INTRODUCTION TO LANGUAGE EDUCATION; The Nigerian Perspective Copyright © 2019 Edited by: Esther N. Oluikpe ISBN:978-978-979-39b-4 ALL RIGHTS RESERVED. No part of this publication may be stored in a retrieval system, 1 or reproduced in any form or by any means, including photo. Tansmi photograph, magnetic, or other record, or otherwise without the ps agreement and written permission of the copyright owner, = ted, Many of the product names and logos referred to herein are trademars registered trademarks of their respective owners. or Published by: SR“KKLE Saree) SPAKK & SPAKKLE LTD. 69 Obiagu Road, By Afia Nine Bus Stop, Ogui New Layout, Enugu, Enugu State, Nigeria. spakkledesign@gmail.com +234 (0)8037417131 Printed in Nigeria oe eaeCHAPTER 9 a APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING Ngozi U. Emelogu ABSTRACT This chapter defined approaches, methods, and techniques. It operationalized approaches as the theoretical underpinning of methods. Consequently, the chapter established the major theoretical orientations which inform the teaching methods discussed in this chapter. Methods were mapped against their theoretical orientations and described in terms of features, techniques, merits and demerits, Based on empirical support, suggestions are made on the methods best suited to various language skills. The chapter concluded by sensitizing readers to current thinking on pedagogy in the 21st century which is that approaches and methods are inadequate to meet the pedagogical goals of education which focuses on the transmission of knowledge driven by advances in ICT to make learner embrace a better life. Consequently, there is a movement away from approaches and methods to embrace teaching strategies as best suited to meet the pedagogical demands of education in the 21st century. Keywords: Approaches in language teaching, methods in language teaching, language pedagogy. 9.1 INTRODUCTION This is the first in a series of chapters in this section of this book which is devoted to pedagogical knowledge required of all language education students. The core of language education is pedagogy which is defined in this book as the art of teaching. Every language education student is expected to be grounded in the art of teaching or else his competence as a language teacher will be in doubt. Approaches and methods have been fundamental in language teaching. However, a paradigm shift, as pointed out in 1.4.5, from approaches and methods 205ao ESTES EERE RUNTIME SR ge ACE h Rm 201 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLeDge 6 1994) has been advocated. Thi. as a post-method era. In Spite hes and methods are essentiay quently, it is discussed jn to macro-strategies (Kumaravidivelu ( means that the 21st Century is regarded of this advocated paradigm shift, approac historical facts in language pedagogy. Conse’ this chapter as a historical artifact. 5 ‘ From a historical perspective, formal teaching of languages is : ‘ nd techniques. These terms hinged on certain approaches, methods at intouelvigws are generally confused and need to be clarified. n oui > Approach t in pedagogy, it means the focus of is contextually used. In one context in p' eee ach attention. For instance, we speak about teacher-cen! red approach when attention is directed on the teacher as the custodian of knowledge and the transmitter of knowledge to the learner. We speak about learner. centred approach when attention is directed on the leaner in the teaching process. In methodology, we have the cognitive-code approach when attention is directed on rule-learning; the aura-oral approach when the focus in on hearing-speaking in the teaching of sounds. In another context, approach may be regarded as the theoretical under-pinning of a method. It is in this context that Bell (1981) defines it as "the theory of Applied Linguistics which seeks to explain the phenomenon of language-learning in terms which will assist the learner to achieve his goal" (p.75). In a similar vein, Prednasky and Prednasky (n.d.) defines approach as the theoretical positions and belief about the nature of language, the nature of language learning and the applicability of both to pedagogical settings. For the purpose of this chapter, we operationalize approach as the theory that underlies a method. In this context, approach and theory are synonymous. That approach is often confused with method is observed in the case of communicative language teaching (CLT) which many regard as method. According to Brown (2007), "CLT is an approach not a method because it is a broadly based theoretical Position about the nature of language and language teaching and learning focusing on communicative acts in Context prompted by Hymes communicative competence" (p.266). A method is the practical application of the approaches. Simply Put, it is the way of teaching Something which use classroom activities | to help learners learn. On the other han Ip learners | d, a technique is a variety of &xercises inclusive of teacher’s roles ai ind students’ roles which are—— APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 207 geared towards achieving lesson objectives. It must be pointed out that \| in post-method era of the 21st Century, techniques, as We used to know i it, has been renamed teaching strategies in the form of group work, H demonstration, question and answer, experimentation, etc as discussed | in chapter 16. Teaching strategies referred to as macro-strategies are the substitutes of approaches and method in the 21st Century pedagogy. Mora (2018) posits that there are four theoretical orientations guiding the modern second language teaching methods. These theoretical orientations are the approaches which underlie the various teaching methods advanced for language teaching. They are: e Structural/linguistic orientation | « Cognitive orientation e Affective/interpersonal orientation ¢ Functional/communicative orientation In our view, these four theoretical orientations cannot adequately account for the eleven teaching methods we have chosen to examine in terms of their theoretical framework. These are: ¢ audio-lingual method | | ¢ grammar-translation method ¢ direct method © cognitive-code learning method total physical response the silent method suggestopedia | immersion | | the natural method | community language learning functional/notional method | To adequately account for the theoretical base of each of the above teaching methods, we have chosen to use the following theoretical orientations: * behaviorist orientation * innatist orientation * cognitivist orientation © communicative language teaching (CLT) orientation eoeoereeeae 208 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE To ease our discussion, we provide below orientation/method mapping: Behaviorist | Innatist orientation | Cognitivist orientation CLT orientation orientation : Audio-lingual | Total physical Grammar-transiation | Functional method response method | method notional method Suggestopedia Cognitive-code Immersion learning method The natural Direct method method The silent way Community language language Each orientation/method mapping is discussed in turn 9.2 BEHAVIOURIST ORIENTATION The proponents of this theoretical orientation believe that language is structured into constituents. Consequently, to learn a new language is to learn the structures of the language. These structural constituents are to be taught sequentially. Language is ‘learnt by imitation, mimicry, constant practice and at the end new language habits are formed which becomes as fixed as the mother tongue’ (Bell, 1981, p.24). Motivation was not considered as an important factor in success or failure of language learning rather language learning was achieved by building up of habits on the basis of stimulus-response chains (Bell, 1981, p.97).The emphasis in this orientation is to teach the grammatical structures, with the belief that the mastery of these structures will amount to ability to use them in communication. This led to teaching about the language. Emerging from this orientation is audio-lingual method. 9.2.1. Audio-Lingual Method The theory behind this method is that language learning is part of habit formation where the correct responses attract rewards and wrong responses call for punishment. Reinforcement is considered as an important factor in language learning. Habits are constantly reinforced when response to stimulus is positive and this goes on and on till the response becomes part of the learner, The main objective of aAPPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 209 this method is to develop students’ oral skills. Based on this fact, the teacher takes the center stage of students’ language learning by modeling the target language correctly and the students repeat after the teacher. The teacher continuously does this until the students have grasped the structure then the teacher begins to introduce new words for students to imitate the structure and produce the same pattern of expression. At this point, the teacher expects a particular response from the students and their inability to provide the desired response attracts a negative Tesponse from the teacher. The idea behind this is that reinforcing Correct behaviors will facilitate language learning. This practice and repetition patterns are all done in the target language. The students have little or no control over their own output. Rather they are encouraged to tailor their expressions to the teacher’s grammatical structures. 1. Features e Dependency on practice, mimicry and memorization of language structures. « Grammar is taught inductively (giving examples first before stating the rules). ¢ Great attention is given to native-like pronunciation. ¢ Skills are taught sequentially - listening, speaking, reading and writing but greater emphasis is placed on listening and speaking skills. © Correct responses are reinforced. Language laboratory, visual and audio aids are used. Dialogue is used in presenting language items. Students are not allowed to use mother tongue. © Correct pronunciation and structure are emphasized. 2. Merits : © Facilitates the learning of aural-oral skills. © More student participation. * Facilitates learning and vocal visual aids. bulary acquisition through the use of2 210 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE © Suitable for large classes. 3. Demerits ¢ It is teacher-centered. © It makes learning mechanical due to its pattern, practice, drilling and memorization techniques. oe © It doesn’t give adequate attention to communicative competence. © Over-emphasis on error-free learning. 4. Techniques Drills and pattern practice through repetition, substitution, addition, combination and expansion of structures. e Dialogue. © Mimicry and memorization of teacher’s structures. (Lui & Shi, 2007) 93 INNATIST ORIENTATION The application of the innatist orientation to second language acquisition was engineered by Krashen (1977, 1981, 1982, 1992, and 1997). His contribution in this regard is popularly referred to as Krashen's Input Hypothesis. The main position of the hypothesis is that SLA is the same as L) acquisition because language acquisition device (LAD) operates in the same way .in both adults and children. Consequently, given sufficient and adequate comprehensible input, LAD operates to acquire L2 step by step in a universal natural order of acquisition. Failure to achieve native-like competence in L2 is caused by affective factors such as motivation, fatigue, and other emotional detractions (Oluikpe & Oluikpe, 2014). There are five hypotheses which elaborated on the main provisions of input hypotheses. They are: ¢ The acquisition- learning hypothesis The monitor hypothesis Natural order hypothesis Input hypothesis Affective hypothesiseo, SE [APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 2 1. The acquisition-learning hypothesis This hypothesis claims that the adult has two options available to him or her in internalizing the second language-- acquisition and learning. Acquisition is similar to Li acquisition process and focuses on communication of messages and meaning. It is a spontaneous and responsible for fluency. Consequently, it is superior to learning. On the other hand, learning directs the attention of learners to forms and rules. It is a conscious effort in which learners are generally conscious of their efforts (Oluikpe & Oluikpe, 2014). Acquisition and learning are, therefore, considered mutually exclusive for learning cannot turn into acquisition. 2. Monitor hypothesis | The focus of the monitor hypothesis is on learning, not | acquisition. The monitor is a device for editing the learned system by making corrections and alterations to what one had consciously detected. In other words, it is the editing process of the learners’ output to ensure the accuracy of the message in terms of forms and rules. For this to occur, the following conditions must be satisfied on the part of the editor: ¢ sufficient time * focus on form ¢ knowledge of rules (Oluikpe& Oluikpe, 2014) 3. Natural order hypothesis Motivated by the morpheme order studies of Dulay and Burt (1974, 1976), Krashen hypothesized that learners acquire language tules in a predictable or natural order. (Oluikpe & Oluikpe, 2014). 4, Input hypothesis : For acquisition to occur, the acquirer must understand, through learning or reading, language input that contain structures a bit beyond his or her level of linguistic competence. For instance, if the acquirer is at the level of i, the input he or she understands should contain i+1. This Means that the language an acquirer or a learner is exposed to should be beyond his or her level of linguistic competence. Further, the input _—, 212 P&RT TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE should not be so far beyond his/her competence that he/she is overwhelmed. Similarly, the input should not be so close to his/her current level that he/she is not challenged at all. It means that he or she should understand most of the content of the input except the (+1) content. This difficult part of the content is processed through either contextual clues or inferencing. An important provision of this hypothesis is Krashen's recommendation that speaking should not be taught directly or very early in the language classroom. Speech will emerge once the learner has built up enough comprehensible input (i + 1). (Oluikpe & Oluikpe, 2014). Ss. The affective hypothesis This hypothesis claims that acquisition and learning are maximized in an environment-friendly atmosphere. That is to say that the learner should be adequately disposed to learning. (Oluikpe & Oluikpe, 2014). The following teaching methods subscribe in one form or the other to Krashen's input hypothesis: ¢ total physical response ¢ suggestopedia e immersion the natural method Each is discussed in turn. 9.3.1 Total Physical Response (TPR) In our view, this teaching method subscribes to Krashen's acquisition-learning and input hypotheses. Acquisition-learning hypothesis is implicated because learning is implicit (unconscious). Input hypothesis plays a role because the simple commands given to the learners form the input which the learners process to respond. This method works by having the student respond to simple commands such as ‘Stand up! Sit down! Close the door etc. The meth stresses the importance of aural comprehension. The teacher gives the students commands in the target language and the students act those commands out using whole body responses. The proponents of this—— APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 213 language teaching approach believe that understanding the spoken language helps in developing the speaking skills. . Features The method emphasizes on aural skills. | There is a combination of information and skills through the use of i| kinetics sensory. ¢ Students assimilate information and respond rapidly. ¢ Students are not forced to speak but are allowed an individual readiness period. 2. Merits ¢ Itis highly effective for young learners. It improves listening skill. | « Students participate actively. 3. Demerits | ¢ It is not all aspects of language learning that requires physical | responses. Some aspects are abstract. | © It focuses more on aural-oral skills. | © Itcould be energy sapping for both the teacher and the students. | 4. Techniques | © Use of commands to direct behaviour. | ¢ Action sequence. (Molina, Canado &Agullo, n.d.) 9.3.2 Suggestopedia The theory underlying this method is that a language can be acquired only when the learner is receptive and has no mental block. This is the provision of Krashen's affective hypothesis. It is believed that accelerated learning can take place when accompanied by de- suggestion of psychological barriers and positive suggestions, hence the name Suggestopedia - Suggestion and pedagogy (The network for TEFL teachers, 2018). Learning takes place in a comfortable environment that has dim light and comfortable chairs. Suggestopediaee 214 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE is a language method that emphasizes on the learner’s State of mind, learner must be calm and relaxed; then there will bea Musical (soothin, music) play in the background while teaching and learning is Soing on, The method has different phases; the introduction, concert, elaboration and production phases. In the introduction phase, the teacher Playfully teaches the subject content instead of analyzing the content in a directive manner. In the concert phase, the teacher can choose to use the passive or active approach. In the active session, the teacher Teads a text in a chanting manner with interval pauses while the students listen. For instance, the teacher may choose an aspect of Creative writing probably a poem. While reading the poem, the teacher will intone his or her voice and as well add life to the literary devices used, Occasionally, the students can read with the teacher. In the Passive Session the reading is done calmly. The students are meant to visualize the piece read by the teacher. It is believed that students’ imaginative abilities are aroused as they sit in a comfortable environment with background music, listening and watching the teacher display the content of the material being read, A lot of visualization technique is used at this phase. The elaboration phase is full of students’ activities. The students sing and play games while the teacher acts as a consultant. The production phase requires the students to spontaneously engage in interaction in the target language without interruption or correction. Though the teacher controls the lesson, it is a student-centered approach. A teacher of suggestopedia must have adequate knowledge and training on how to use the method in order to meet the objective of the lesson and avoid negative impact on the students’ learning. 1. Features ¢ Itemphasizes on students’ creativity. ¢ The physical learning environment must be comfortable with background music. Students’ mental disposition is of great importance; the students must be calm and relaxed. Students are actively involved in dialogues, reading, singing, oF playing games.APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 215 2. Merits It provides many valuable insights into the power of cognition and creativity. It employs techniques that make students to feel comfortable and relaxed. e Students participate actively. 3. Demerits Due to the musical background, it is viewed as a placebo (i.e. something that gives a mental relief) to psychiatric patients. « Itis only suitable for adult learners. © The learning environment of dim light, comfortable chairs and music may be impossible in certain environments especially large classes. 4. Techniques ¢ Cozy classroom environment. ¢ Visualization. e Role play. © Concert session ( Kriauciuniene, 2013) 9.3.3 Language Immersion This is a method that involves the leaner to be taught in the target language through the school period and also to learn other subjects through the medium of the target language. The underlying theory of this method ‘is Krashen's input hypothesis. The learner is exposed to the target language as in first language acquisition in which the acquirer is immersed in the mother tongue. A student taught under this method is expected to listen to materials in the target language, watch visuals in the target language, communicate and respond in the target language. Just as the name implies, the student is completely immersed in the target language. There is early immersion where students begin to learn Lz from age 5- 6, middle immersion from age 9-10 and late immersion from age 11- 14. There are types of immersion. Total immersion is when studentsi PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGe. 216 spend 100% of their class time in the Lz class. The second type is the partial immersion where students spend 50% of their class time in the Lz and the dual immersion where half of the students are bilingual and they assist one another in learning the target language. 1, Features © Allthe language skills are emphasized - speaking, listening, reading and writing. © Itinvolves immersion in both the target language and the culture of the target language. © The teacher is not the only instructor in an immersion program; there is community of instructors such as neighbors, parents, and business client's e.tc. 2. Merits Ithelps in developing literacy skills. e Fluency is acquired. It helps in cognitive development as the learners begin to develop metacognitive skills. ¢ For adults in foreign countries, it helps to improve their socio- economic status. Demerits It is a difficult method for advanced students. It encourages passive learning. Students make disjointed expressions filled with grammatical errors. It is always difficult to get human and material resources that are rich in language content and culture. econ . Techniques Use of lots of audio-visual materials. Use of body gestures. Role plays. Use of directions and signaling. (Fortune, 2019) ec ooen217 “apPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 9.3.4 The Natural Approach This method stresses that language learning takes place when students are exposed to the language. The acquisition of Li is similar with the acquisition of L2 in the sense that the learner acquires the target language unconsciously through comprehensible input by the teacher. Thus, this method, like the /anguage immersion method, is informed by Krashen's input hypothesis. The learner is allowed to use mother tongue alongside the target language but is mainly taught in the target language. There is no teaching of grammar rules or structures rather the teacher exposes the learner in the target language through various exercises and the learner grapples with the language unconsciously. 1. Features e Ly is acquired unconsciously and informally just like Li « Atthe early stage, students are not corrected during oral production as the teacher focuses on meaning than form. ¢ There is a silent phase, waiting for spoken production to emerge on its own accord. 2. Merits The use of both target and native language facilitate language acquisition. ¢ It improves aural and oral skill. . Demerits The silent phase can hardly be determined. It can make the classroom to be difficult to manage. Only listening and speaking skills are emphasized ecco ow . Techniques Dialogue. Group work. Role plays. Games. (Molina, Canado&Agullo, n.d.) cocoona 218 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDG¢ For additional information, see William (1990), Avelino (2015), Khan (2016); INTESOL (2018). ; Although the various methods under the innatist orientation are characterized by various techniques, there is identical theoretical underpinning. All of them emphasize unconscious learning (Krashen's acquisition/learning hypothesis), and exposure to the target language (Krashen's input hypothesis). 9.4. COGNITIVIST ORIENTATION This orientation views language as rule-governed and learning as a mental process rather than an issue of stimulus-response. The human innate ability which is universal facilitates the learning of language. Therefore, it promotes the learning of language through deductive reasoning whereby the learner is exposed to language use, discovers elements of language use and the teacher guides the learner in this intellectual struggle of making sense of the structure which he/she is being exposed. While the teacher plans, directs and predicts the learner’s needs in the behaviorist orientation, the cognitive psychologists believe that the teacher should act as a resource centre and a judge for the learner as he picks his individual way through the intellectual puzzle that is anew language (Bell, 1979). Lesson contents are selected based on concepts and techniques that facilitate learning about the language and through this approach the learner gains competence that leads to performance. This orientation is also centered on learning about the language. The methods we consider to fall under this orientation are: © grammar-translation method direct method cognitive-code learning method the silent way community language learning method Each is discussed in turn.[APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 219 | 9.4.1 Grammar-Translation Method In this method, emphasis is placed on students learning the rules of the language deductively and applying these rules by translating sentences from the native language to the target language and vice versa. It is believed that language is rule-governed; therefore, it is appropriate to learn about the language through mastery of the grammatical structures. Language is reduced to a grammatical system | | | | | | where sentence becomes the main unit of references and its y morphological elements are organized according to a series of prescriptive rules (Molina, Canado&Agullo, n.d.). Language rules are stated first before examples are given and this leads to memorization or rote learning of the rules. The main objective of this method is to produce students who can apply the rules learnt in reading and writing activities, thereby de-emphasizing speaking and listening skills. Another objective of the method is to develop students’ general mental discipline as language learning process demands mental discipline 1, Features Learning mainly involves the mastery of grammatical rules and | memorization of vocabularies. Rules of grammar are acquired from simple to complex. | « A lot of exercises on reading and writing through translation. | Translation of disconnected sentences from target language to the mother tongue and vice versa. , © The major classroom instructional material is the textbook. | * Accuracy is emphasized. Rote learning is encouraged. Reading aloud in the target language. 2. Merits ¢ Ithelps in development of © Itcan be economical in ce applying them. «It facilitates reading and writing skills. students’ mental discipline. tain situation to learn the rules before—~uay 220 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 3. Demerits © Neglects aural-oral skills. * Over emphasis on accuracy. ¢ Lack of activities for developing communicative competence. © Little or no attention is placed on pronunciation. © Lack of active participation of students. ¢ Itis teacher-centered. - Techniques Translation of literary passages. Reading and answering questions from comprehension passages. Dictation. Antonyms and synonyms. Filling-in-the-blanks. Memorization. j Drills on sentence construction. (Molina, Canado & Agullo, n.d.) eoceoe oo en 9.4.2. Direct Method This method was born as a result of the inadequacies of grammar-translation method. Direct method primarily focused on teaching and learning in the target language without any form of translation. There is no room for the use of mother tongue. Students/leamers are taught grammar inductively. Examples are presented and practiced first before the rules are given. The oral skill is i greatly emphasized as students are taught to pronounce like the native | speakers. The learning of spelling and writing are delayed until students have gained competence in speech. Printed materials and text are kept away from second language learners until they have gotten good grasp of speech (Applied Linguistics, 2008). The main objective of this method is to train students to think in the target language and acquire the target language in a natural way just like the first language. The teacher engages students in dialogue that helps them practice the target language and bring the passive vocabularies to active mode. Though it | is a teacher-centered approach, students participate actively by a8[APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 221 expressing their thoughts and feelings directly in the target language without using their mother tongue. Features Teaching is centered on oral skills. A lot of question-answer pattern is used. Visual materials are used in the teaching of concepts and vocabularies. Grammar is taught inductively. Literature texts are read for comprehension and pleasure and not for grammar. e Students engage in practice and repetition exercises. e Emphasis is more on the target language. © The mother tongue is never used and there is no translation. 2. Merits Active participation of students. Improves fluency of speech. Bridges the gap between theory and practice. Helps in making passive vocabulary to become active. Full of activities that make learning to be interesting and exciting. © Develops the four language skill but emphasizes more on listening and speaking. ¢ Makes use of audio-visual aids that facilitates learning. 3. Demerits © Not appropriate in lower-level classes. © Less suitable for slow learners who are still struggling in the target language. © Requires skilled teachers that have good command of the target language. © Does not teach grammar systematically. ¢ Not appropriate for large classes. © Does not improve reading and writing skills. 2 as eeTE 222 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 4. Techniques ° Reading aloud. * Question and answer exercises. e Dialogue. © Student self-correction. (Lui& Shi, 2007) 9.4.3 Cognitive-Code Learning Method This method was born out of the dissatisfaction with the choral nature of audio-lingual method. The proponents of this method claim that language learning is rule formation and not habit formation. Hence, a lot of emphasis is placed on grammar rules but differs from grammar- translation method in the sense that the method provides more practice in all the language skills. It is considered as a modern version of grammar-translation method’ (Demirezery, 2014, p.306). Writing is seen as important as speech in this method. Since Lz speakers cannot speak exactly like the Li speakers, there is less emphasis on pronunciation in this method. Learners are involved in variety of group and individualized activities. There is a conscious effort by the teacher to help learners acquire the phonological, grammatical and lexical patterns of the second language. 1. Features © Grammar rules are learnt deductively. © There is explicit explanation of grammatical rules. Teacher ensures that students/learners understand the linguistic rules before practice through drills. e Language is promoted as an active mental process than a process of habit formation. e There is emphasis on content than form. 2. Merits ¢ It develops the students cognitively because they are always engaged in active information processing. ¢ There is more emphasis on guided discovery grammar rules.— “APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 223 e Errors are accepted as natural occurrences in the process of learning asecond language. Demerits There is little or no student-teacher interaction. There is little or no use of examples from authentic materials. There is more emphasis on understanding language structure than using the structure. e Itis not suitable for large classes. e Itis teacher-centered. 4. Techniques « Use of discovery techniques. ¢ Use of previous knowledge as a platform to relate new materials or concepts. e Use of situational drills. (Gomath, 2011). I | 9.4.4 The Silent Way Method This is a discovery learning approach where the teacher is largely silent, giving more space for students to explore and use the | target language. Students are largely responsible for their own learning, and are encouraged to express themselves. There is no use of mother tongue in this method. The role of the teacher is to observe, give signals H ‘ or use body gestures to indicate correct or wrong responses such as. | raising of fingers. The teacher only corrects the students’ errors when necessary. The students describe objects shown by the teacher or describe actions performed by the teacher. The method shares the same i principle with cognitive-code learning which underlying principle is i discovery learning. The students discover things on their own and can i form their hypothesis based on their discoveries. For instance, a student can notice the inflections at the end of verbs based on their tenses and can come up with the hypothesis that some verbs that are in the past have an inflection of ‘ed’ at the end.7 —~y PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 1, Features © Language is seen as a problem solving activity to be engaged in by students and the teacher needs to stay out of the way in the process as much as possible. ¢ The teacher plays the role of a facilitator. © The method encourages personal production of students’ own kind of expressions. © The teacher uses finger to indicate wrong or correct answers. ¢ The teacher uses colored word charts for sounds and colored rods for grammar and syntax. «© The method encourages group work, peer correction and self- correction. 2. Merits ° The exploratory technique of language learning makes the method unique. ¢ Students play very active role. ¢ There are lots of visual materials at the students’ disposal. 3. Demerits ¢ It encourages teachers to assume a distance that prevents direct guidance. ¢ The method is too focused on building language structure. ¢ The teacher’s silence prevents the students from learning active models of correct usage. ¢ The silence nature is too far to the extreme. © It will require the teacher to invest heavily on instructional materials. Techniques Use of sound-color charts, Teacher’s silence, Peer correction. Use of colored rods. Self correction gestures by the teacher Cr a eseS ApeROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING Structured observation (Kriauciuniene, 2013). 9.4.5 Community Language Learning Method This method is based on the counseling approach in which the teacher is seen as a counselor and the student is a client. Based on this counselor/client relationship, attempts are made to remove fear and i anxiety from the student. The student (client) and teacher (counselor), build strong personal links so that there are no psychological | inhibitions in learning. This method encourages interaction as a vital | aspect of language learning and prioritizes students’ feelings and their struggles in language learning. It also emphasizes that intellect and ability are not separated from feelings hence the creation of an | environment of mutual support, trust and understanding between | student-client and teacher-counselor. There is no syllabus or textbooks to follow in this method instead the students (clients) determine the | content of the lesson. They speak in their mother tongue and the teacher translates to the target language. This translation is further recorded and this can serve as the students’ learning material. They listen to the translations repeatedly and also record their own translations for the teacher to listen and correct. This process can be done interchangeably and repeatedly until students gain confidence in the use of the target language. 1. Features © Students determine the content of the lesson. ¢ Teachers are perceived as empathy agents hence they are referred to as counselors. © Students learn in a relaxed atmosphere without any fear or anxiety. © The seating arrangement is informal; always in a circle form. © There is use of both mother tongue and target language. © Students are encouraged to express themselves in the target language only when they feel ready and confident enough to do so. n ~ Merits The method addresses affective factors in learning.226 w eee on PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE The method combines language learning with principles of counseling. There is a high level of interaction | thereby removing anxiety and constitul of learners. ; The student-centered nature of the method provides both extrinsic and intrinsic motivation for the students. : Tape recording and transcriptions are useful elements in language learning. between students and teachers ting a supportive community . Demerits It is non-directive. The method relies completely on inductive learning. Over emphasis on affective factors at the expense of other considerations. It requires great expertise from the teacher in both the target language and mother tongue. It is not appropriate for large classes. . Techniques Tape recording of student/teacher conversation. Transcription. Reflective learning. Small group tasks. (Molina, Canado&Agullo, n.d.) The above teaching methods appear together, in spite of variations in technique and focus, because their underlying orientation is the learning of rules either inductively or deductively. 9.5 COMMUNICATIVE LANGUAGE TEACHING ORIENTATION In 9.1, we noted that communicative language teaching is not a method (Bell, 198 1). Itis an approach. Consequently, we have regarded CLT as an orientation which has fructified into many methods. We shall not treat all the methods associated with CLT in this book. We‘ppRORCHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING 227 have chosen just one of the methods to serve as an example of the methods in CLT. It is believed that communication does not take place in a vacuum put different situations call for different communication purposes. As a result, language teaching should be centered on using language to meet various communication needs. Contextual meaning is at the forefront of this perspective. According to Bell (1981), this approach to language learning seeks to provide the learner not only with the linguistic knowledge which permits the learner to create and understand grammatical sentences (linguistic competence) but also the social knowledge and skill which permit the learner to produce and comprehend socially appropriate _ utterances (communicative competence). Learners are not limited to only mimicking the teacher’s expressions but have the freedom to express themselves according to the social settings. Errors at this level are seen as part of learning. The emphasis is more on fluency than accuracy. The learning of the second \ language should take a natural approach where students will make great \ input than depending on imitating the teacher’s expressions. \ We have chosen the functional-notional method as a typical | example of CLT orientation. 9.5.1 Functional-Notional Method | This method is a total turn-around from linguistic or structural aspect of language learning to the communicative aspect of language } learning. Language learning is contextualized in this method. It is believed that different situations bring about variations in the use of language. Functional refers to functional curriculum or syllabus which is organized around different functions of language such as exchange of information, expressing personal feelings, giving commands, making request etc. Notion refers to semantic knowledge or meaning as it relates to the contexts or situations that call for language use. According to Bell (1981), one word that describes this language method is text or discourse. The communication needs of learners in a discourse situation is paramount than the acquisition of grammatical structures that are not based on any context. The teacher in this method, ‘focuses on analyzing, synthesizing and teaching dynamic discourse int——— 228 PART TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE rather than the decontextualized sentences of the structural approach’ (Bell, 1981, p.132). Brown (2007) points out that the basic teaching techniques in this method includes eclectic blend of conversation practice with classmates, interactive group work, role plays, grammar and pronunciation focus exercise, information gap techniques, internet activities and extra-class interaction practice. Features Language teaching is based on students’ needs. Meaning takes greater emphasis than grammar. Use of textbooks that are designed according to students’ needs. More emphasis on students’ communicative competence. 2. Merits : e It integrates concern for the social aspects of language and individual roles in language interaction. © It improves students’ communicative competence and linguistic competence. Students practice language in a context. 3. Demerits | ¢ Difficulty in determining which function should be dealt with before the other. ¢ Difficulty in determining the suitability of the syllabus materials for beginning learners. ¢ No provision for background knowledge before learners can get into role plays. |. Techniques Interactive group work. Role plays. Information gap technique.( William, 1990) econeS ee "APPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING. 229 i 9.6 TEACHING METHODS |G OF LANGUAGE SKILLS AND THE TEACHIN : The variation in strengths and weaknesses of the language teaching methods examined in this chapter is a clear indication that some methods are more effective in certain language skills than others. For the teaching of speaking and listening skills, teachers may adapt their lesson to any of the following methods: « audio lingual method natural method, direct method, | total physical response method the silent way. The techniques used in these methods promote listening and speaking skills. For example, when students listen, observe, mimic and try to discover certain concepts on their own, they are actively engaged in both habit formation and language processing. The teacher’s i comprehensible input serves as a model for them. Also, the real life objects and audio-visual materials used as teaching aids in these | methods do actively engage and expose the students to language use. i There are empirical support of the use of these language teaching | i ij methods in teaching listening and speaking skills. For instance, Abdul and Hijrah (2013) and Semacio (2018) revealed an increase in students’ achievement scores in the listening and speaking skills through the use of audio- lingual method. Kazuo and Koji (n.d.) also revealed that total (TPR) method improved students listening and speaking skills and vocabulary acquisition. Shi (2018) and Toghyani and Mansour (2017) also corroborated the findings above that TPR has greatly enhanced students learning efficiency. For the teaching of reading and writing skills, the following teaching methods have been found adequate: ¢ Community language learning method © suggestopedia These two metho techniques and high I language learning encoul students can monitor their physical response ds could yield better results due to their unique level of students’ participation. Community rages reflective learning in the sense that learning through the translations. Reflectivepant TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLepge 230 sy ills. Tugrul and learning also improves reading and hte learning ee (2013) quipped that translation is @ sete sion ofa second language o, of ESL learners as it facilitates Soe sana (2015) showed that a foreign language. The study in % learning met students’ participation in community sare tal factor ieee increased their motivation. Motivation 1S one learning generally. The proficiency in reading and writing skills and in ic, together with the comfortable environment, adorned ee et Iso. increases the rs di i sstopedia mel ; teacher’s displays in suggestop' reativity and spur them to motivation level of the students, stir their © v ; write. Grammar- translation method emphasizes accuracy. It is effective in the teaching of grammar but can be very eect sien it plays a supportive role to other language teaching methods that emphasize fluency such as: ¢ Suggestopedia © Cognitive-code learning method These methods use variety of techniques to enhance students learning of the four language skills. Students are exposed to elaborate language use in varying contexts and situations without any inhibition or limitations. The supportive role of grammar- translation method enables the students to acquire both fluency and accuracy in the language use. According to Chang (2011), fluency and accuracy are the major targets for English language learning. Studies of Chang (2011), Egbe (2015), and Tan (2016) revealed that communicative language teaching approaches improve students’ proficiency in the four language skills. Although some studies such as Ahmad and Rao (2013), Okueso, Osikaomaiya, Osijo, Omotayo and Arowolo (2018) posit that, for effective learning to take place and for a better result in the teaching of the four language skills using the communicative language teaching approaches, a classroom with audio-visual aids and a well-trained and active teachers with good command of English must be put in place. Language immersion is always most appropriate for students learning English language as a foreign language. The total immersion into the target language enables students of English as a foreign language (EFL) to acquire both the language and the culture of the language. The proficiency level required of the learners is almost same enAPPROACHES AND METHODS IN SECOND LANGUAGE TEACHING ~ with native speakers. Nikula and Miettinen (2014) showed that immersion learners’ sociolinguistics competence is closer to that of native speakers in contexts where students have good opportunities for out of school contacts with the immersion language. Finally, success in language teaching depends on how flexible the teacher is in the use of the methods. Various students’ needs call for different methods. An effective language teacher should be able to apply an eclectic blend of different methods in order to achieve the teaching and learning objectives. A blend of the traditional structural methods with the communicative approaches will make for an effective language teaching. Just like Williams (1990) advised that, in adopting what is new, we should not do away with the valuable clements of the old methods. As Rivers (1972) succinctly puts it ‘The eclecticists try to absorb the best techniques of all the well-known language teaching methods into their classroom procedures, using them for the purpose for which they are most appropriate’. Therefore, there is no one method that is most appropriate but through flexibility in the application of the methods, students’ communicative and linguistic needs can be met. 9.7 CONCLUSION Advances in ICT has transformed the 21st century into a knowledge-based economy (see chapter 16 for knowledge-based economy). This transformation has consequences on education in the 21st century. The goal of education in this century is the transmission of knowledge required to make us self-reliant citizen equipped to engage in economically useful ventures. This goal of education also has consequences on language pedagogy. Focus on approaches and methods have been found to be inadequate to achieve the educational objectives in the 21st century. Consequently, there is a paradigm shift away from approaches and methods to embrace teaching strategies as the most effective pedagogical means to realize the goal of education, Based on this development, the discussion in this chapter on approaches and methods serves as historical facts of language pedagogy. It also serves to sensitize readers to current thinking in language pedagogy.LL 232 part TWO: PEDAGOGICAL KNOWLEDGE 9.8 REVIEW QUESTIONS | 1. List two language teaching methods from each of the theoretical positions : a. Explain the methods liste j b. List the features, merits and demerits of the methods 2. Illustrate with four examples, the language teaching methods that can be used in teaching listening and speaking skills There is no best method. Justify this assertion. 4. What is the difference between direct method and the natural approach? ‘ 4 5. Discuss the role of the following teaching methods in the teaching of language skills: suggestopedia community language learning natural method audio-lingual method total physical response method functional-notional method w REFERENCES Abdul, N., B. & Hijrah, H. (2013).7he use of audio- lingual method in teaching listening comprehension at the second year students of smkyapip Makassar sungguminasa, Retrieved from https://www. researchgate.net Ahmad, S. & Rao, C. (2013). Applying communicative approach in teaching English as a foreign language: A case study of Pakistan. Porta Linguarium Junio 20, 187 — 203. Retrieved from https://www.ugr.es Applied Linguistics (2008). First language acquisition. 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