Module 3 : Behaviorism

Introduction
Behaviourism or the behaviourist approach lays stress on the role of environmental stimuli
in determining the way we act. Learning — changes in behaviour because of experiences
(excluding changes due to fatigue, injury, or drug effects) — is at the centre of this
approach. The study of classical and operant conditioning in behaviourism has further
augmented the understanding of learning. During the development of psychology, United
States of America in twentieth century witnessed the substantial support received by
behaviourism as a system that defines psychology as the study of behaviour. It commenced
as an empirical discipline that studied behaviour in terms of adaptation to environment
stimuli. Behaviourism is also referred to as behaviouristic psychology.
The central tenet of behaviourism is that an organism learns behavioural adaptation, whose
learning is governed by the principles of association (forming connections between ideas
and events). Behaviour, according to this approach, is not just a manifestation of underlying
mental events, but has a unique meaning. Overt behaviour, that is, behaviour which can be
observed and hence quantified remains the focus of the discipline. One of the factors that
give behaviourism its uniqueness, just like any other approach, is its focus of attention.
Behaviourism stands apart from other approaches by its emphasis on the relationship
between observable behaviour (responses) and environmental events (stimuli).
Basic Assumptions of Behaviourism
Behaviourism has the following two basic assumptions:
1) Parsimony - Out of all the basic principles in behaviourism, the most fundamental is the
concept of “parsimony”, also called “Occam’s razor” after the English philosopher who first
proposed it. Parsimony often seeks the simplest possible explanation for any event. The
opposition of behaviourists to introspection was in part due to the too many vague concepts
solicited by it which lacked parsimony. On the other hand, behaviourism emphasized the
use of operational definitions, that is, defining concepts in terms of observable events,
which naturally led to the focus on stimuli and responses.
2) Associationism - Behaviourism gives prominence to the role of experience in determining
behaviour, which manifests itself through learning. The basic explanation since the time of
Aristotle has been that organisms learn by association, that is, by forming connections
between ideas and events. Behaviourists in psychology were particularly influenced by this
concept of “associationism”, which was also endorsed by the British empiricists. Followed by
parsimony, associationism becomes the second basic assumption of behaviourism. Hence,
parsimony and associationism conjointly formed the underpinnings for the emergence of
behaviourism.

John B. Watson (Watsonian Behaviourism)

According to Watson, psychology, being the science of behaviour must deal with actions,
which can be described objectively, and thus, it becomes important to discard the use of
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mentalistic concepts and terminology, which are subjective in nature. Therefore, for
Watson’s behavioural psychology, items or elements of behaviour, such as muscular
movements or glandular secretion, became the primary subject matter. Behaviourism
concerns behaviour of the whole organism in relation to its environment. Stimulusresponse
complexes can be analyzed into their elementary stimulus and response units to work out
the specific laws of behaviour. As far as methodology and subject matter is concerned,
Watson’s behavioural psychology was an endeavour to develop a science, which was devoid
of mentalistic notions and subjective methods; a science which was as sound and objective
as physics.
Watson explained four types of behaviour:
1) Explicit (overt)– behaviour which can be learned and is overt such as talking, writing, and
playing
2) Implicit (covert)– behaviour which can be learned but is covert such as the increased
heart rate caused by the sight of a dentist’s drill
3) Explicit unlearned behaviour– behaviour which comes naturally and is visible such as
grasping, blinking, and sneezing
4) Implicit unlearned behaviour– behaviour, which comes naturally but is not visible such as
glandular secretion and circulatory changes.
According to Watson, these categories incorporate everything that a person does, that is,
from thinking to blinking. For studying these types of behaviours, Watson proposed four
different methods: 1) Observation– observing in either naturalistic or experimentally
controlled environment; 2) The conditioned-reflex method– proposed by Pavlov; 3) Testing–
refers to behaviour samples and not measurement of “capacity” or “personality”; and 4)
Verbal reports– another type of overt behaviour.
Criticisms of Watsonian Behaviourism
The following two points summarize the major criticism against Watsonian behaviourism:
1) Psychology got restricted by behaviourism since it confined the behaviour solely to the
peripheral events of stimulus and response elements. Watson also ignored physical, central
mediation of stimulus and response bonds by relinquishing mental events.
2) Watsonian behaviourism resorted to reductionism by assuming that behaviour is
reducible to environmental stimuli and observable responses.
The rationale to Watson’s approach is to propose that behaviour really reduces to physics
and physiology. Whether behaviour can be viewed as a separate and distinct science
becomes questionable by such reductionism. So, although offering simplicity and clarity, the
authenticity of a truly behavioural level of investigation in Watson’s behaviourist psychology
remained debatable.
William McDougall, the pioneer of the instinct theory of motivation, had major criticisms
against Watson. He had a heated a debate with Watson, which was published as The Battle
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of Behaviourism, in 1929. The instinct theory by McDougall states that human behaviour is a
result of innate.
Overall Impact of Watson
Watson’s view of psychology has two long-lasting effects:
1) The major goal of psychology was changed from the description and explanation of states
of consciousness to the prediction and control of behaviour.
2) Overt behaviour became almost the exclusive subject matter of psychology. Today, a lot
of psychologists can be considered behaviourists owing to the pervasiveness of Watson’s
influence on these issues. Some of the central tenets of behaviourism have been so obvious
that they have simply become part of standard experimental psychology. In a way, all
modern psychologists

THEORIES : LEARNING
The term learning is one of those concepts whose meaning is crystal clear until one has to
put it in actual words. “Learning is when you learn something.” “Learning is learning how to
do something.” A more useful definition is as follows: Learning is any relatively permanent
change in behavior brought about by experience or practice

Ivan Pavlov : Classical Conditioning

Studying the digestive system in his dogs, Pavlov had built a device that would accurately
measure the amount of saliva produced by the dogs when they were fed a measured
amount of food. Normally, when food is placed in the mouth of any animal, the salivary
glands automatically start releasing saliva to help with chewing and digestion. This is a
normal reflex—an unlearned, involuntary response that is not under personal control or
choice—one of many that occur in both animals and humans. The food causes a particular
reaction, the salivation. A stimulus can be defined as any object, event, or experience that
causes a response, the reaction of an organism. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the food is the
stimulus and salivation is the response. Pavlov soon discovered that his dogs began
salivating when they weren’t supposed to be salivating. Some dogs would start salivating
when they saw the lab assistant bringing their food, others when they heard the clatter of
the food bowl from the kitchen, and still others when it was the time of day they were
usually fed. Switching his focus, Pavlov spent the rest of his career studying what eventually
he termed classical conditioning, learning to elicit an involuntary, reflex-like response to a
stimulus other than the original, natural stimulus that normally produces the response.
ELEMENTS OF CLASSICAL CONDITIONING Pavlov eventually identified several key elements
that must be present and experienced in a particular way for conditioning to take place.
UNCONDITIONED STIMULUS The original, naturally occurring stimulus is called the
unconditioned stimulus (UCS). The term unconditioned means “unlearned.” This is the
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stimulus that ordinarily leads to the involuntary response. In the case of Pavlov’s dogs, the
food is the unconditioned stimulus.
UNCONDITIONED RESPONSE The automatic and involuntary response to the unconditioned
stimulus is called the unconditioned response (UCR) for much the same reason. It is
unlearned and occurs because of genetic “wiring” in the nervous system. For example, in
Pavlov’s experiment, the salivation to the food is the UCR (unconditioned response).
CONDITIONED STIMULUS Pavlov determined that almost any kind of stimulus could
become associated with the unconditioned stimulus (UCS) if it is paired with the UCS often
enough. In his original study, the sight of the food dish itself became a stimulus for
salivation before the food was given to the dogs. Every time they got food (to which they
automatically salivated), they saw the dish. At this point, the dish was a neutral stimulus
(NS) because it had no effect on salivation. After being paired with the food so many times,
the dish came to produce a salivation response, although a somewhat weaker one, as did
the food itself. When a previously neutral stimulus, through repeated pairing with the
unconditioned stimulus, begins to cause the same kind of involuntary response, learning has
occurred. The previously neutral stimulus can now be called a conditioned stimulus (CS).
(Conditioned means “learned,” and, as mentioned earlier, unconditioned means
“unlearned.”)
CONDITIONED RESPONSE The response that is given to the CS (conditioned stimulus) is not
usually quite as strong as the original unconditioned response (UCR), but it is essentially the
same response. However, because it comes as a learned response to the conditioned
stimulus (CS), it is called the conditioned response (CR)
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Extinction And Spontaneous Recovery What would have happened if Pavlov had stopped
giving the dogs food after the real CS? Pavlov did try just that, and the dogs gradually
stopped salivating to the sound of the ticking. When the metronome’s ticking (CS or
conditioned stimulus) was repeatedly presented in the absence of the UCS (unconditioned
stimulus or food, in this case), the salivation (CR or conditioned response) “died out” in a
process called “extinction”
In “spontaneous recovery” the conditioned response can briefly reappear when the original
CS returns, although the response is usually weak and short lived.
Pavlov’s work contributed the following influences to the theory of behaviorism:

• Behavior change stems from environmental influence

• Learning will be exhibited in an observable behavior change.
• All behavior comes from the formula stimulus-response.

B. F. Skinner : Operant Conditioning

B.F.Skinner was the behaviorist who assumed leadership of the field after John Watson. He
was even more determined than Watson that psychologists should study only measurable,
observable behavior. In addition to his knowledge of Pavlovian classical conditioning,
Skinner found in the work of Thorndike a way to explain all behavior as the product of
learning. He even gave the learning of voluntary behavior a special name: operant
conditioning (Skinner, 1938). Voluntary behavior is what people and animals do to operate
in the world. When people perform a voluntary action, it is to get something they want or to
avoid something they don’t want, right? So voluntary behavior, for Skinner, is operant
behavior, and the learning of such behavior is operant conditioning. The heart of operant
conditioning is the effect of consequences on behavior. Thinking back to the section on
classical conditioning, learning an involuntary behavior really depends on what comes
before the response—the unconditioned stimulus and what will become the conditioned
stimulus. These two stimuli are the antecedent stimuli (antecedent means something that
comes before another thing).But in operant conditioning, learning depends on what
happens after the response—the consequence. In a way, operant conditioning could be
summed up as this: “If I do this, what’s in it Inspired by Thorndike, Skinner created a box of
his own to test his theory of Operant Conditioning. (This box is also known as an “operant
conditioning chamber.”)
The box was typically very simple. Skinner would place the rats in a Skinner box with neutral
stimulants (that produced neither reinforcement or punishment) and a lever that would
dispense food. As the rats started to explore the box, they would stumble upon the level,
activate it, and get food. Skinner observed that they were likely to engage in this behavior
again, anticipating food. (In some boxes, punishments would also be administered. Martin
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Seligman’s experiments of learned helplessness are a great example of using punishments

to observe or shape an animal’s behavior.) Skinner usually worked with animals like rats or
pigeons. And he took his research beyond what Thorndike did. He looked at how
reinforcements and schedules of reinforcement would influence behavior.

Positive And Negative Reinforcement

Reinforcers can also differ in the way they are used. Most people have no trouble at all
understanding that following a response with some kind of pleasurable consequence (like a
reward) will lead to an increase in the likelihood of that response being repeated. This is
called positive reinforcement, the reinforcement of a response by the addition or
experience of a pleasurable consequence, such as a reward or a pat on the back. But many
people have trouble understanding that the opposite is also true: Following a response with
the removal or escape from something unpleasant will also increase the likelihood of that
response being repeated—a process called negative reinforcement. Remember the idea
that pain can be a primary reinforcer if it is removed? If a person’s behavior gets pain to
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stop, the person is much more likely to do that same thing again—which is part of the
reason people can get addicted to painkilling medication.

Tolman’s Maze-Running Rats: Latent Learning

One of Gestalt psychologist Edward Tolman’s best-known experiments in learning involved
teaching three groups of rats the same maze, one at a time (Tolman & Honzik, 1930). In the
first group, each rat was placed in the maze and reinforced with food for making its way out
the other side. The rat was then placed back in the maze, reinforced upon completing the
maze again, and so on until the rat could successfully solve the maze with no errors (see
Figure below).
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The second group of rats was treated exactly like the first, except that they never received
any reinforcement upon exiting the maze. They were simply put back in again and again,
until the 10th day of the experiment. On that day, the rats in the second group began to
receive reinforcement for getting out of the maze. The third group of rats, serving as a
control group, was also not reinforced and was not given reinforcement for the entire
duration of the experiment. A strict Skinnerian behaviorist would predict that only the first
group of rats would learn the maze successfully because learning depends on reinforcing
consequences. At first, this seemed to be the case. The first group of rats did indeed solve
the maze after a certain number of trials, whereas the second and third groups seemed to
wander aimlessly around the maze until accidentally finding their way out. On the 10th day,
however, something happened that would be difficult to explain using only Skinner’s basic
principles.
The second group of rats, upon receiving the reinforcement for the first time, should have
then taken as long as the first group to solve the maze. Instead, they began to solve the
maze almost immediately. Tolman concluded that the rats in the second group, while
wandering around in the first 9 days of the experiment, had indeed learned where all the
blind alleys, wrong turns, and correct paths were and stored this knowledge away as a kind
of “mental map,” or cognitive map of the physical layout of the maze. The rats in the second
group had learned and stored that learning away mentally but had not demonstrated this
learning because there was no reason to do so. The cognitive map had remained hidden, or
latent, until the rats had a reason to demonstrate their knowledge by getting to the food.
Tolman called this latent learning. The idea that learning could happen without
reinforcement and then later affect behavior was not something traditional operant
conditioning could explain.

Edwin Ray Guthrie : Contuguity Theory

He was a renowned American behavioral psychologist who is best known for his continuity
theory of learning. The theory of contiguity is a psychological learning theory that
emphasizes that a close relationship between the stimuli and the responses is required for
their association. His contiguity theory states that,
“a combination of stimuli which has accompanied a movement will on its recurrence tend to
be followed by that movement”.
He further stated that specific patterns of the sensory motor are affected by the stimuli and
the responses. Hence, movements, instead of behaviors, are learned.
One of the most common examples used in contiguity theory is the process in which cats
learn to escape from puzzle boxes. A glass paneled box was used by Guthrie which enabled
him to take pictures of the cats and their precise movements. According to those pictures,
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the repetition of the same sequence of movements was learned by the cats which enabled
them to escape from the box. Hence, learning emerges due to the unlearning of irrelevant
movements.

Contiguity theory is regarded as a general learning theory even though mostly animals were
used to conduct research. Guthrie also used this theory as a framework for personality
disorders.

Clark Hull : Drive reduction theory

In the 1930s, Clark Hull undertook to construct a grand theory that he thought would unite
all psychology. He based his theory on the concept of homeostasis, borrowed from biology.
Homeostasis is a word that refers to the active regulation of critical biological variables. For
example, your kidney regulates the salt and water balance in your body, and your pancreas
regulates blood sugar.
To Hull, behavior was another way the organism regulated itself or kept itself alive and
healthy. To him it made sense that a theory of motivation would borrow from scientific
knowledge about homeostatic processes.
Scientists knew about biological regulation as early as the mid-1800s. The concept of
homeostasis was not widely discussed until Walter B. Cannon's 1932 book The Wisdom of
the Body.
Cannon pointed out that organisms work to keep biological variables within a healthy or
normal range. There are many homeostatic systems in the body. Levels of blood pressure,
salt, glucose, water, and carbon dioxide (among other things) must be maintained within
normal ranges, for the health of the organism.
Hull reasoned that homeostatic mechanisms might provide a scientific explanation of
motivation. Behavior could be regarded as an outward expression of the organism's pursuit
of biological health.
For example, you shiver to get warm. That is a homeostatic mechanism built into the body.
If that fails, you are motivated to carry out a behavior such as putting on a sweater or
finding a heater.
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Many behaviors are extensions of homeostatic mechanisms. Think how many human
behaviors are related to eating, which is itself aimed at main-taining glucose and fat levels in
our bodies.
Hull conceived of all motivation as coming originally from biological imbalances or needs.
The organism was thrown into movement was motivated when it needed something that
was not present at its current location.
A need, in Hull's system, was a biological requirement of the organism. Hunger was the
need for more energy. Thirst was the need for more water. Motivation, to Hull, was aimed
at making up or erasing a deficiency or lack of needed in the organism.
Hull used the word drive to describe the state of behavioral arousal resulting from a
biological need. In Hull's system, drive was the energy that powered behavior.
Drive was not pleasant. Drive was an uncomfortable state resulting from a biological need,
so drive was something the animal tried to eliminate. The animal searched for food in order
to reduce the hunger drive.
For Hull, the drive to relieve tension and return to homeostasis was at the root of all
behavior, not just simple things like drinking water or eating food. The life of a human being
is therefore just a cycle of certain needs being depleted, then developing a drive to
replenish those needs, then engaging in behaviors to replenish those needs, then returning
to homeostasis, and then having those same needs depleted once again, thus restarting the
cycle. As we humans engage in different behaviors to replenish our needs, we find which
ones work the best, and we are more likely to engage in those behaviors again.

Albert Bandura : Observational learning

It is the learning of new behavior through watching the actions of a model (someone else
who is doing that behavior). Sometimes that behavior is desirable, and sometimes it is not,
as the next section describes.
Bandura And The Bobo Doll
Albert Bandura’s classic study in observational learning involved having a preschool child in
a room in which the experimenter and a model interacted with toys in the room in front of
the child (Bandura et al., 1961). In one condition, the model interacted with the toys in a
nonaggressive manner, completely ignoring the presence of a “Bobo” doll (a punch-bag doll
in the shape of a clown). In another condition, the model became very aggressive with the
doll, kicking it and yelling at it, throwing it in the air and hitting it with a hammer.
When each child was left alone in the room and had the opportunity to play with the toys, a
camera filming through a one-way mirror caught the children who were exposed to the
aggressive model beating up on the Bobo doll, in exact imitation of the Model. The children
who saw the model ignore the doll did not act aggressively toward the toy. Obviously, the
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aggressive children had learned their aggressive actions from merely watching the model—
with no reinforcement necessary. The fact that learning can take place without actual
performance (a kind of latent learning) is called learning/performance distinction.
In later studies, Bandura showed a film of a model beating up the Bobo doll. In one
condition, the children saw the model rewarded afterward. In another, the model was
punished. When placed in the room with toys, the children in the first group beat up the
doll, but the children in the second group did not. But when Bandura told the children in the
second group that he would give them a reward if they could show him what the model in
the film did, each child duplicated the model’s actions. Both groups had learned from
watching the model, but only the children watching the successful (rewarded) model
imitated the aggression with no prompting (Bandura, 1965). Apparently, consequences do
matter in motivating a child (or an adult) to imitate a particular model. The tendency for
some movies and television programs to make “heroes” out of violent, aggressive “bad
guys” is particularly disturbing in light of these findings. In fact, Bandura began this research
to investigate possible links between children’s exposure to violence on television and
aggressive behavior toward others.

The Four Elements Of Observational Learning

Bandura (1986) concluded, from his studies and others, that observational learning required
the presence of four elements.
Attention
To learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay attention to the model.
For example, a person at a fancy dinner party who wants to know which utensil to use has
to watch the person who seems to know what is correct. Certain characteristics of models
can make attention more likely. For example, people pay more attention to those they
perceive as similar to them and to those they perceive as attractive.
Memory (Retention)
The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was done, such as
remembering the steps in preparing a dish that was first seen on a cooking show.
Imitation (Production)
The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the actions of the model. A 2-
year-old might be able to watch someone tie shoelaces and might even remember most of
the steps, but the 2-year-old’s chubby little fingers will not have the dexterity* necessary for
actually tying the laces. A person with extremely weak ankles might be able to watch and
remember how some ballet move was accomplished but will not be able to reproduce it.
The mirror neurons discussed in Chapter Two may be willing, but the flesh is weak.
Desire (Motivation)
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Finally, the learner must have the desire or motivation to perform the action. That person at
the fancy dinner, for example, might not care which fork or which knife is the “proper” one
to use. Also, if a person expects a reward because one has been given in the past or has
been promised a future reward (like the children in the second group of Bandura’s study) or
has witnessed a model getting a reward (like the children in the first group), that person will
be much more likely to imitate the observed behavior. Successful models are powerful
figures for imitation, but rarely would we be motivated to imitate someone who fails or is
punished.(An easy way to remember the four elements of modeling is to remember the
letters AMID, which stand for the first letters of each of the four elements. This is a good
example of using a strategy to improve memory)

Kurt Lewin : Field theory

Kurt Lewin (1890-1947), unlike Pavlov, Skinner and Gestltian psychologists, conducted
experiments on the study of behaviour of children. He utilised an elaborate experimental
set-up with a view to control the child’s total environment during the course of the
investigation for getting detailed information.
Lewin emphasised the study of behaviour as a function of the total physical and social
situation. Lewin holds that psychological laws need not be formulated solely on the basis of
statistical averages. Rather the individual case is equally important.
Even if all general psychological laws were known, we would still need to understand the
specific individual and ‘total situation’ in which he exists before we could make any
prediction about his behaviour.
Thus Lewin favours an idiographic psychology in which the focus is on the individual, as
opposed to nomothetic psychology, where the emphasis is on Statistical average.

Lewin describes his viewpoint in the following formula:

b=F(pe)
B represents behaviour
f is a function
P is the person
E is the total environment situation.

Lewin explains the individual behaviour on the basis of life-space. An individual’s life-space
depends on his psychological force. It includes the person; his drives, tensions, thoughts and
his environment, which consists of perceived objects and events.
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Lewin represents his theory through a diagram in which an individual is in the centre. He
moves through his life-space which consists of the totality of facts that determine his
behaviour at a given time.
A life-space contains the individual himself, the goals he is seeking (positive valence) or
avoiding (negative valence), the barriers that restrict the individual’s movements and the
path he must follow to reach his goal.
Desire creates tensions in the individual and tensions come to a balancing state and the
person acts. After the goal has been achieved, the organism (individual) returns to a state of
repose until a new desire activates him.
In Lewin’s theory, threat, goal and barrier are the main factors. An individual who has to
achieve some goal has to cross a barrier. The barrier may be psychological or physical.
Because of the changes in the barrier in the life- space of an individual, continuous
reconstruction takes place.
Lewin’s theory is called field theory as to a psychologist field means the total psychological
world in which a person lives at a certain time. It includes matters and events of past,
present and future, concrete and abstract, actual and imaginary – all interpreted as
simultaneous aspects of a situation. Lewin states that each person exists within a field of
forces. The field of forces to which the individual is responding or reacting is called his life-
space.
Lewin’s theory regards learning as a relativistic process by which a learner develops new
insight or changes old ones. According to the theory, learning is not a mechanistic process of
connecting stimuli and responses within a biological organism. Field psychology explains
development of insight as a change in cognitive structure of life-space.

Lewin’s theory regards learning as a relativistic process by which a learnt develops new
insight or changes old ones. According to the theory, learning is not a mechanistic process of
connecting stimuli and response within a biological organism. Field psychology explains
development of insight as a change in cognitive structure of life-space.

Lewin’s theory may be explained as under:

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Suppose a person P is moving towards a goal of getting social recognition. But to achieve the
goal, he has to apologies. New asking for apology is the barrier coming in his way. The
barrier may be physical or psychological forces preventing him from reaching the goal.
These forces organise themselves into a pattern which determines his future behaviour.

Lewin has classified learning into the following categories:

(i) Learning is a change in cognitive structure.
(ii) Learning is a change in motivation, i.e., in valences and values.
(iii) Learning is acquisition of skills.
(iv) Learning is a change in group belonging.

Learning of all types involves change in perception.

• Changes in cognitive structure are caused by the forces in the psychological field –
needs, aspirations and valences.
• Lewin thinks that level of aspiration depends upon the potentialities of an individual
and on the influences of the group to which he belongs. Too higher or too level of
aspiration discourages learning.

Criticisms Of Behaviorism

There are several criticisms and observed limitations of behaviorism theory. While these concepts
and principles predict observable behavioral responses in humans, internal cognitive processes are
largely discounted. Further, behaviorism defines learning as observable behavior and only values
learning resulting in modified behavior, which is only one aspect of learning. Learning takes place
within a complex set of criteria and behaviorism reduces these processes to observable cause and
effect.Behaviorists theorize that learners are passive and that the teacher is in total control of the
learning that occurs based on the environment they create, however, this removes the agency of
the learner to engage meaningfully in their own learning. The expectation is that the learner will
behave in an expected way in response to particular stimuli created by the teacher, and they are
simply vessels into which learning is poured.While Skinner attempted to remedy some of the issues
above with his radical behaviorism theory, his attempts to place concepts like emotion, thoughts
and conscious state into measurable criteria falls woefully short. The lack of account for internal
processes means that reasons behind particular behavior are at best oversimplified and at worst
overlooked. Unfortunately, trying to measure behavior without accounting for underlying reasons
will not adequately aid the understanding of human behavior.However, while behaviorism is now
considered to be largely outdated, many aspects of the theory are still in active use or underpin
current psychological concepts and beliefs.
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References :

Saundra_Ciccarelli,_J_Noland_White_Psychology,_Global_Edition_Pearson.pdf

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/72487/1/Unit-8.pdf

https://egyankosh.ac.in/bitstream/123456789/39801/3/Unit-1.pdf