position 15 3011.16984 1102.998 799.2557926
C. B (mgal) An. FA (mgal) An. Bou (mgal)
vs the Bouguer Anomaly, the shape of the curve did not 1 -292.8976156 2077.795795 1784.898179
2 -292.9928938 1973.171636 1680.178742
change a lot (Figure 3), so there was really difficult to 3 -293.019712 1900.192774 1607.173062
find a curve totally different to the topography of the 4
5
-293.5431763
-294.3180754
1898.881358
1899.560651
1605.338181
1605.242575
area (Figure 4). In this case, it was taken the points 3 6
7
-294.9408916
-300.275452
1891.075185
1884.345515
1596.134293
1584.070063
to 11 because this locations have a position similar to a 8
9
-311.3023754
-324.1634605
1887.995968
1892.784518
1576.693592
1568.621057
line. 10 -338.2814936 1925.283997 1587.002503
11 -340.7062218 1952.933678 1612.227456
12 -332.2180889 1945.104974 1612.886885
13 -332.1951181 2006.906329 1674.711211
14 -325.2239679 1983.549717 1658.325749
15 -293.0699537 1902.253793 1609.183839

Table 4: Sunday data with continental crust density.

Figure 3: Nettleton method for the stations 3 to 11 of

Sunday.

Station x (m) g (mgal) ∆f a (mgal)

1 0 1279.01 798.7857948
2 8.238940024 1174.126 799.045636
3 105.8131649 1101.074 799.1187742
4 217.6028453 1098.335 800.5463578
5 313.8075432 1096.901 802.6596506
6 427.53089 1086.717 804.358185
7 613.0165768 1065.439 818.9065148
8 833.3906956 1039.017 848.9789676
9 1016.00149 1008.731 884.0535178
10 1384.913601 1002.728 922.5559968
11 1702.354686 1023.765 929.1686776
12 1910.760261 1039.085 906.0199744
13 1911.827481 1100.949 905.9573286
14 2054.044389 1096.604 886.945717
15 3011.16984 1102.998 799.2557926
C. B (mgal) An. FA (mgal) An. Bou (mgal)
1 -173.5689574 2077.795795 1904.226837
2 -173.6254186 1973.171636 1799.546217
3 -173.6413108 1900.192774 1726.551463
4 -173.9515119 1898.881358 1724.929846
5 -174.4107114 1899.560651 1725.149939
6 -174.7797876 1891.075185 1716.295397
7 -177.9410086 1884.345515 1706.404506
8 -184.4754817 1887.995968 1703.520486
9 -192.0968655 1892.784518 1700.687652
10 -200.4631073 1925.283997 1724.820889
11 -201.8999833 1952.933678 1751.033694
12 -196.8699786 1945.104974 1748.234996
13 -196.8563663 2006.906329 1810.049962
14 -192.7253143 1983.549717 1790.824403
Figure 4: Topography for the stations 3 to 11 of Sunday. 15 -173.6710837 1902.253793 1728.582709

Table 5: Sunday data with Nettleton density.

The density obtained with this method was 1600

kg/m3 , what is not real for values in the continental crust
with this size. So, in the table 3.1.3 are showed the values
of the anomalies and corrections taking ρ = 2700 kg/m3
because this is the average value for the continental crust.
And in table 3.1.3 are showed the values with the density
found. Graphic representation Monday Afternoon
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 8

Figure 8: Bouguer anomaly Monday morning.

Figure 5: Free air anomaly Monday afternoon.

According to the graphics of the Free Air Anoma-

lies, it is seen that, even if the colors are different, the
real numbers are not, which means that the values of
the anomalies are not very different. This because the
presence of changes in the radius are not important.

On the Bouguer graphics, it is noticed that at the

Figure 6: Bouguer anomaly Monday afternoon. left down part, is located the greatest amount of mass;
but it is important to say, that the mass excess is not
significant as all the values are very close.

According to this, we confirmed that the terrain in

Graphic representation Monday Afternoon which we worked was homogeneous and no significant
anomalies were found, either excess mass or geological
anomalies that could alter the data.

Furthermore, it is important to notice that that in the

case of the Monday, the graphics of Free Air Anomaly
and Bouguer Anomaly, do not change very much, be-
cause they depend of the same variables. In addition, it
must be remembered that terrain correction is not take in
the Bouguer equation. Also, with the relations of those,
we can know how was the topography of the ground, that
in this case, was almost flat.

The terrain correction was tried to do but there was

a mistake with the concat function because it trows dif-
ferent warnings that did not allow us to calculate that.
The mistake that we had after the step two is showed in
Figure 7: Free air anomaly Monday morning. the next figure:
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 9

And, if we introduce another electrode, the potential

in a point located in a distance r1 of the first electrode
and r2 of the second one, will be:

I I
V =ρ −ρ (13)
2πr1 2πr2

So, if there are two electrodes that start the current

and two that measure the difference of potential with the
following array:

Figure 9: Error in the Matlab code.

3.2 Resistivity

3.2.1 Theory

Figure 10: Electrodes organization

The resistivity analysis allows obtain a model of the re-
sistivity of the terrain, based on the difference of the
potential between two electrodes located in the surface.
This difference is the necessary work made by the field The difference of potential between the points M and
for move a charge from a point to another. Taking in N, will be:
to account that this value could change according to the
ρI 1 1 1 1
properties of the material. For example, in natural ma- ∆V = ( − − + ) (14)
terials it could change from 10−8 in native materials to 2π AM BM AN BN
1015 in micas. For this study, it is important to know
the approximate resistivity of the follow materials: And finally, if we take K (geometric coefficient) like
the coefficient made by the different distances, then:
• Claystones: 1 − 10 Ω.m
• Siltstones: 10 − 100 Ω.m ∆V
ρ= K (15)
• Sandstones: 100 − 1000 Ω.m I

• Fresh water: 4 − 200 Ω.m The distances between the electrodes could change,
depending of the main target information. The principal
Measuring the resistivity: arrays are:

If we introduce a current with intensity I in a point

A, it could be calculated the resistance (R) through the • Wenner.
ohm’s law, as:
ρ • Schulumberger.
R= section (9)
length
• Wenner - Schumberger.
But, like the field could be seen like a semi-sphere of
radious r:
dr • Dipole - dipole.
R=ρ (10)
2πr2
• Pole - dipole.
Then, by the Ohm’s law:
dr • Pole- pole.
−dV = ρ I (11)
2πr2
Specifically, in this study, the measurements were
Integrating:
I made in Wenner and Dipole - dipole arrays, which have
V =ρ (12) the following structure:
2πr
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 10

The purpose of geoelectric prospecting is to establish

the formation of the subsoil by the spatial location of
the resistive layers (geoelectric profile) to subsequently
transform the geoelectric profile into geological one, base
on characteristics of the subsoil.

Measuring the data:

The process of the obtaining of data was made

through the two arrays previously described. Specifi-
cally, it were used 16 electrodes of stainless steel, that
Figure 11: Structure Wenner array were located how is showed in the Figure 13.

Figure 12: Structure Dipole-dipole array

Where A and M are the potential electrodes for dipole

- dipole and B and N are the current ones for this array,
and M and N are the potential electrodes for Wenner
and A and B the current ones. And each array have
a different geometrical factor, which are showed in the
figures.

In the field trip, the analysis were made through three

different methods:

- Vertical electrical sounding: In this method, the

Figure 13: Ubication of the differet methods
aperture of the current electrodes is increased with each
measure for that the depth of reach be greater. In theory,
the potential electrodes must stay in a unique position,
but, at the moment of do the measures, it was necessary
to increased a little bit this aperture to obtain better
data.

- Tomography: Is a multi-electrode resistivity

method, that could be analysed in 2D or 3D, based on the
model of the terrain resistivity. In this method, there is a
array of electrodes in which a direct current is induced in
two electrodes connected to a milliamperimeter, and sub- Through a group work, the current and voltage wires
sequently the electrical potential difference is measured were positioned in each of the stakes corresponding to
through two other electrodes. the electrodes according to the organization of the ar-
rangement. Then, through a GDD TXIII of 1800 W-
- Induced polarization: Is an active method that al- 2400V-10A (Figura 14), the current was emitted. Then,
lows to measure vertical and horizontal changes of the the values of potential difference were measured by a re-
resistivity. The induced polarization is observed when ceptor GDD IP Receiver Model GRx2, and were written
is interrupted a stationary current that passes through on a sheet and stored in the memory of the machine. It
two electrodes, where the tension does not return to zero is really important to keep a good organization in the
instantaneously however it decays slowly, what indicated process of data measurement, because it is necessary to
that the charge have been stored in the rocks. change each position perfectly.
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 11

Capa ρ(Ω × m) h (m) d (m) Alt

1 33.7 0.75 0.75 -0.75
2 1150 0.807 1.56 -1.557
3 29.4 2.88 4.44 -4.436
4 508 15.9 20.3 -20.29
5 79.5 - - -

Table 9: SEV2 properties with an error of 7.48 %.

Figure 14: Equipment used in the geoelectric measure-

ments. 1: Yamaha generator EF2400iS, 2: GDD TXIII
of 1800 W-2400V-10A, 3:GDD IP Receiver Model GRx2,
4: Wires, 5: Electrodes.

3.2.2 Result

SEV

Figure 17: SEV3

Capa ρ(Ω × m) h (m) d (m) Alt

1 123 0.75 0.75 -0.75
2 721 0.47 1.22 -1.22
3 29.7 16 17.2 -17.21
4 110 - - -
Figure 15: SEV1
Table 10: SEV3 properties with an error of 7.91 %.

Capa ρ(Ωm) h (m) d (m) Alt

1 182 1.5 1.5 -1.5 Induced Polarization
2 172 - - -

Table 8: SEV1 properties with an error of 102 %.

Figure 16: SEV2 Figure 18: SEV1

Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 12

ab/2 Induce Polarization ab/2 Induce Polarization

1.5 2.03 1.5 2.24
2 1.862 2 2.129
3 0.951 3 2.692
5 0.146 6 3.267
10 1.23 10 3.569
15 3.721 15 3.300
25 4.332 20 3.641
50 4.13 25 3.842
70 3.145 35 4.326
100 3.501 50 4.929
130 3.718 75 5.869
150 3.736 100 6.707
125 7.076
Table 11: Data of the IP for SEV1
Table 12: Data of the IP for SEV2

Figure 20: SEV3

ab/2 Induce Polarization

1.5 3.522
2 2.398
3 2.312,
6 1.621
10 3.356
15 4.209
20 3.65
35 3.03
50 3.049
75 4.119
Figure 19: SEV2 Table 13: Data of the IP for SEV3
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 13

Tomographys

Figure 21: Tomography 1

Figure 22: Tomography 2

3.2.3 Interpretation this models have an error because it is difficult to find an

ideal model that describes the total data recollected.
SEV Moreover, the are other kinds of errors that are pro-
duced while measuring the data. One evidence of this,
The software, IP2WIN propose models that are based on are the little jumps that we can see in the curve that was
multiple layers with different resistivity’s that approach based on the data we recollected. This shifts occurred
to the data that we have recollected in field. As expected, when we increased the aperture; in order to, improve the
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 14

resolution of the data.The software corrected this discon- The regional geology is conformed by the formation
tinuities by approaching the data to one of the layers or ARENISCA DURA (K2d) composed of clay and sand-
to the average. In this case we decide to approach the stone which is confirmed by the measured data.
data to the first layer of the model.

In that order of ideas, the first model that shows the

results of the survey SEV1 presents a model made of IP
two layers with almost the same resistivity 182 Ωm and
172Ωm respectively. The first layer has a thickness of 1,5 As we can see, IP data can be collected during an electri-
m; on the other side, it is not possible to estimate the cal resistivity survey. Measurements of chargeability can
thickness of the second layer based on this model, the be used to discriminate equally electrically conductive
results present an error of 102 %. Comparing this data target such as saline, electrolytic or metallic-ion contam-
with the normals values (see annex 1 and annex2) this inant plumes from clay Layers; more over, IP can be used
2 layers could be Sedimentary rocks probably sandstone to distinguish geologic layers which do not respond well
with different grain size, porosity and permeability. to an electrical resistivity.

Taking into account that approximately 25 years ago, In this case, we plot IP (V/mV) VS ab/2 and we ob-
there was a water spring located were we take the mea- tain different results.In general, similar values were ob-
surements of SEV1 (Fig 6) and correlating this with the tained between SEV1 and SEV2 but different from SEV3.
model we can see that there is no longer fresh water in the In SEV1 and SEV2 the data of the induced polarization
subsoil. Probably, this source of water could be located are between 0 and 4.5. Both have a negative peak in
in a greater depth. the firsts values of ab/2, followed by higher values reach-
ing up to 4.3. Once they reach this maximum value, a
For the SEV2 we obtained a model with five layers very small IP range is registered until values of 3, this
with a total depth of 21m and a error of 7.46%. The tell us that there is a . since that point it is evidence a
thickness of the layers increases with the depth, the first constant increase of the induced polarization as the ab/2
2 layers have similar bulks of 0.75 m and 0.807 m. How- increases. Although these two measurements are very
ever, they have totally different resistivities; the first one similar, there are slight differences, most notable in that
present a resistivity of 33.7 Ωm and the second one 1150 the data taken in SEV1 had a maximum value of ab / 2
Ωm, this could give us an idea of what material this lay- = 150 while those of SEV3 were 80.
ers are composed, they could be clay and sandstones or
conglomerates. For the next layer we obtain a thickness For SEV2 the measured data exhibit a different be-
of 2.88 m and a resistivity value of 29.4 Ωm it could prob- havior, they show a continuous increase of the induced
ably be clay and slits or maybe fresh water. In the forth polarization as ab/2 increases. There is a linear increase
layer the software estimate a conductivity of 508 Ωm and that could be explained by the IP effect which increases
a bulk of 15.9 m that could indicate the presence of sand- if water in the ground has a low conductivity or if poros-
stone. Finally, the last layer shows a resistivity of 79.5 ity is decreasing. Which is in agreement with the model
Ωm that may be related with fresh water. proposed for SEV2, where a decrease of the resitivity by
the presence of water had been observed. In this case we
As we can see, the model at the end starts to measure see the increase of the Induced Polarization with depth,
lower values of resistivity, this could suggest that if we which is explained by the presence of groundwater, re-
continue going deeper the resistivity will get lower. In lated to the water well.
addition if we take into account that near the place we
took the measurements there is a water well, we obtain
that the data is measuring the water that is in the subsoil
and that is extracted from the well. Tomography

Finally, the model that we get for SEV3 shows four

Tomography 1:
layers. The first layer has a resistivity of 123 Ω m and a
thickness of 0.75 m followed by a layer of 0.47 m having This tomography was taken in an area where it was
a resistivity of 721 Ω m. The third layer has a resistivityexpected to show a change in resistivity due to the pos-
of 29.7 Ωm and a thickness of 16 m and last the fourth sible presence of groundwater flow, according to geomor-
layer shows a resistivity of Ωm. The model shows an phic relations. But in fact, the results show a possibly
error of 7.91% and reached a depth of 17.21m. uniform lithology of lodolites and fine-grained sandstone.
Due to the inversion made through the RES2DINV soft-
In general, these geoelectric configurations are asso-
ware, it is evident that at approximately 15 m there is an
ciated with sedimentary rocks such as clays, muds, sand-
increase in resistivity at values near to 5000 Ωm, which
stones and in some cases subterranean aquifers. It is
could be interpreted as some possible sandstones layers
possible to show some similarities between the SEV’s,
but with a with increase of the grain size or conglomer-
indicating that there is a correlation in the lithologies.
ates.
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 15

Tomography 2: component or horizontal gradient of the magnetic field

may also be made. Magnetism is, just like gravity, a
To begin, according to the measured aparent resistiv- potential field. Anomalies in the earth’s magnetic field
ity pseudosection, there is an anomaly of resistivity in the are caused by induced or remanent magnetism. Induced
central zone, due to the possible presence of water. This magnetic anomalies are the result of secondary magne-
zone is immersed in a layer with a resistivity of approxi- tization induced in a ferromagnetic body by the earth’s
mately 30 Ωm and present a horizontal size of about 15 magnetic field. The shape, dimensions, and amplitude of
m. Then, according to the inverse model resistivity sec- an induced magnetic anomaly can depend on the orienta-
tion, it could be seen that at 20 m there start to appear tion, geometry, size, depth, and magnetic susceptibility
horizontal layers in which the resistivity increases from of the body as well as the intensity and inclination of the
about 30 Ωm to about 90 Ωm. This can be interpreted as earth’s magnetic field in the area in which the survey is
a zone in which, in the upper part, there is a layer with taking place.
fine grain with a thickness of approximately 20 m, and
with the depth, it begin to appear thinner layers with
increases of resistivity by increase of grain size that also
could be conglomerates.

3.3 Magnetometer

3.3.1 Theory

The aim of a magnetic survey is to investigate subsur-

face geology on the basis of the anomalies in the earth’s
magnetic field resulting from the magnetic properties of
the underlying rocks. In general, the magnetic content
(susceptibility) of rocks is extremely variable depending
on the type of rock and the environment it is in. Com-
Figure 24: Map of the magnetic field of the earth in con-
mon causes of magnetic anomalies include dykes, faults
tours
and lava flows. In a geothermal environment, due to
high temperatures, the susceptibility decreases. It is
not usually possible to identify with certainty the causi-
tive lithology of any anomaly from magnetic information
alone.

Figure 23: Ilustration of the magnetic field of the Earth

and how its generated

The magnetic method involves the measurement of

the earth’s magnetic field intensity. Typically the to-
tal magnetic field and the vertical magnetic gradient is
measured. Measurements of the horizontal or vertical Figure 25: SEV1
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 16

Diurnal Correction : This are Solar wind perturba-

tions Small corrections in normal times. Earth’s mag-
netic field has day-night variations associated with inter-
actions between the solar wind and ionosphere; they can
be removed using concurrent observations at a base sta-
tion. This is the most important correction for the use of
good processing data. Other corrections are the Terrain
Corrections and Latitude Corrections.

3.3.4 Interpretation

Figure 26: Range of suceptibility depending on the ma- A magnetic anomaly arises from a magnetization con-
terial. trast M. The anomaly depends on the shape and depth
of the contrast and on the orientation of the shape, and
on the orientation of the inducing magnetic field. The
The magnetometer used its a cesium vapur magne- magnetization contract may arise from remanent magne-
tometer and here we briefly explain the theory behind tization (oceanic crust), or variations in the susceptibil-
the way the G-859 by Geometrics works: ity k of a body relative to the background susceptibility
k0. Otherwise we can divide interpretation of magnetic
The cesium atom has only one electron in the outer- anomalies in direct and indirect interpretation, each of
most electron shell. If there were more electrons in the those with its advantages and disadvantages we will see
shell they would interact with each other, but in the case :
of the cesium atom the electron is free to change energy
states in an independent way and we therefore consider
only the single electron case. An electron has an elec-
trical charge and a spin, hence it will have a small mag-
netic moment. This moment means that there will be
some variability in the energy of the electron depending
on the direction of it’s spin axis relative to an ambient
magnetic field vector. If for example the electron’s mag-
netic field is aligned with the ambient magnetic field, the
energy will be lower than if it is opposed to the field.
If we could measure the differences in energy caused by
changing the electron’s orientation, we could determine
the strength of the ambient magnetic field. Where the
energy difference is equal to the strength of the magnetic
field times an atomic constant.
Figure 27: Half Width for magnetics.

3.3.2 Results
Direct : In the direct interpretation we can use sets of
As we could not receive data from any near or local ge- geometric figures to associate them to simple geological
omagnetic station, tidal and diurnal corrections werent structures. For example an sphere is useful to modelate
done , so no data its available for present the results. Er- salt domes or karstic structures. The horizontal cilinder
ror would too high so no sense would it make to do any its useful for tunnels and the vertical cylender is useful
interpretations or geological suggestions from this data. for volcanic bodies.

Indirect : Its more like the models used in gravimetry

3.3.3 Process and correction of data where we search to adjust our model to the ideal shapes
of the bodies we are seeing

Here in this data we present the kinds of corrections that Also you can generate and inversion to find out which
would be useful por the survey made, the main correc- are the materials and bodies which are causing this spe-
tions are. cific anomaly spectrum
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 17

and magnetic permeabilityof the medium:

Figure 28: Table of anomalies and possible geometric

figures to associate.

3.4 GPR

3.4.1 Theory
The same goes for the wave velocity inside the
Ground penetrating radar (GPR) is a high resolution medium :
electromagnetic technique that is designed primarily to
investigate the subsurface of the earth at depths upt to a
few a meters. building materials, and roads and bridges.
GPR has been developed over the past thirty years for
shallow, high resolution investigations of the subsurface.
GPR is a time-dependent geophysical technique subsur-
face. Under the optimal conditions , GPR can provide
good information with enough details concerning buried
objects. This method can be used to calculate the depth Each wave from the antenna takes a different tra-
of certain objects. Using simple formulas. jectory depending on the characteristics of the media.
In the next graphic the is an insight about how should
a GPR Survey array works and the diferrents kinds of
waves involved.
GPR uses the scattering of electromagnetic waves to
locate buried objects. The basic principles and theory
of operation for GPR have evolved through the disci-
plines of electrical engineering and seismic exploration,
and practitioners of GPR tend to have backgrounds ei-
ther in geophysical exploration or electrical engineering.
The GPR works with a set of antennas TX and RX to
send and receive electromagnetic waves.This has led to
the application of field operational principles that are
analogous to the seismic reflection method. GPR is a
method that is commonly used for environmental, engi-
neering, archeological, and other shallow investigations.
To study subsurface feautures of interest.

The basic type of GPR is a time-domain system in

which a transmitter generates pulsed signals and a re-
ceiver samples the returned signal over time. Another
common type is a frequency-domain system in which si-
nusoidal waves are transmitted and received while sweep-
ing a given frequency. The time-domain response can
be obtained by an inverse Fourier transform of the
frequency-domain response.

The basics of the electromagnetic theory behind this

method can rely simply on a couple of principles we are
goinf to outline here: Figure 29: SEV1

The propagation velocity v of the electromagnetic

wave in soil is characterised by the dielectric permittivity Adquisition:
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 18

For the collection of data we first calibrate the equip-

ment defining the approximate length of the line. The
operator incorporates the equipment with a vest, when
managing de equipment you need to make sure to not lift
the equipment from the ground to keep the energy of the
electromagnetic waves to get lost in the interaction from
air to the ground. As the GPR works with electromag-
netic wave, the operator need to keep away equipment
like cellphones and others.

Figure 30: SEV1

During the survey the operator needs to walk slowly

during the line in order to let the equipment execute sig-
nals correctly.
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 19

3.4.2 Result

Figure 31: GPR Scan-1

Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 20

Figure 32: GPR Scan-2

Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 21

Figure 33: GPR Scan-3

Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 22

Figure 34: GPR Scan-4

Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 23

Figure 35: GPR Scan-5

Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 24

3.4.3 Process and correction of data ground has 0.3 meter thick and the second layer varies
its depth horizontally going from 0.4 meters in the left to
1.32 meters at the right part of the profile. This profile is
3.4.4 Interpretation
also quite shallow sacrificing depth for resolution efforts.
There isnt any presence of xenoliths but the presence of
In order to present the ideal interpretation on the GPR deformation fold like estructures is outlined.
data collected its necessary to divide this section based on
4 fundamental aspects.This are the number of beds that General: The profiles we have seen were shallow
are recognizable , thickness of these beds , max depth of highly detailed images of a 3 to 6 meter profile of a mainly
the survey taking into account which data its noise and regolith subconsolidated overburden material, that al-
which data its reververaciones and finally which struc- though having certain bedding by layers its mainly the
tural aspects are recognizable in the image. same material all around corresponding to the forma-
tion sabana of bogota, mainly fluvio-glacial lacustrial and
SCAN - 1: In this profile its easy to recognize 2 swamp quaternary sediments that does not present any
sedimentary layers of fairly similar composition, the first specific changes in lithology or wave behaviour under-
one, its the overburden fairly consolidated rock in which ground.
the transition from the air antenna to the ground media
occurs, this interface has an average thickness of 0.44 me-
ters. By the other side we got a more consolidated part
of the overburden with a thickness of 3.144 meters, this
4 References
layer does not present any deformation process we can
• Anon,(2016). [online] Available at: http :
identify, nor buried objects or xenoliths. The total depth
//scintrexltd.com/dat/content/f ile/ScintrexC G5−
reach for this profile its 4.70 meters, after this point the
DIGIT AL−Brochure−R1.pdf [Accessed 18 Nov.
lines we see is mainly noise. We need to remember that
2016].
in the use of this equipment we sacrificed depth due to
the resolution level thats why in all the profiles to expect • Reynolds, J. (2011). An introduction to applied
an average depth around 5 to maximum 6 meters as we and environmental geophysics. Chichester, West
inferred before in the field while adquiring the data. Sussex: Wiley-Blackwell.

SCAN - 2: The profile for scan number 2 presents • Kearey, P. (2002). An Introduction to Geophysical
several interesting aspects. First of all as in the other pro- Exploration. Blackwell Science.
files we have a first fairly unconsolidated layer in which • Ketola, M. (1967). Type curves for the interpreta-
interaction between air wave and ground meddia occurs, tion of Slingram (horizontal loop) anomalies over
this layer is quite thin with 0.34 meters. Then its fol- tabular bodies. Geological Survey of Finland.
lowed by a second consolidated layer of overburden that
presents stratification and what could be an anticline es- • Metasomatism and Metamorphism: The Role of
tructure, or at least a quite folded bed presenting signs of Fluids in Crustal and Upper Mantle Processes,
deformation. The second layer is 1.34 meters thick. And Springer-Verlag, 2012. (Adjunto fragmento como
the general depth of the profile is around 2.5 meters. The unsworthresistivity.pdf).
shallowest of all the profiles interpretated but with great
• Pardo, O. and Eraso, G. (2016). Caracterización
detail in resolution that allows to identify stratification
geofı́sica integrada de las aguas termales de la Hos-
and deformation.
teria Balneario El Batán, municipio de Cuitiva,
SCAN - 3: In this profile we can observate 2 differ- Boyaca, Colombia. [online] Revistas.unal.edu.co.
ent layers in which, layer one its the first part of over- Available at: http : //www.revistas.unal.edu.co
burden, which represents the first transition of the wave • Idmgeofisica.com.ar. (2016). Metodos Geoelectri-
from the antenna in the air to the ground media, this cos — Empresa Geofisica IDM. [online] Available
layer is 1.3 meters thick. The second layer seems to at: http://www.idmgeofisica.com.ar/metodos-
be another sedimentary cover possible more consolidated geoelectricos.php [Accessed 10 Nov. 2016].
which presents certain grade of stratification, with a very
opened fold y en medium-left part of the graph, this sec- • Anon, (2016). [online] Available at:
ond layer posses a thickness of 3.1 meters. Overall the http://tesis.uson.mx/digital/tesis/docs/21220
resolution of the GPR reaches 5 meters, from that point [Accessed 16 Nov. 2016].
on all of the layers we can see is mainly noise. • polarización inducida - Schlumberger Oilfield Glos-
sary. (2016). Glossary.oilfield.slb.com. Retrieved
SCAN - 4: The profile of scan number four has par-
22 November 2016, from http://www.glossary.oilfield.slb.com
ticular aspects of interest for th GPR Survey because
of the existance of reverberations or wave consecutive • Prospección fı́sica: Sondeos eléctricos verticales..
reflexion with the sedimentary beds as EM waves get (2016). hidrologia.usal.es. Retrieved 22 November
trapped within. The first layer for the interection air 2016, from http://hidrologia.usal.es/temas/SEV.pdf
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 25

• ETH Zurich , Magnetic Survey.

• UBC , Magnetic Survey.
• THE MAGNETIC METHOD N.O. Mariita Kenya
Electricity Generating Company Ltd. (KenGen)
P.O. Box 785, Naivasha
• Ground Penetrating Radar Fundamentals by Jef-
frey J. Daniels, Department of Geological Sciences,
The Ohio State University
Universidad de los Andes - Exploration Geophysics 2016-2 26

Annex:

Figure 36: Annex 1 table that shows the different resistivity’s depending the material.

Figure 37: Annex 2 table that shows the different resistivity’s depending the material.

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