CHAPTER 3

ELEMENTS OF DESIGN
INTRODUCTION

The alignment of a highway or street produces a great impact on the environment, the fabric
of the community, and the highway user. The alignment is comprised of a variety of elements
joined together to create a facility that serves the traffic in a safe and efficient manner, consistent
with the facility’s intended function. Each alignment element should complement others to
produce a consistent, safe, and efficient design.

The design of highways and streets within particular functional classes is treated separately
in later chapters. Common to all classes of highways and streets are several principal elements of
design. These include sight distance, superelevation, traveled way widening, grades, horizontal
and vertical alignments, and other elements of geometric design. These alignment elements are
discussed in this chapter, and, as appropriate, in the later chapters pertaining to specific highway
functional classes.

SIGHT DISTANCE
General Considerations

A driver’s ability to see ahead is of the utmost importance in the safe and efficient operation
of a vehicle on a highway. For example, on a railroad, trains are confined to a fixed path, yet a
block signal system and trained operators are needed for safe operation. On the other hand, the
path and speed of motor vehicles on highways and streets are subject to the control of drivers
whose ability, training, and experience are quite varied. For safety on highways, the designer
should provide sight distance of sufficient length that drivers can control the operation of their
vehicles to avoid striking an unexpected object in the traveled way. Certain two-lane highways
should also have sufficient sight distance to enable drivers to occupy the opposing traffic lane for
passing other vehicles without risk of a crash. Two-lane rural highways should generally provide
such passing sight distance at frequent intervals and for substantial portions of their length. By
contrast, it is normally of little practical value to provide passing sight distance on two-lane urban
streets or arterials. The proportion of a highway’s length with sufficient sight distance to pass
another vehicle and interval between passing opportunities should be compatible with the design
criteria established in the subsequent chapter pertaining to the functional classification of the
specific highway or street.

Four aspects of sight distance are discussed below: (1) the sight distances needed for
stopping, which are applicable on all highways; (2) the sight distances needed for the passing of
overtaken vehicles, applicable only on two-lane highways; (3) the sight distances needed for
decisions at complex locations; and (4) the criteria for measuring these sight distances for use in
design. The design of alignment and profile to provide sight distances and that satisfy the

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applicable design criteria are described later in this chapter. The special conditions related to sight
distances at intersections are discussed in Chapter 9.

Stopping Sight Distance

Sight distance is the length of the roadway ahead that is visible to the driver. The available
sight distance on a roadway should be sufficiently long to enable a vehicle traveling at or near the
design speed to stop before reaching a stationary object in its path. Although greater lengths of
visible roadway are desirable, the sight distance at every point along a roadway should be at least
that needed for a below-average driver or vehicle to stop.

Stopping sight distance is the sum of two distances: (1) the distance traversed by the vehicle
from the instant the driver sights an object necessitating a stop to the instant the brakes are
applied; and (2) the distance needed to stop the vehicle from the instant brake application begins.
These are referred to as brake reaction distance and braking distance, respectively.

Brake Reaction Time

Brake reaction time is the interval from the instant that the driver recognizes the existence of
an obstacle on the roadway ahead that necessitates braking to the instant that the driver actually
applies the brakes. Under certain conditions, such as emergency situations denoted by flares or
flashing lights, drivers accomplish these tasks almost instantly. Under most other conditions, the
driver must not only see the object but must also recognize it as a stationary or slowly moving
object against the background of the roadway and other objects, such as walls, fences, trees,
poles, or bridges. Such determinations take time, and the amount of time needed varies
considerably with the distance to the object, the visual acuity of the driver, the natural rapidity
with which the driver reacts, the atmospheric visibility, the type and the condition of the roadway,
and nature of the obstacle . Vehicle speed and roadway environment probably also influence
reaction time. Normally, a driver traveling at or near the design speed is more alert than one
traveling at a lesser speed. A driver on an urban street confronted by innumerable potential
conflicts with parked vehicles, driveways, and cross streets is also likely to be more alert than the
same driver on a limited-access facility where such conditions should be almost nonexistent.

The study of reaction times by Johansson and Rumar (1) referred to in Chapter 2 was based
on data from 321 drivers who expected to apply their brakes. The median reaction-time value for
these drivers was 0.66 s, with 10 percent using 1.5 s or longer. These findings correlate with those
of earlier studies in which alerted drivers were also evaluated. Another study (2) found 0.64 s as
the average reaction time, while 5 percent of the drivers needed over 1 s. In a third study (3), the
values of brake reaction time ranged from 0.4 to 1.7 s. In the Johansson and Rumar study (1),
when the event that required application of the brakes was unexpected, the drivers’ response
times were found to increase by approximately 1 s or more; some reaction times were greater than
1.5 s. This increase in reaction time substantiated earlier laboratory and road tests in which the
conclusion was drawn that a driver who needed 0.2 to 0.3 s of reaction time under alerted
conditions would need 1.5 s of reaction time under normal conditions.
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 Elements of Design

Minimum brake reaction times for drivers could thus be at least 1.64 s and 0.64 s for alerted
drivers as well as 1 s for the unexpected event. Because the studies discussed above used simple
prearranged signals, they represent the least complex of roadway conditions. Even under these
simple conditions , it was found that some drivers took over 3.5 s to respond. Because actual
conditions on the highway are generally more complex than those of the studies, and because
there is wide variation in driver reaction times, it is evident that the criterion adopted for use
should be greater than 1.64 s. The brake reaction time used in design should be large enough to
include the reaction times needed by nearly all drivers under most highway conditions. Both
recent research (4) and the studies documented in the literature (1, 2, 3) show that a 2.5-s brake
reaction time for stopping sight situations encompasses the capabilities of most drivers, including
those of older drivers. The recommended design criterion of 2.5 s for brake reaction time exceeds
the 90th percentile of reaction time for all drivers and has been used in the development of
Exhibit 3-1.

A brake reaction time of 2.5 s is considered adequate for conditions that are more complex
than the simple conditions used in laboratory and road tests, but it is not adequate for the most
complex conditions encountered in actual driving. The need for greater reaction time in the most
complex conditions encountered on the roadway, such as those found at multiphase at-grade
intersections and at ramp terminals on through roadways, can be found later in this chapter in the
section on “Decision Sight Distance.”

Braking Distance

The approximate braking distance of a vehicle on a level roadway traveling at the design
speed of the roadway may be determined from the following equation:

Metric US Customary
2 2
V V
d = 0.039 d = 1.075 ( 3-1 )
a a
where: where:

d = braking distance, m; d = braking distance, ft;

V = design speed, km/h; V = design speed, mph;
2 2
a = deceleration rate, m/s a = deceleration rate, ft/s

Studies documented in the literature (4) show that most drivers decelerate at a rate greater
than 4.5 m/s2 [14.8 ft/s2 ] when confronted with the need to stop for an unexpected object in the
roadway. Approximately 90 percent of all drivers decelerate at rates greater than 3.4 m/s2
[11.2 ft/s2 ]. Such decelerations are within the driver’s capability to stay within his or her lane and
maintain steering control during the braking maneuver on wet surfaces. Therefore, 3.4 m/s2
[11.2 ft/s2 ] (a comfortable deceleration for most drivers) is recommended as the deceleration

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AASHTO—Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Metric US Customary
Brake Braking Stopping sight distance Brake Braking Stopping sight distance
Design reaction distance Design reaction distance
speed distance on level Calculated Design speed distance on level Calculated Design
(km/h) (m) (m) (m) (m) (mph) (ft) (ft) (ft) (ft)
20 13.9 4.6 18.5 20 15 55.1 21.6 76.7 80
30 20.9 10.3 31.2 35 20 73.5 38.4 111.9 115
40 27.8 18.4 46.2 50 25 91.9 60.0 151.9 155
50 34.8 28.7 63.5 65 30 110.3 86.4 196.7 200
60 41.7 41.3 83.0 85 35 128.6 117.6 246.2 250
70 48.7 56.2 104.9 105 40 147.0 153.6 300.6 305
80 55.6 73.4 129.0 130 45 165.4 194.4 359.8 360
90 62.6 92.9 155.5 160 50 183.8 240.0 423.8 425
100 69.5 114.7 184.2 185 55 202.1 290.3 492.4 495
110 76.5 138.8 215.3 220 60 220.5 345.5 566.0 570
120 83.4 165.2 248.6 250 65 238.9 405.5 644.4 645
130 90.4 193.8 284.2 285 70 257.3 470.3 727.6 730
75 275.6 539.9 815.5 820
80 294.0 614.3 908.3 910
2 2
Note: Brake reaction distance predicated on a time of 2.5 s; deceleration rate of 3.4 m/s [11.2 ft/s ] used to determine
calculated sight distance.

Exhibit 3-1. Stopping Sight Distance

 Elements of Design

threshold for determining stopping sight distance. Implicit in the choice of this deceleration
threshold is the assessment that most vehicle braking systems and the tire-pavement friction
levels of most roadways are capable of providing a deceleration of at least 3.4 m/s2 [11.2 ft/s2 ].
The friction available on most wet pavement surfaces and the capabilities of most vehicle braking
systems can provide braking friction that exceeds this deceleration rate.

Design Values

The sum of the distance traversed during the brake reaction time and the distance to brake
the vehicle to a stop is the stopping sight distance. The computed distances for wet pavements
and for various speeds at the assumed conditions are shown in Exhibit 3-1 and were developed
from the following equation:

Metric US Customary
2 2
V V
d = 0.278Vt + 0.039 d = 1.47 Vt + 1.075 ( 3-2 )
a a
where: where:

t = brake reaction time, 2.5 s; t = brake reaction time, 2.5 s;

V = design speed, km/h; V = design speed, mph;
2 2
a = deceleration rate, m/s a = deceleration rate, ft/s

Stopping sight distances exceeding those shown in Exhibit 3-1 should be used as the basis
for design wherever practical. Use of longer stopping sight distances increases the margin of
safety for all drivers and, in particular, for those who operate at or near the design speed. To
ensure that new pavements will have initially, and will retain, friction coefficients comparable to
the deceleration rates used to develop Exhibit 3-1, pavement designs should meet the criteria
established in the AASHTO Guidelines for Skid Resistant Pavement Design (5).

In computing and measuring stopping sight distances, the height of the driver’s eye is
estimated to be 1,080 mm [3.5 ft] and the height of the object to be seen by the driver is 600 mm
[2.0 ft], equivalent to the taillight height of a passenger car. The application of these eye-height
and object-height criteria is discussed further in the section on “Vertical Alignment” in this
chapter.

Effect of Grade on Stopping

When a highway is on a grade, the equation for braking distance should be modified as
follows:

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AASHTO—Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Metric US Customary

V2 V2 ( 3-3 )
d = d =
 a    a  
254   ± G  30   ± G 
  9.81     32.2  

In this equation, G is the percent of grade divided by 100, and the other terms are as
previously stated. The stopping distances needed on upgrades are shorter than on level roadways;
those on downgrades are longer. The stopping sight distances for various grades are shown in
Exhibit 3-2. These adjusted sight distance values are computed for wet-pavement conditions
using the same design speeds and brake reaction times used for level roadways in Exhibit 3-1.

On nearly all roads and streets, the grade is traversed by traffic in both directions of travel,
but the sight distance at any point on the highway generally is different in each direction,
particularly on straight roads in rolling terrain. As a general rule, the sight distance available on
downgrades is larger than on upgrades, more or less automatically providing the appropriate
corrections for grade. This may explain why designers do not adjust stopping sight distance
because of grade. Exceptions are one-way roads or streets, as on divided highways with
independent design profiles for the two roadways. For these separate roadways, adjustments for
grade may be needed.

Variation for Trucks

The recommended stopping sight distances are based on passenger car operation and do not
explicitly consider design for truck operation. Trucks as a whole, especially the larger and heavier
units, need longer stopping distances from a given speed than passenger vehicles. However, there
is one factor that tends to balance the additional braking lengths for trucks with those for
passenger cars. The truck driver is able to see substantially farther beyond vertical sight
obstructions because of the higher position of the seat in the vehicle. Separate stopping sight
distances for trucks and passenger cars, therefore, are not generally used in highway design.

There is one situation in which every effort should be made to provide stopping sight
distances greater than the design values in Exhibit 3-1. Where horizontal sight restrictions occur
on downgrades, particularly at the ends of long downgrades where truck speeds closely approach
or exceed those of passenger cars, the greater height of eye of the truck driver is of little value,
even when the horizontal sight obstruction is a cut slope. Although the average truck driver tends
to be more experienced than the average passenger car driver and quicker to recognize potential
risks, it is desirable under such conditions to provide stopping sight distance that exceeds the
values in Exhibits 3-1 or 3-2.

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 Elements of Design

Metric US Customary
Design Stopping sight distance (m) Design Stopping sight distance (ft)
speed Downgrades Upgrades speed Downgrades Upgrades
(km/h) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9% (mph) 3% 6% 9% 3% 6% 9%
20 20 20 20 19 18 18 15 80 82 85 75 74 73
30 32 35 35 31 30 29 20 116 120 126 109 107 104
40 50 50 53 45 44 43 25 158 165 173 147 143 140
50 66 70 74 61 59 58 30 205 215 227 200 184 179
60 87 92 97 80 77 75 35 257 271 287 237 229 222
70 110 116 124 100 97 93 40 315 333 354 289 278 269
80 136 144 154 123 118 114 45 378 400 427 344 331 320
90 164 174 187 148 141 136 50 446 474 507 405 388 375
100 194 207 223 174 167 160 55 520 553 593 469 450 433
110 227 243 262 203 194 186 60 598 638 686 538 515 495
120 263 281 304 234 223 214 65 682 728 785 612 584 561
130 302 323 350 267 254 243 70 771 825 891 690 658 631
75 866 927 1003 772 736 704
80 965 1035 1121 859 817 782

Exhibit 3-2. Stopping Sight Distance on Grades

Decision Sight Distance

Stopping sight distances are usually sufficient to allow reasonably competent and alert
drivers to come to a hurried stop under ordinary circumstances. However, these distances are
often inadequate when drivers must make complex or instantaneous decisions, when information
is difficult to perceive or when unexpected or unusual maneuvers are required. Limiting sight
distances to those needed for stopping may preclude drivers from performing evasive maneuvers,
which often involve less risk and are otherwise preferable to stopping. Even with an appropriate
complement of standard traffic control devices in accordance with the MUTCD (6 ), stopping
sight distances may not provide sufficient visibility distances for drivers to corroborate advance
warning and to perform the appropriate maneuvers. It is evident that there are many locations
where it would be prudent to provide longer sight distances. In these circumstances, decision
sight distance provides the greater visibility distance that drivers need.

Decision sight distance is the distance needed for a driver to detect an unexpected or
otherwise difficult-to-perceive information source or condition in a roadway environment that
may be visually cluttered, recognize the condition or its potential threat, select an appropriate
speed and path, and initiate and complete the maneuver safely and efficiently (7). Because
decision sight distance offers drivers additional margin for error and affords them sufficient
length to maneuver their vehicles at the same or reduced speed, rather than to just stop, its values
are substantially greater than stopping sight distance.

Drivers need decision sight distances whenever there is a likelihood for error in either
information reception, decision-making, or control actions (8). Examples of critical locations
where these kinds of errors are likely to occur, and where it is desirable to provide decision sight
distance include interchange and intersection locations where unusual or unexpected maneuvers
are required, changes in cross section such as toll plazas and lane drops, and areas of concentrated
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demand where there is apt to be “visual noise” from competing sources of information, such as
roadway elements, traffic, traffic control devices, and advertising signs.

The decision sight distances in Exhibit 3-3: (1) provide values for sight distances that may be
appropriate at critical locations and (2) serve as criteria in evaluating the suitability of the
available sight distances at these locations. Because of the additional safety and maneuvering
space provided, it is recommended that decision sight distances be provided at critical locations
or that critical decision points be moved to locations where sufficient decision sight distance is
available. If it is not practical to provide decision sight distance because of horizontal or vertical
curvature or if relocation of decision points is not practical, special attention should be given to
the use of suitable traffic control devices for providing advance warning of the conditions that are
likely to be encountered.

Metric US Customary
Design Decision sight distance (m) Design Decision sight distance (ft)
speed Avoidance maneuver speed Avoidance maneuver
(km/h) A B C D E (mph) A B C D E
50 70 155 145 170 195 30 220 490 450 535 620
60 95 195 170 205 235 35 275 590 525 625 720
70 115 235 200 235 275 40 330 690 600 715 825
80 140 280 230 270 315 45 395 800 675 800 930
90 170 325 270 315 360 50 465 910 750 890 1030
100 200 370 315 355 400 55 535 1030 865 980 1135
110 235 420 330 380 430 60 610 1150 990 1125 1280
120 265 470 360 415 470 65 695 1275 1050 1220 1365
130 305 525 390 450 510 70 780 1410 1105 1275 1445
75 875 1545 1180 1365 1545
80 970 1685 1260 1455 1650
Avoidance Maneuver A: Stop on rural road—t = 3.0 s
Avoidance Maneuver B: Stop on urban road—t = 9.1 s
Avoidance Maneuver C: Speed/path/direction change on rural road—t varies between 10.2
and 11.2 s
Avoidance Maneuver D: Speed/path/direction change on suburban road—t varies between
12.1 and 12.9 s
Avoidance Maneuver E: Speed/path/direction change on urban road—t varies between 14.0
and 14.5 s

Exhibit 3-3. Decision Sight Distance

Decision sight distance criteria that are applicable to most situations have been developed
from empirical data. The decision sight distances vary depending on whether the location is on a
rural or urban road and on the type of avoidance maneuver required to negotiate the location
properly. Exhibit 3-3 shows decision sight distance values for various situations rounded for
design. As can be seen in the exhibit, shorter distances are generally needed for rural roads and
for locations where a stop is the appropriate maneuver.

For the avoidance maneuvers identified in Exhibit 3-3, the pre-maneuver time is increased
above the brake reaction time for stopping sight distance to allow the driver additional time to

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 Elements of Design

detect and recognize the roadway or traffic situation, identify alternative maneuvers, and initiate a
response at critical locations on the highway (9). The pre-maneuver component of decision sight
distance uses a value ranging between 3.0 and 9.1 s (10).

The braking distance from the design speed is added to the pre-maneuver component for
avoidance maneuvers A and B as shown in Equation (3-4). The braking component is replaced in
avoidance maneuvers C, D, and E with a maneuver distance based on maneuver times between
3.5 and 4.5 s, that decrease with increasing speed (9) in accordance with Equation (3-5).

The decision sight distances for avoidance maneuvers A and B are determined as:

Metric US Customary

2 2
V V
d = 0.278Vt + 0.039 d = 1.47 Vt + 1.075 ( 3-4 )
a a

where: where:

t = pre-maneuver time, s (see t = pre-maneuver time, s (see

notes in Exhibit 3-3); notes in Exhibit 3-3);
V = design speed, km/h; V = design speed, mph;
2 2
a = driver deceleration, m/s a = driver deceleration, ft/s

The decision sight distances for avoidance maneuvers C, D, and E are determined as:

Metric US Customary
d = 0.278Vt d = 1.47Vt ( 3-5 )
where: where:

t = total pre-maneuver and t = total pre-maneuver and

maneuver time, s (see notes maneuver time, s (see notes
in Exhibit 3-3); in Exhibit 3-3);
V = design speed, km/h V = design speed, mph

In computing and measuring decision sight distances, the same 1,080-mm [3.5-ft] eye-height
and 600-mm [2.0-ft] object-height criteria used for stopping sight distance have been adopted.
Although drivers may have to be able to see the entire roadway situation, including the road
surface, the rationale for the 600-mm [2.0-ft] object height is as applicable to decision sight
distance as it is to stopping sight distance.

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AASHTO—Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways

Criteria for Design

Most roads and many streets are two-lane, two-way highways on which vehicles frequently
overtake slower moving vehicles. Passing maneuvers in which faster vehicle s move ahead of
slower vehicles must be accomplished on lanes regularly used by opposing traffic. If passing is to
be accomplished safely , the passing driver should be able to see a sufficient distance ahead, clear
of traffic, to complete the passing maneuver without cutting off the passed vehicle before meeting
an opposing vehicle that appears during the maneuver. When appropriate, the driver can return to
the right lane without completing the pass if he or she sees opposing traffic is too close when the
maneuver is only partially completed. Many passing maneuvers are accomplished without the
driver being able to see any potentially conflicting vehicle at the beginning of the maneuver, but
design should not be based on such maneuvers. Because many cautious drivers would not attempt
to pass under such conditions, design on this basis would reduce the usefulness of the highway.
An alternative to providing passing sight distance is found later in this chapter in the section on
“Passing Lanes.”

Passing sight distance for use in design should be determined on the basis of the length
needed to complete normal passing maneuvers in which the passing driver can determine that
there are no potentially conflicting vehicles ahead before beginning the maneuver. While there
may be occasions to consider multiple passings, where two or more vehicles pass or are passed, it
is not practical to assume such conditions in developing minimum design criteria. Instead, sight
distance should be determined for a single vehicle passing a single vehicle. Longer sight distances
occur in design and such locations can accommodate an occasional multiple passing.

Minimum passing sight distances for design of two-lane highways incorporate certain
assumptions about driver behavior. Actual driver behavior in passing maneuvers varies widely.
To accommodate these variations in driver behavior, the design criteria for passing sight distance
should accommodate the behavior of a high percentage of drivers, rather than just the average
driver. The following assumptions are made concerning driver behavior in passing maneuvers:

1. The overtaken vehicle travels at uniform speed.

2. The passing vehicle has reduced speed and trails the overtaken vehicle as it enters a
passing section.
3. When the passing section is reached, the passing driver needs a short period of time to
perceive the clear passing section and to react to start his or her maneuver.
4. Passing is accomplished under what may be termed a delayed start and a hurried return
in the face of opposing traffic. The passing vehicle accelerates during the maneuver,
and its average speed during the occupancy of the left lane is 15 km/h [10 mph] higher
than that of the overtaken vehicle.
5. When the passing vehicle returns to its lane, there is a suitable clearance length between
it and an oncoming vehicle in the other lane.

Some drivers accelerate at the beginning of a passing maneuver to an appreciably higher

speed and then continue at a uniform speed until the maneuver is completed. Many drivers
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 Elements of Design

accelerate at a fairly high rate until just beyond the vehicle being passed and then complete the
maneuver either without further acceleration or at reduced speed. For simplicity, such
extraordinary maneuvers are ignored and passing distances are developed with the use of
observed speeds and times that fit the practices of a high percentage of drivers.

The minimum passing sight distance for two-lane highways is determined as the sum of the
following four distances (shown in Exhibit 3-4):

• d1 —Distance traversed during perception and reaction time and during the initial
acceleration to the point of encroachment on the left lane.
• d2 —Distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane.
• d3 —Distance between the passing vehicle at the end of its maneuver and the opposing
vehicle.
• d4 —Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle for two-thirds of the time the passing
vehicle occupies the left lane, or 2/3 of d2 above.

Exhibit 3-4. Elements of Passing Sight Distance for Two-Lane Highways

Various distances for the components of passing maneuvers, based on extensive field
observations of driver behavior (11) are presented for four passing speed groups in Exhibit 3-5.
Time and distance values were determined in relation to the average speed of the passing vehicle.
The speeds of the overtaken vehicles were approximately 15 km/h [10 mph] less than the speeds
of the passing vehicles.

Very little change was noted in the passing practices of drivers in a restudy of three of the
original sections despite increased vehicle performance capabilities. A later study (12) of vehicle
passing performance on two-lane highways produced a different set of passing sight distance
values. These values were subsequently reviewed (13) to evaluate minimum passing sight
distances. This evaluation reported the total passing sight distances as seen in Exhibit 3-5 are
greater than those determined in subsequent studies for all speeds except 110 km/h [70 mph].
Thus, the minimum passing sight distances presented in Exhibit 3-7 are generally conservative for
modern vehicles and are used below.
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AASHTO—Geometric Design of Highways and Streets

Metric US Customary
Speed range (km/h) Speed range (mph)
50-65 66-80 81-95 96-110 30-40 40-50 50-60 60-70
Component of passing Average passing speed (km/h) Average passing speed (mph)
maneuver 56.2 70.0 84.5 99.8 34.9 43.8 52.6 62.0
Initial maneuver:
a
a = average acceleration 2.25 2.30 2.37 2.41 1.40 1.43 1.47 1.50
a
t1 = time (sec) 3.6 4.0 4.3 4.5 3.6 4.0 4.3 4.5
d1 = distance traveled 45 66 89 113 145 216 289 366
Occupation of left lane:
a
t2 = time (sec) 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3 9.3 10.0 10.7 11.3
d2 = distance traveled 145 195 251 314 477 643 827 1030
Clearance length:
a
d3 = distance traveled 30 55 75 90 100 180 250 300
Opposing vehicle:
d4 = distance traveled 97 130 168 209 318 429 552 687
Total distance, d1 + d2 + d3 + d4 317 446 583 726 1040 1468 1918 2383
a
For consistent speed relation, observed values adjusted slightly.
Note: In the metric portion of the table, speed values are in km/h, acceleration rates in km/h/s, and distances are
in meters. In the U.S. customary portion of the table, speed values are in mph, acceleration rates in
mph/sec, and distances are in feet.

Exhibit 3-5. Elements of Safe Passing Sight Distance for Design of Two-Lane Highways
 Elements of Design

Initial maneuver distance (d1 ). The initial maneuver period has two components, a time for
perception and reaction, and an interval during which the driver brings the vehicle from the
trailing speed to the point of encroachment on the left or passing lane. To a great extent these two
periods overlap. As a passing section of highway comes into the view of a driver desiring to pass,
the driver may begin to accelerate and maneuver his or her vehicle toward the centerline of the
highway while deciding whether or not to pass. Studies show that the average passing vehicle
accelerates at less than its maximum potential, indicating that the initial maneuver period contains
an element of time for perception and reaction. However, some drivers may remain in normal
lane position while deciding to pass. The exact position of the vehicle during initial maneuver is
unimportant because the differences in resulting passing distances are insignificant.

The acceleration rate obtained from the passing study data in the first three speed groups
during the initial maneuver period varied from 2.25 to 2.37 km/h/s [1.41 to 1.47 mph/s]; the
average time varied from 3.7 to 4.3 s; and the average passing speeds were 56.2, 70.0, and
84.5 km/h [34.9, 43.8, and 52.6 mph]. For the 96 to 100 km/h [60 to 70 mph] group, on the basis
of extrapolated data, the average acceleration was assumed to be 2.41 km/h/s [1.50 mph/s]; the
maneuver time, 4.5 s; and the average speed, 99.8 km/h [62.0 mph].

The distance d1 traveled during the initial maneuver period is computed with the following
equation:

Metric US Customary

 at   at 
d 1 = 0.278 t i  v − m + i  d 1 =1.47 t i  v − m + i  ( 3-6 )
 2   2 
where: where:

ti = time of initial maneuver, s; ti = time of initial maneuver, s;

a = average acceleration, a = average acceleration,
km/h/s; mph/s;
v = average speed of passing v = average speed of passing
vehicle, km/h; vehicle, mph;
m = difference in speed of m = difference in speed of
passed vehicle and passing passed vehicle and
vehicle, km/h passing vehicle, mph

The acceleration, time, and distance traveled during the initial maneuver periods in passing
are given in Exhibit 3-5. The d1 line in Exhibit 3-6 shows the distance plotted against the average
speed of the passing vehicle .

Distance while passing vehicle occupies left lane (d2 ). Passing vehicles were found in the
study to occupy the left lane from 9.3 to 10.4 s. The distance d2 traveled in the left lane by the
passing vehicle is computed with the following equation:

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Metric US Customary

d 2 = 0.278vt 2 d 2 =1.47vt 2 ( 3-7 )

where: where:

t2 = time passing vehicle t2 = time passing vehicle

occupies the left lane, s; occupies the left lane, s;
v = average speed of passing v = average speed of passing
vehicle, km/h vehicle, mph

The time and distance traveled while the passing vehicle occupies the left lane are given in
Exhibit 3-5. Distances are plotted against average passing speeds as curve d2 in Exhibit 3-6.

Clearance length (d3 ). The clearance length between the opposing and passing vehicles at
the end of the passing maneuvers was found in the passing study to vary from 30 to 75 m [100 to
250 ft]. This length, adjusted somewhat for practical consistency, is shown as the clearance length
d3 in Exhibits 3-5 and 3-6.

Distance traversed by an opposing vehicle (d4 ). Passing sight distance includes the
distance traversed by an opposing vehicle during the passing maneuver, to minimize the chance
that a passing vehicle will meet an opposing vehicle while in the left lane. Conservatively, this
distance should be the distance traversed by an opposing vehicle during the entire time it takes to
pass or during the time the passing vehicle is in the left lane, but such distance is questionably
long. During the first phase of the passing maneuver, the passing vehicle has not yet pulled
abreast of the vehicle being passed, and even though the passing vehicle occupies the left lane, its
driver can return to the right lane if an opposing vehicle is seen. It is unnecessary to include this
trailing time interval in computing the distance traversed by an opposing vehicle. This time
interval, which can be computed from the relative positions of passing and passed vehicle, is
about one-third the time the passing vehicle occupies the left lane, so that the passing sight
distance element for the opposing vehicle is the distance it traverses during two-thirds of the time
the passing vehicle occupies the left lane. The opposing vehicle is assumed to be traveling at the
same speed as the passing vehicle, so d4 = 2d2 /3. The distance d4 is shown in Exhibits 3-5 and
3-6.

Design Values

The “total” curve in Exhibit 3-6 is determined by the sum of the elements d1 through d4 . For
each passing speed, this total curve indicates the minimum passing sight distance for a vehicle to
pass another vehicle traveling 15 km/h [10 mph] slower, in the face of an opposing vehicle
traveling at the same speed as the passing vehicle. On determination of a likely and logical
relation between average passing speed and the highway design speed, these distances can be
used to express the minimum passing sight distance needed for design purposes.

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Exhibit 3-6. Total Passing Sight Distance and Its Components—Two-Lane

Highways

The ranges of speeds of the passed and passing vehicles are affected by traffic volume.
When traffic volume is low (level-of-service A), there are few vehicles that need to be passed, but
as the volume increases (level-of-service D or lower) there are few, if any, passing opportunities.
The speed of the passed vehicle has been assumed to be the average running speed at a traffic
volume near capacity. The speed of the passing vehicle is assumed to be 15 km/h [10 mph]
greater. The assumed speeds for passing vehicles in Exhibit 3-7 represent the likely passing
speeds on two-lane highways. Passing sight distances for these passing speeds would
accommodate a majority of the desired passing maneuvers and correspond to the total curve in
Exhibit 3-6. The values in the last column of Exhibit 3-7 are design values for minimum passing
sight distance. In designing a highway these distances should be exceeded as much as practical,
and passing sections should be provided as often as can be done at reasonable cost to provide as
many passing opportunities as practical.

These minimum passing sight distances for design should not be confused with other
distances used as the warrants for placing no-passing zone pavement markings on completed
highways. Such values as shown in the MUTCD (6) are substantially less than design distances

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124

Metric US Customary
Assumed speeds Assumed speeds
Design (km/h) Passing sight distance (m) Design (mph) Passing sight distance (ft)
speed Passed Passing From Rounded for speed Passed Passing From Rounded for
(km/h) vehicle vehicle Exhibit 3-6 design (mph) vehicle vehicle Exhibit 3-6 design
30 29 44 200 200 20 18 28 706 710
40 36 51 266 270 25 22 32 897 900
50 44 59 341 345 30 26 36 1088 1090
60 51 66 407 410 35 30 40 1279 1280
70 59 74 482 485 40 34 44 1470 1470
80 65 80 538 540 45 37 47 1625 1625
90 73 88 613 615 50 41 51 1832 1835
100 79 94 670 670 55 44 54 1984 1985
110 85 100 727 730 60 47 57 2133 2135
120 90 105 774 775 65 50 60 2281 2285
130 94 109 812 815 70 54 64 2479 2480
75 56 66 2578 2580
80 58 68 2677 2680

Exhibit 3-7. Passing Sight Distance for Design of Two-Lane Highways

 Elements of Design

and are derived for traffic operating-control needs that are based on different assumptions from
those for highway design.

Effect of Grade on Passing Sight Distance

Appreciable grades affect the sight distance needed for passing. Passing is easier for the
vehicle traveling downgrade because the overtaking vehicle can accelerate more rapidly than on
the level and thus can reduce the time of passing. However, the overtaken vehicle can also
accelerate easily so that a situation akin to a racing contest may result.

The sight distances needed to permit vehicles traveling upgrade to pass safely are greater
than those needed on level roads because of reduced acceleration of the passing vehicle (which
increases the time of passing) and the likelihood that opposing traffic may speed up (which
increases the distance traveled by an opposing vehicle during the passing maneuver).
Compensating for this somewhat are the factors that the passed vehicle frequently is a truck that
usually loses some speed on appreciable upgrades and that many drivers are aware of the greater
distances needed for passing upgrade compared with level conditions.

If passing maneuvers are to be performed on upgrades under the same assumptions about the
behavior of the passing and passed vehicles discussed above, the passing sight distance should be
greater than the derived design values. Specific adjustments for design use are unavailable, but
the designer should recognize the desirability of exceeding the values shown in Exhibit 3-7.

Frequency and Length of Passing Sections

Sight distance adequate for passing should be encountered frequently on two-lane highways.
Each passing section along a length of roadway with sight distance ahead equal to or greater than
the minimum passing sight distance should be as long as practical. The frequency and length of
passing sections for highways depend, principally on the topography, the design speed of
highway, and the cost; for streets, the spacing of intersections is the principal consideration.

It is not practical to directly indicate the frequency with which passing sections should be
provided on two-lane highways due to the physical and cost limitations. During the course of
normal design, passing sections are provided on almost all highways and selected streets, but the
designer’s appreciation of their importance and a studied attempt to provide them can usually
ensure others at little or no additional cost. In steep mountainous terrain, it may be more
economical to build intermittent four-lane sections or passing lanes with stopping sight distance
on some two-lane highways, in lieu of two-lane sections with passing sight distance. Alternatives
are discussed later in this chapter in the section on “Passing Lanes.”

The passing sight distances shown in Exhibit 3-7 are sufficient for a single or isolated pass
only. Designs with infrequent passing sections will not assure that opportunities for passing are
available . Even on low-volume roadways, a driver desiring to pass may, on reaching the passing

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section, find vehicles in the opposing lane and thus be unable to use the passing section or at least
may not be able to begin to pass at once.

The importance of frequent passing sections is illustrated by their effect on the level of
service of a two-lane, two-way highway. The procedures in the Highway Capacity Manual (14) to
analyze two-lane, two-way highways base the level-of-service criteria on two measures of
effectiveness—percent time spent following and average travel speed. Both of these criteria are
affected by the lack of passing opportunities. The HCM procedures show, for example, up to a 19
percent increase in the percent time spent following when the directional split is 50/50 and no-
passing zones comprise 40 percent of the analysis length compared to a highway with similar
traffic volumes and no sight restrictions. The effect of restricted passing sight distance is even
more severe for unbalanced flow and where the no-passing zones comprise more than 40 percent
of the length.

There is a similar effect on the average travel speed. As the percent of no-passing zones
increases, there is an increased reduction in the average travel speed for the same demand flow
rate. For example, a demand flow rate of 800 passenger cars per hour incurs a reduction of
3.1 km/h (1.9 mph) when no-passing zones comprise 40 percent of the analysis length compared
to no reduction in speed on a route with unrestricted passing.

The HCM procedures indicate another possible criterion for passing sight distance design on
two-lane highways that are several miles or more in length. The available passing sight distances
along this length can be summarized to show the percentage of length with greater-than-minimum
passing sight distance. Analysis of capacity related to this percentage would indicate whether or
not alignment and profile adjustments are needed to accommodate the design hourly volume
(DHV). When highway sight distances are analyzed over the whole range of lengths within which
passing maneuvers are made, a new design criterion may be evaluated. Where high traffic
volumes are expected on a highway and a high level of service is to be maintained, frequent or
nearly continuous passing sight distances should be provided.

Sight Distance for Multilane Highways

It is not necessary to consider passing sight distance on highways or streets that have two or
more traffic lanes in each direction of travel. Passing maneuvers on multilane roadways are
expected to occur within the limits of the traveled way for each direction of travel. Thus, passing
maneuvers that involve crossing the centerline of four-lane undivided roadways or crossing the
median of four-lane roadways should be prohibited.

Multilane roadways should have continuously adequate stopping sight distance, with
greater-than-design sight distances preferred. Design criteria for stopping sight distance vary with
vehicle speed and are discussed in detail at the beginning of this chapter.

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 Elements of Design

Criteria for Measuring Sight Distance

Sight distance is the distance along a roadway throughout which an object of specified
height is continuously visible to the driver. This distance is dependent on the height of the
driver’s eye above the road surface, the specified object height above the road surface, and the
height and lateral position of sight obstructions within the driver’s line of sight.

Height of Driver’s Eye

For sight distance calculations for passenger vehicles, the height of the driver’s eye is
considered to be 1,080 mm [3.5 ft] above the road surface. This value is based on a study (4)
found that average vehicle heights have decreased to 1,300 mm [4.25 ft] with a comparable
decrease in average eye heights to 1,080 mm [3.5 ft]. Because of various factors that appear to
place practical limits on further decreases in passenger car heights and the relatively small
increases in the lengths of vertical curves that would result from further changes that do occur,
1,080 mm [3.5 ft] is considered to be the appropriate height of driver’s eye for measuring both
stopping and passing sight distances. For large trucks, the driver eye height ranges from 1,800 to
2,400 mm [5.9 to 7.9 ft]. The recommended value of truck driver eye height for design is
2,330 mm [7.6 ft] above the roadway surface.

Height of Object

For stopping sight distance calculations, the height of object is considered to be 600 mm
[2.0 ft] above the road surface. For passing sight distance calculations, the height of object is
considered to be 1,080 mm [3.5 ft] above the road surface.

Stopping sight distance object. The basis for selection of a 600-mm [2.0-ft] object height
was largely an arbitrary rationalization of the size of object that might potentially be encountered
in the road and of a driver’s ability to perceive and react to such situations. It is considered that an
object 600 mm [2.0 ft] high is representative of an object that involves risk to drivers and can be
recognized by a driver in time to stop before reaching it. Using object heights of less than
600 mm [2.0 ft] for stopping sight distance calculations would result in longer crest vertical
curves without documented safety benefits (4). Object height of less than 600 mm [2.0 ft] could
substantially increase construction costs because additional excavation would be needed to
provide the longer crest vertical curves. It is also doubtful that the driver’s ability to perceive
situations involving risk of collisions would be increased because recommended stopping sight
distances for high-speed design are beyond most drivers’ capabilities to detect small objects (4).

Passing sight distance object. An object height of 1,080 mm [3.5 ft] is adopted for passing
sight distance. This object height is based on a vehicle height of 1,330 mm [4.35 ft], which
represents the 15th percentile of vehicle heights in the current passenger car population, less an
allowance of 250 mm [0.82 ft], which represents a near-maximum value for the portion of the
vehicle height that needs to be visible for another driver to recognize a vehicle as such (1 5).
Passing sight distances calculated on this basis are also considered adequate for night conditions
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because headlight beams of an opposing vehicle generally can be seen from a greater distance
than a vehicle can be recognized in the daytime. The choice of an object height equal to the driver
eye height makes passing sight distance design reciprocal (i.e., when the driver of the passing
vehicle can see the opposing vehicle, the driver of the opposing vehicle can also see the passing
vehicle ).

Sight Obstructions

On a tangent roadway, the obstruction that limits the driver’s sight distance is the road
surface at some point on a crest vertical curve. On horizontal curves, the obstruction that limits
the driver’s sight distance may be the road surface at some point on a crest vertical curve, or it
may be some physical feature outside of the traveled way, such as a longitudinal barrier, a bridge-
approach fill slope, a tree, foliage, or the backslope of a cut section. Accordingly, all highway
construction plans should be checked in both the vertical and horizontal plane for sight distance
obstructions.

Measuring and Recording Sight Distance on Plans

The design of horizontal alignment and vertical profile using sight distance and other criteria
is addressed later in this chapter, including the detailed design of horizontal and vertical curves.
Sight distance should be considered in the preliminary stages of design when both the horizontal
and vertical alignment are still subject to adjustment. By determining the available sight distances
graphically on the plans and recording them at frequent intervals, the designer can appraise the
overall layout and effect a more balanced design by minor adjustments in the plan or profile.
Methods for scaling sight distances on plans are demonstrated in Exhibit 3-8, which also shows a
typical sight distance record that would be shown on the final plans.

Because the view of the highway ahead may change rapidly in a short distance, it is desirable
to measure and record sight distance for both directions of travel at each station. Both horizontal
and vertical sight distances should be measured and the shorter lengths recorded. In the case of a
two-lane highway, passing sight distance should be measured and recorded in addition to
stopping sight distance.

Sight distance charts such as those in Exhibit 3- 74 and 3-77 may be used to establish
minimum lengths of vertical curves. Charts similar to Exhibit 3-57 are useful for determining the
radius of horizontal curve or the lateral offset from the traveled way needed to provide the design
sight distance. Once the horizontal and vertical alignments are tentatively established, the most
practical means of examining sight distances along the proposed highway is by direct scaling on
the plans.

Horizontal sight distance on the inside of a curve is limited by obstructions such as

buildings, hedges, wooded areas, high ground, or other topographic features. These are generally
plotted on the plans. Horizontal sight is measured with a straightedge, as indicated in the upper
left portion of Exhibit 3-8. The cut slope obstruction is shown on the worksheets by a line

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 Elements of Design

Exhibit 3-8. Scaling and Recording Sight Distances on Plans

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representing the proposed excavation slope at a point 840 mm [2.75 ft] above the road surface
(i.e., the approximate average of 1,080 mm and 600 mm [3.5 ft and 2.0 ft]) for stopping sight
distance and at a point about 1,080 mm [3.5 ft] above the road surface for passing sight distance.
The position of this line with respect to the centerline may be scaled from the plotted highway
cross sections. Preferably, the stopping sight distance should be measured between points on one
traffic lane, and passing sight distance from the middle of one lane to the middle of the other lane.

Such refinement on two-lane highways generally is not necessary and measurement of sight
distance along the centerline or traveled way edge is suitable. Where there are changes of grade
coincident with horizontal curves that have sight-limiting cut slopes on the inside, the line-of-
sight intercepts the slope at a level either lower or higher than the assumed average height. In
measuring sight distance, the error in the use of the assumed 840 or 1,080 mm [2.75 or 3.5 ft]
height usually can be ignored.

Vertical sight distance may be scaled from a plotted profile by the method illustrated at the
right center of Exhibit 3-8. A transparent strip with parallel edges 1,080 mm [3.5 ft] apart and
with a scratched line 600 mm [2.0 ft] from the upper edge, in accordance with the vertical scale,
is a useful tool. The lower edge of the strip is placed on the station from which the vertical sight
distance is desired, and the strip is pivoted about this point until the upper edge is tangent to the
profile. The distance between the initial station and the station on the profile intersected by the
600 mm [2.0 ft] line is the stopping sight distance. The distance between the initial station and the
station on the profile intersected by the lower edge of the strip is the passing sight distance.

A simple sight distance record is shown in the lower part of Exhibit 3-8. Sight distances in
both directions are indicated by arrows and figures at each station on the plan and profile sheet of
the proposed highway. To avoid the extra work of measuring unusually long sight distances that
may occasionally be found, a selected maximum value may be recorded. In the example shown,
all sight distances of more than 1,000 m [3,000 ft] are recorded as 1,000 m+ [3,000 ft+], and
where this occurs for several consecutive stations, the intermediate values are omitted. Sight
distances less than 500 m [1,500 ft] may be scaled to the nearest 10 m [50 ft] and those greater
than 500 m [1,500 ft] to the nearest 50 m [100 ft]. The available sight distances along a proposed
highway also may be shown by other methods. Several States use a sight distance graph, plotted
in conjunction with the plan and profile of the highway, as a means of demonstrating sight
distances. Sight distances can also be easily determined where plans and profiles are drawn using
computer-aided design and drafting (CADD) systems.

Sight distance records for two-lane highways may be used effectively to tentatively
determine the marking of no-passing zones in accordance with criteria given in the MUTCD (6).
Marking of such zones is an operational rather than a design problem. No-passing zones thus
established serve as a guide for markings when the highway is completed. The zones so
determined should be checked and adjusted by field measurements before actual markings are
placed.

Sight distance records also are useful on two-lane highways for determining the percentage
of length of highway on which sight distance is restricted to less than the passing minimum,
which is important in evaluating capacity. With recorded sight distances, as in the lower part of
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