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SOCIOLOGY – I

1. Basics Concepts

(A). Society – Human & Animal

(B). Community

(C). Association

(D). Social groups

2. Social Institutions

(A). Marriage, family and kinship

(B). Economic Institutions

(C). Political Institutions

(D). Religious Institutions

(E). Educational Institutions

3. Social and Legal systems

(A). Social system

(B). Law as a sub system of society

(C). Structure and function.

4. Major Social Institutions of Indian Society

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(A). Caste

(B). Tribe

(C). Traditional

(D). Village Panchayat

(E). Sources of Village Panchayat

5. Social Stratification

(A). Social status and role

(B). Socialization

(C). Social control

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INTRODUCTION

In the family of social sciences, Sociology is comparatively a new entrant. But

because of its dealing with social problems, social relationships and social
interactions the importance of the study of this subject has considerably increased.
It has considerably developed in methodology, scope and approach. Attempts are
now being made to study every social problem scientifically and objectively,
eliminating subjectivity to the extent possible a distinctive way of examining
human interactions. Sociology is the systematic study of social behavior and
human groups. It focuses primarily on the influence of social relationships upon
people’s attitudes and behavior and on how societies are established and change.
As a field of study sociology has a very broad scope. It deals with families, gangs,
business firms, computer networks, political parties, schools, religions, and labor
unions. It is concerned with love, poverty, conformity, technology, discrimination,
illness, alienation, overpopulation and community.

MEANING OF SOCIOLOGY

The term ‘Sociology’ was coined by Auguste Comte, a French philosopher in

1830 and he is regarded as ‘the father of sociology’. The word ‘sociology’ is
derived from Latin term ‘societus’ meaning ‘society’ and a Greek term ‘logos’
meaning ‘study’ or ‘science’. The meaning of sociology is thus the ‘science’ of
‘society’.

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DEFINITIONS OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is being defined differently by different sociologists.

Comte -“Sociology is the science of social order and progress.”

Ward -“Sociology is science of society.”

Giddins - “Sociology is scientific study of society.”

Ginsberg –“Sociology is the study of human Inter-actions and inter-relations, their

conditions and consequences.”

SUBJECT MATTER OF SOCIOLOGY

Sociology is the study of social life as a whole. It does not deal with one aspect of
society; it studies various aspects of society which are the subject matter of
sociology which are:

1) Social organization

2) Social structure

3) Social institutions

4) Social groups

5) Culture

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EARLY THINKERS OF SOCIOLOGY

Early Thinkers
of Sociology

Auguste comte Emile Derkheim Max Weber Karl Marx

1. August Comte: In France, the 19th Century was an unsettling time for the
nation’s intellectuals. French monarchy had been deposed in the revolution of 1789
and Napoleon had suffered defeat in his effort to conquer Europe. Philosophers and
intellectuals were finding the ways out to improve the society. August Comte is
considered as the most influential philosopher of the early 1800s. He believed that
in order to improve society the theoretical science of society should be developed
and a systematic investigation of behavior should be carried. He coined the term
sociology to apply to the science of human behaviors.

2. Emile Derkheim: Durkheim is considered as one of the founding fathers of

sociology. He made many pioneering contributions to Sociology including his
most important theoretical work on Suicide. Durkheim asserted that behavior must
be understood in the larger social context, rather an individual action.

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3. Max Weber: Max Weber was born in Germany (1864-1920). He studied legal
and economic history, but gradually developed an interest in sociology. Later he
became professor and taught at various German universities. He is credited for his
key conceptual tool: the Ideal type. The concept of ideal type can be used to study
the family, religion, authority, and economic systems, as well as the analyze
bureaucracy.

4. Karl Marx: Karl Marx (1818-1883) was a critique of existing institutions that a
conventional academic career was impossible. He was a revolutionary and spent
most of his life in exile from his native Germany. In Marx’s analysis, society was
fundamentally divided between two classes i.e. Bourgoise and Plorotariate who
have opposite interests.

IMPORTANCE OF SOCIOLOGY

Prior to the emergence of sociology the study of society was carried on in an

unscientific manner and society had never been the central concern of any science.
It is through the study of sociology that the truly scientific study of the society has
been possible. Sociology because of its bearing upon many of the problems of the
present world has assumed such a great importance that it is considered to be the
best approach to all the social sciences.

1. Sociology studies role of the institutions in the development of the individuals.

2. Study of sociology is indispensable for understanding and planning of society.

3. Sociology is of great importance in the solution of social problems.

4. Sociology has drawn our attention to the intrinsic worth and dignity of man.

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5. Sociology has made great contribution to enrich human culture.

6. Sociology is of great importance in the solution of international problems.

7. The value of sociology lies in the fact that it keeps us update on modern
situations.

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UNIT-I BASIC CONCEPTS

SOCIETY

What is society? (Definitions of society)

Humanly created organization or system of interrelationships that connects

individuals in a common culture. All the products of human interaction, the
experience of living with others around us. Humans create their interactions, and
once created the products of those interactions has the ability or power to act back
upon humans to determine or constrain action. Often, we experience society
(humanly created organization) as something apart from the individuals and
interactions that create it.

August Comte defines society as a social organism possessing a harmony of

structure and function.

According to Talcott Parsons Society is a total complex of human relationships

in so far as they grow out of the action in terms of means-end relationship intrinsic
or symbolic.

G.H Mead conceived society as an exchange of gestures which involves the use of
symbols.

Morris Ginsberg defines society as a collection of individuals united by certain

relations or mode of behavior which mark them off from others who do not enter
into these relations or who differ from them in behavior.

Cooley sees Society as the complex of organized associations and institutions with
a community.

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According to MacIver and Page society is a system of usages and procedures of

authority and mutual aid of many groupings and divisions, of controls of human
behavior and liberties.

Characteristics of society (or Elements of society or Salient features of society)

Harry M. Johnson enlists the following four characteristics of society:-

1) Definite territory

2) Progeny

3) Culture

4) Independence

Other sociologists added other characteristics of society. They are:-

5) A demographic whole

6) Social interaction

7) Social organization

8) Interdependence and cooperation

9) Likeness and differences

10) Functional differentiations or variations

11) Feeling of solidarity

12) An essential system of institutions with authority

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Importance of society or functions of society

1) Recruitment of new individuals (Reproduction)

2) Satisfaction of primary physical needs
3) Socialization
4) Social control
5) Provision of means of communication
6) Human prosperity

Comparison between Animal and Human societies

Society

Human Animal

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Similarities

1) Instances of perpetuation
2) Self-preservation
3) Physical needs
4) Instinct of group living

Biological differences

1) Brain
2) Physical structure
3) Capacity to stand straight
4) Memory

Socio-cultural differences

1) Culture and Civilization

2) Behavior

3) Communication

4) Mode of organization

5) Social awareness

6) Allocation of work

7) Needs

8) Institutions

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Man is a social animal by nature

Aristotle expressed that ‘Man is essentially a social animal by nature’. He cannot

live without society, if he does so; he is either beast or God. Man realizes his goals,
his existence in the society: he finds various ingredients in society through which
he can attain the perfectness of the life. The day, he is born to the day he leaves
this planet he is in the society.

‘Robinson Crusoe’ expressed that Man can never develop his personality,
language, culture and ‘inner deep’ by living outside the society. The statement that
a man is a social animal implies that man cannot live without society. Society is
indispensable for him. He needs society as matter of nature, necessity and for his
well being.

Example:-Kaspar Hausar,Anna

ASSOCIATION

An association is a group of people organized for a particular purpose or a limited

number of purposes. To constitute an association there must be: firstly, a group of
people; secondly, these people must be organized one, i.e., there must be certain
rules for their conduct in the groups; and thirdly they must have a common
purpose of a specific nature to pursue.

Examples:-Family, Church, Trade union, Music club all are the instances of
association.

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Definitions of “Association”

According to MacIver, “An organization deliberately formed for the collective

pursuit of some interest or set of interest, which the members of it share, is termed
as association.

Ginsberg writes, “An association is a group of social beings related to one another
by the fact that, they posses or have instituted in common an organization with a
view to securing specific end or specific ends.”

Types of Association

Associations may be formed on several basis:

1) On the basis of duration, i.e. temporary or permanent like Flood Relief

Association which is temporary and State which is permanent; or

2) On the basis of power, i.e. sovereign like state, semi-sovereign like university
and non-sovereign like club, or

3) On the basis of function, i.e. biological like family, vocational like Trade
Union or Teachers’ Association, recreational like Tennis Club or Music Club,
Philanthropic like charitable societies.

Characteristics or Essential Elements of an Association

1) Human group

2) Common interest or aim

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3) Cooperative spirit

4) Organization

5) Established

6) Laws

COMMUNITY

The word community has been derived from two words of Latin namely ‘com’
and ‘munis’. In English ‘com’ means together and ‘munis’ means to serve. Thus,
community means to serve together. It means, the community is an organization of
human beings framed for the purpose of serving together. Community is a people
living within a geographical area in common inter-dependence. It exists within the
society. It is bound by the territorial units. It is a specific group while society is
abstract. “Community living is natural to man.

Definition of community

Maclver defines community as “an area of social living, marked by some degree
of social coherence.

Bogardus defines community “it is a social group with some degree of “we
feeling” and “living in a given area.

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Characteristics or Essential Elements of Community

1) Locality

2) Community Sentiment

3) Permanence

4) Likeness or similarity in language, custom, mores, traditions etc.

5) A Particular Name i.e., based on the linguistic condition people living in Orissa
are called Oriyas; living in Kashmiri culture are called Kashmiris.

6) Common Life

7) Common Interests

Types of communities

1) Folk community

2) Tribal community

3) Rural community

4) Urban community

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SOCIAL GROUPS

Definition and characteristics of group

Harry M. Johnson says that ‘A social group is a system of social interaction’

Marshal Jones is of the opinion that a social as ‘any collection of human beings
who are brought into human relationships with one another’

Characteristics of social groups

1) Number of individuals

2) A unity feeling

3) Reciprocal relations

4) We-feeling

5) Common interest

6) Similar behavior

7) Control of groups

8) Recognition

9) Influence of group

Classification of social groups

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1) Primary and secondary group

I.e. family and political party

2) In-group and Out- group

3) Formal and Informal groups

4) Horizontal and vertical groups

5) Voluntary and Involuntary groups

6) Public and private group

7) Sanctioned and Unsanctioned groups

8) Territorial and Non-territorial groups.

Unit-II

SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS
A social institution is a complex, integrated set of social norms organized around
the preservation of a basic societal value. Obviously, the sociologist does not
define institutions in the same way as does the person on the street. Lay persons
are likely to use the term "institution" very loosely, for churches, hospitals, jails,
and many other things as institutions.

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 Marriage, Family, Kinship

 Economic institutions
 Political institutions
 Religious institutions
 Educational institutions

MARRIAGE

Definitions of marriage

According to Horton and Hunt, “Marriage is the approved social pattern

whereby two or more persons establish a family.”

According to Hoebel, “The complexes of social norms that define and Control the
relations of a mated pair to each other their kinsmen, their offspring and their
society at large.”

Characteristics of marriage
Marriage may have the following characteristics:
(1) Marriage is a universal social institution.
(2) Marriage is a permanent bond between husband and wife. It is designed to
fulfill the social, psychological, biological and religious aims.
(3) Marriage is a specific relationship between two individuals of opposite sex and
based on mutual rights and obligations.

(4) Marriage requires social approval. The relationship between men and women
must have social approval.

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Without which marriage is not valid.

(5) Marriage establishes family.

(6) Marriage creates mutual obligations between husband and wife.

(7) Marriage regulates sex relationship according to prescribed customs and laws.

(8) Marriage has certain symbols like ring, vermillion, special cloths, and special
sign before the house etc.

Types of marriage

(A) On the basis of number of mates

1) Monogamy,
It means one husband and one wife.
2) Polygamy
It means a man marries more than one wife at a time.
3) Polyandry
It means a woman marries several men at a time.
(B) On the basis of choice of mate or on the basis of rules of mate
selection
1) Endogamy or Group Marriage
2) Exogamy or Exogamous marriage

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FAMILY
Definitions of family

Burgess and Lock the family is a group of persons united by ties of marriage,
blood or adoption constituting a single household interacting with each other in
their respective social role of husband and wife, mother and father, brother and
sister creating a common culture.
G.P Murdock defines the family as a social group characterized by common
residence, economic cooperation and reproduction. It includes adults of both sexes
at least two of whom maintain a socially approved sexual relationship and one or
more children own or adopted of the sexually co-habiting adults.

Main characteristics of family

1) Universality
2) Emotional basis
3) Limited size
4) Formative influence
5) Responsibility of the members
6) Social regulation

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Types of family

1. Types of family on the basis of marriage

 Polygamous or polygamous family
 Polyandrous family
 Monogamous family
2. Types of family on the basis of the nature of residence
 Family of matrilocal residence
 Family of patrilocal residence
 Family of changing residence
3. Types of family on the basis of ancestry or descent family
 Matrilineal family
 Patrilineal family
4. Types of family on the basis of size or structure
 Nuclear or the single unit family
 Joint family
 Extended family

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KINSHIP

Kinship is the relation by the bond of blood, marriage and includes kindered ones. It
represents one of the basic social institutions. Kinship is universal and in most
societies plays a significant role in the socialization of individuals and the
maintenance of group solidarity.
It is very important in primitive societies and extends its influence on almost all
their activities.

A.R Radcliffe Brown defines kinship as a system of dynamic relations between

person and person in a community, the behavior of any two persons in any of these
relations being regulated in some way and to a greater or less extent by social
usage.

Types of kinship
 Consanguineous kinship
Relation by the bond of blood is called consanguineous kinship such as parents and
their children and between children of same parents. Thus son, daughter, brother,
sister, paternal uncle etc are consanguineous kin. Each of these is related through
blood.

 Affinal kinship
Kinship due to marriage is affinal kinship. New relations are created when
marriage takes place. Not only man establishes relationship with the girl and the

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members of her but also family members of both the man and the woman get
bound among themselves.

Degree of kinship

Primary kinship

Every individual who belong to a nuclear family finds his primary kinship within
the family. There are 8 primary kins- husband-wife, father-son, mother-son, father-
daughter, mother-daughter, younger brother-elder brother, younger sister-elder
sister and brother-sister.

Secondary kinship

Outside the nuclear family the individual can have 33 types of secondary relatives.
For example: mother's brother, brother's wife, sister's husband, father's brother.

Tertiary kinship

Tertiary kins refer to the secondary kins of our primary kins .For example wife's
brother's son, sister's husband's brother and so on. There are 151 types of tertiary
kins.

Kinship Usages

1) Avoidance
2) Teknonymy
3) Avunculate
4) Amitate
5) Couvade
6) Joking relationship
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POLITICAL INSTITUTION

Every society has an order to which people adhere and this system ensures
obedience or conformity to the social order. Political institution is the social
institution that distributes power, sets a society’s agenda and makes decisions. In
traditional societies tribal chiefs, elders and shamans exercised control. In large
and complex societies political authority has to be organized and structured.

State and government

The state is a form of political entity by which a society is organized under an
agency of government which claims legitimate sovereignty over specified
geographical area and has the monopoly of physical force.
The features of state are:
a) It is organized under a government that exercises authority over its subjects with
the legitimate monopoly of physical force, to imprison and even executes members
within its jurisdiction.
b) The state exercises its political authority through governments at the national,
state and local levels.
A government is an agency of the state, a complex legal system that has the
power and authority to carry out the functions of the state. It is a formal
organization that directs the political life of a society. In modern democracies,
governments formed by political parties in power formulate policies, initiate laws,
and launch programmes. The government consists of the legislature, executive and
judiciary. The legislature is responsible for enacting laws that govern the behavior
of all individuals and institutions. The executive formulates policies and
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programmes and administers the country in accordance with the laws. The
judiciary interprets the laws and safeguards the rights of all citizens.
Functions of the state
1) Social control
2) Defense
3) Welfare
Types of state
1) Autocracy
2) Totalitarianism
3) Democracy

ECONOMIC INSTITUTIONS

The economy is the social institution that organizes a society’s production,

distribution and consumption of goods and services. Economic activity deals with
goods and services needed for the satisfaction of human wants. It involves land,
capital, labor and entrepreneurship. From the time of Karl Marx, Max Weber and
Emile Durkheim and other sociologists of 19th and early 20th centuries have had a
long and deep interest in economic institutions, especially as these relate to non-
economic aspects of social life such as the family, education and the state.

The term ‘economic institutions’ is usually used for socially sanctioned such
concepts and structures which men have developed in the process of satisfying
their material needs. Economic institutions provide basic physical subsistence for
society and meet needs for food, shelter, clothing and other necessities of life.

These institutions include production agriculture and industry and the distribution,
exchange and consumption of commodities, goods and services necessary for

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human survival. Secondary economic institutions are credit and banking system,
advertising, co-operatives, etc.

Capitalism

It is an economic system that is based on private ownership of the means of

production and distribution in which individuals are free to accumulate and invest
capital. The state only plays a minor 93 role in the marketplace, mainly controlling
monopoly and exploitation.

Socialism

It is an economic system in which the state has collective ownership of the means
of production and distribution. In socialism the natural resources and the means of
producing goods and services are collectively owned.

RELIGIOUS INSTITUTIONS

Religion is one of the important social institutions. Religion is based on the system
of belief in the existence of supernatural beings. Religion can be viewed from
individual and societal points of view both. The functions of social cohesion and
social control are oriented towards the larger society while providing emotional
and social support and other psychological explanations are more oriented towards
the individual.

Although religion, like all other institutions, has changed, it continues to be a

potent force, rather with more vigor in our lives throughout the modern neo-liberal
risky world. The assertion that ‘God is dead’ is not true for a large part of world’s
population.

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Despite the incredible growth in the importance of science and empiricism since
19th century, which has caused many people to regard religion as a superstition, an
irrational belief and religiously and spirituality among people is increasing in some
or the other way. At many times, religion persists in the face of scientific evidence.

Even, the men who call themselves as scientists are not fully devoid of religious
beliefs and they take part in many religious rituals in the home as well as at
workplace. We often hear a doctor saying that he or she will do his/her best to save
the life of the patient but it is ultimately He (God) who saves. This proves that
religion has always been present and has also been a prominent institution.

Major Religions

1) Christianity: The most widespread world religion, Christianity derived from

Judaism. It is based on the belief that Jesus Christ was the son of God and the
redeemer of mankind. There are many different Christian denominations.
2) Islam: Followers of Islam are called Muslims. Muslims believe that the true word
of God was revealed to the prophet Muhammad around 570 A.D. God in Islam is
the same god as the Christian and Judaic deity.
3) Judaism: Judaism is a monotheistic religion that predates Christianity, built on the
belief that they are the “chosen people” of God.
4) Hinduism: Hinduism is the oldest major world religion, dominant in India. Hindus
do not worship a single person or deity but rather are guided by a set of ancient
cultural beliefs. They believe in the principle of karma, which is the wisdom or
health of one’s eternal soul. Karma can be strengthened with good acts and harmed
by bad acts. Hindus believe that karma plays a role in reincarnation, a cycle of

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continuous rebirth through which, ideally, the soul can achieve spiritual perfection.
The state of a person’s karma determines in what form he or she will be reborn.
5) Buddhism: Buddhists, most of whom live in Japan, Thailand, Cambodia, and
Burma, follow the teachings of Siddhartha Gautama, a spiritual teacher of the sixth
century B.C. Buddhism, like Hinduism, does not feature any single all-powerful
deity but teaches that by eschewing materialism, one can transcend the “illusion”
of life and achieve enlightenment.

EDUCATIONAL INSTITUTION
Education plays a large part in the socialization of children into society. The school
format is designed to teach children to be productive members of society. Every
society has to prepare its young people for a place in adult life and teach them
societal values through a process called education. Education in the largest sense is
any act or experience that has a formative effect on the mind, character or physical
ability of an individual. In its technical sense, education is the process by which
society deliberately transmits its accumulated knowledge, skills and values from one
generation to another. Etymologically, the word education is derived from educare
(Latin) "bring up", which is related toeducere "bring out", "bring forth what
is within", "bring out potential" and ducere, "to lead".
Aims of Education
1) Education aims to develop the personality of individuals.
2) Education integrates individuals with society.
3) Education maintains society.
4) Education perpetuates culture.
5) Education increase efficiency of individual.

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Function of Education

Education is an important agent of socialization and encourages social integration,

especially in countries with diverse populations, such as the United States.
Through their schools, students from a variety of cultural backgrounds come into
contact with mainstream culture.

Kinds of education
1) Formal
2) Informal

Thus, Education is one of the most important social institutions without which, all
the other institutions would be rendered obsolete. Apart from enlightening the
masses, education plays a vital role in the existence of peace and stability in the
society and promotes harmony between interrelating beings. It also promotes
sound economic processes and political dispensations meaning that without
education, society would be in a state of absolute chaos. This means that the
betterment of the society depends on the quality of the education that members of
that society get.

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Unit –III

SOCIAL AND LEGAL SYSTEM

SOCIAL SYSTEM

The term ‘system’ implies an orderly arrangement, an interrelationship of parts. In

the arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts
are bound by interaction. Society may be viewed as a system of interrelated
mutually dependent parts which cooperate to preserve a recognizable whole and to
satisfy some purposes or goal. Social system may be described as an arrangement
of social interactions based on shared norms and values. Individuals constitute it
and each has place and function to perform within it.

Meaning of Social System

It is Talcott Parsons who has given the concept of ‘system’ in modern sociology.
Social system refers to’ an orderly arrangement, an inter relationships of parts. In
the arrangement, every part has a fixed place and definite role to play. The parts
are bound by interaction. System signifies, thus, patterned relationship among
constituent parts of a structure which is based on functional relations and which
makes these parts active and binds them into reality.

Characteristics of Social System

1. System is connected with the plurality of Individual actors

2. Aim and Object

3. Order and Pattern amongst various Constituent Units

4. Functional Relationship is the Basis of Unity

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5. Physical or Environmental Aspect of Social System

6. Linked with Cultural System

7. Expressed and implied Aims and Objects

8. Characteristics of Adjustment

9. Order, Pattern and Balance

Elements of Social System

1. Faiths and Knowledge
2. Sentiment
3. End Goal or object
4. Ideals and Norms
5. Status-Role
6. Power
7. Sanction

Functions of Social System

Social system is a functional arrangement. It would not exist if it were not so. Its
functional character ensures social stability and continuity.

1. Adaptation,

2. Goal attainment,

3. Integration,

4. Latent Pattern-Maintenance.

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LAW AS A SUBSYSTEM OF SOCIETY

Definitions of law
MacIver and page “Law is the body of rules which are recognized interpreted and
applied to a particular situation by courts of the state.”

Ihering defines Law as the form of the guarantee of conditions of life of society,
assured by state’s power of constrain. Law means justice, morality, reason, order,
righteousness, etc. from the point of view of society.

Functions (or objectives) and purpose of law

1. Law is to control natural tendencies and certain human instinct.

2. Law ensures co-operation.

3. Law acts as a social rule.

4. Law acts as an instrument of state.

5. Law is to reduce the disharmony in society.

6. Achievement of justice, stability and peaceful change.

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SOCIAL STRUCTURE

Definitions of social structure

According to Talcott Parsons, “Social structure is a term applied to the particular

arrangement of the interrelated institutions, agencies and social patterns as well as
the statuses and roles which each person assumes in the group.”

Harry M. Johnson writes, “The structure of anything consists of the relatively

stable inter-relationships among its parts; moreover, the term ‘part’ itself implies a
certain degree of Stability. Since a social system is composed of the inter-related
acts of people, its structure must be sought in some degree of regularity or
recurrence in these acts.”

According to Ginsberg, “The study of social structure is concerned with the

principal forms of social organization, i.e. types of groups, associations and
institutions and the complex of these which constitute societies……. A full
account of social structure would involve a review of the whole field of
comparative institutions.”

Elements of Social Structure

In a social structure the human beings organize themselves into associations for the
pursuit of some object or objects. The aim can be fulfilled only if the social
structure is based upon certain principles.

1. Normative System

Normative system presents the society with the ideals and values. The people
attach emotional importance to these norms. The institutions and associations are
inter-related according to these norms. The individuals perform their roles in
accordance with the accepted norms of society.

2. Position System

Position system refers to the statuses and roles of the individuals. The desires,
aspirations and expectations of the individuals are varied, multiple and unlimited.
So these can be fulfilled only if the members of society are assigned different roles
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according to their capacities and capabilities. Actually the proper functioning of

social structure depends upon proper assignment of roles and statuses.

3. Sanction System

For the proper enforcement of norms, every society has a sanction system. The
integration and coordination of the different parts of social structure depend upon
conformity to social norms. The non-conformists are punished by the society
according to the nature of non-conformity.

It, however, does not mean that there are no non-conformists in a well organized
society. Non-conformity is also an essential feature of society; otherwise there
would be no progress. But the number of non-conformists is smaller than the
number of conformists. The stability of a social structure depends upon the
effectiveness of its sanction system.

4. A System of Anticipated Response

The anticipated response system calls upon the individuals to participate in the
social system. ‘His preparation sets the social structure in motion. The successful
working of social structure depends upon the realization of his duties by the
individual and his efforts to fulfill these duties.

5. Action System
It is the object or goal to be arrived at by the social structure. The whole structure
revolves around it. The Action is the root cause which weaves the web of social
relationships and sets the social structure in motion.

It may be emphasized that social structure is an abstract entity. It cannot be seen.

Its parts are dynamic and constantly changing. They are spatially widespread and,
therefore, difficult to see as wholes. Any scientific understanding of social
structure would require structural-functional approach.

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SOCIAL FUNCTIONS

In every society individuals have certain specified functions to be fulfilled.

Functions may be divided as (i) social functions and dysfunctions; and (ii) manifest
and latent functions.

Functional problems of social system

1. Pattern maintenance and tension management

2. Adaptation
3. Goal attainment
4. Integration

Unit –IV
MAJOR SOCIAL INSTITUTIONS OF INDIAN SOCIETY

CASTE

Caste is closely connected with the Hindu philosophy and religion, custom and
tradition .It is believed to have had a divine origin and sanction. It is deeply rooted
social institution in India. There are more than 2800 castes and sub-castes with all
their peculiarities.

The term “Caste” is derived from the Spanish word “Casta” meaning breed or
lineage. The word caste also signifies race or kind. The Sanskrit word for caste is
varna which means color.

The caste stratification of the Indian society had its origin in the chaturvarna
system.

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According to this doctrine the Hindu society was divided into four main Varna’s

 Brahmins,
 Kashtriyas,
 Vaishyas,
 Shudras.

The Varna system prevalent during the Vedic period was mainly based on division
of labor and occupation. The caste system owns its origin to the Varna system.

Definitions of caste
According to Risely caste is a collection of families bearing a common name
claiming a common descent from a mythical ancestor professing to follow the
same hereditary calling and regarded by those who are competent to give an
opinion as forming a single homogeneous community.

According to MacIver and Page when status is wholly predetermined so that men
are born to their lot without any hope of changing it, then the class takes the
extreme form of caste.

Cooley says that when a class is somewhat strictly hereditary we may call it caste.

M.N Srinivas sees caste as a segmentary system. Every caste for him divided into
sub castes which are the units of endogamy whose members follow a common
occupation, social and ritual life and common culture and whose members are
governed by the same authoritative body i.e., the panchayat.

The major attributes of caste are the hierarchy, the separation and the division of
labor.

Features or characteristics of caste system

1. Caste is innate and by birth.

2. Caste is rigid and immovable.
3. Caste is hierarchical social structure.

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4. Caste is endogamous.
5. Occupations of caste are fixed.
6. There are restricted laws concerning food and drinks.
7. There are separate rituals, privileges, and disabilities to different caste.
8. Every caste creates its panchayat to resolve the disputes, crimes, and evils.

Merits or benefits of caste system

1. Caste system provides every individual with a fixed social environment.

2. Caste system creates the spirit of cooperation and fellow feeling among its
members.
3. Preserves the racial purity
4. It defines the economic pursuits of the individuals.

Demerits or disadvantages of caste system

1. Caste system leads to untouchability.

2. The rigid caste system leads to social immobility and occupational mobility.
3. Caste system retarded the growth of solidarity and brotherhood.
4. Caste system often results in putting a person in a wrong occupation.
5. The caste system is always an obstacle to national unity.
6. It is undemocratic because it does not give equal rights and opportunities to
all people.
7. Great obstacle in social and economic progress of nation.

Factors for the Development of Caste & of theories regarding the origin of
Caste system

1. Traditional Theory – Vedas, mainly Rig Veda, Maha Bharat, Geeta,

Upanishad, Manu Smuriti. It says caste syst. Originated from the of body
Bramha i.e. from the month came Brahmin, Keshahiya, arms, Vaishyas –
thighs & Shudras from feet. And the place was given to the hierarchy of
organs in the body. Varma, status & position is fixed according to this.
Therefore 1st come Brahmins then Kshatriyas then Vaishayas & last Sudras.
The month for preaching, learn, ceremonial performation, the arms –

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protections, thighs – to cultivate or business feet – helps the whole body

therefore the duty of the Sundras is to serve all the others. Manu – Caste
system has developed due to Auolay & pratilog.
2. Religious theory-given by Hocart'. Caste system originated due to religious
factor a due to performance of various religious rites. In India religion plays
an imp. Place. Everything is based on this religion. He gave – pure work i.e.
to perform religious work. Those who do Yagya they are Brahmins, the ones
who gather flower – messages – impure work – those who sacrificed the low
caste (Dasas).
3. Political theory – Abbe Dubois, - Caste system originated due to the
supremacy of Brahmins – the Brahmanism, theory. To maintain their
superiority diff. castes & sub-castes came into being Ghuray – 'Caste is the
Brahmin child of the Indo-Arjun culture, cradled in the Ganges & Yamuna &
then transferred in other parts of the country'.
4. Occupational Theory-by Nesfield. Caste system is based on occup. The
hierarchy is according to occupation. The higher the occupation the higher
the position & status in societies. If the according is considered good in a
place that caste is high but it may necessarily be higher in another place. In
general C.S. originated from the Varmas & then in marriage but these varmas
of Anolog & Pralilog & sub-caste was formed.

TRIBE

Definitions of tribe

According to Oxford Dictionary "A tribe is a group of people in a primitive or

barbarous stage of development acknowledging the authority of a chief and usually
regarding themselves as having a common ancestor.

D.N Majumdar defines tribe as a social group with territorial affiliation,

endogamous with no specialization of functions ruled by tribal officers hereditary

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or otherwise, united in language or dialect recognizing social distance with other

tribes or castes.

According to Ralph Linton tribe is a group of bands occupying a contiguous

territory or territories and having a feeling of unity deriving from numerous
similarities in a culture, frequent contacts and a certain community of interests.

L.M Lewis believes that tribal societies are small in scale are restricted in the
spatial and temporal range of their social, legal and political relations and possess a
morality, a religion and world view of corresponding dimensions.

Characteristics or distinctive features of tribes

1. Common habitation or common geographical areas.
2. Each tribe has a distinct name of its own.
3. Members have definite sense of unity.
4. Members have common dialect.
5. Religion in tribes plays an important role and most tribes are nature and totem
worshippers.
6. Tribes have their leaders who are very powerful.
7. They are largely meat eaters.
8. All tribes believe in magic.
9. Taboo is used to designate all the restrictions.
10.Extradition is considered as a punishment.

Different types of tribes

1. On the basis of language- The Austro, the Dravidian, the Tibeto-Chinese.

2. On the basis of territory- Naga tribes, aka, Santhals, Todas, Jarava.
3. On the basis of occupation- who collects forest products, who are in
pastoral stage, who practice agriculture, hunting, fishing, etc.
4. On the basis of physical features- Mongoloid group (with dry hair, flat
nose, long head), Proto-Australoid group (medium stature, flat nose, Everted
lips), Negrito group (with frizzy hair).

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VILLAGE PANCHAYAT

Concept of village panchayat

It is the oldest system of local government in the Indian subcontinent. The word
“panchayat” literally means “assembly” (ayat) of five (panch) wise and respected
elders chosen and accepted by the local community.

Traditionally, these assemblies settled disputes between individuals and villages.

British established local self-government in 1869 when they made a District Local
Fund in Bombay. This was a nominated body. In 1882; Lord Ripon established
local self- government in India with the seating up of district local boards. District
boards and councils were established in Maratheada and vidarbh.

The next important piece of legislation was the Bombay village panchyat Act
1920. Under this Act, the Panchayats was constituted into an elected body.
Members were elected by adult male villagers and the Panchayat was entrusted
with local functions, mainly of a civil nature. Panchayat were empowered to
collect compulsory house taxes. The Bombay Village Panchayat Act 1920
empowered village Panchayats to take up various activities, including some social-
economic functions, and gave the power to heavy taxes and duties in order to
increase their income.

After the reorganization of states in 1956, laws to introduce the Panchayat system
in different stator were gradually enacted.

This process was almost complete in Andhra Pradesh, Assam, Madhya Pradesh,
Madras, Mysore, Orissa, Punjab, Rajasthan, Utter Pradesh and Bombay. The
Bombay Village Panchayats Act was enacted in Producers for seeking legal redress
through judicial courts are both long and enormously complicated, and also

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involve considerable expenses. It is because of this that several different and newer
ways of setting disputes both quickly and inexpensively have come up.

One such method is the Lok Adalat 1958.Under the Act, a district village for the
supervision and control of village Panchayats.

These Mandals were, however, abolished in 1962. Apart from this enactment in
various states, a direction is contained in the Constitution of India in Article
40 which says that “The State shall take steps to organize village Panchyats and
endow them with such powers and authority as may be necessary to enable them to
function as units of self-government.

Under the new enactment, a Gram Sabha of adult residents in the village was
constituted, and it was made obligatory on the Panchayats to hold meetings of the
Gram Sabha within two months from the commencement of every financial year
and to prepare an annual statement of accounts to be placed before such a meeting.

The administrative report, the proposed development programmes, adult report,

compliance of adult objections and other such matters were also required to be
placed before this meeting. Group Nyaya Panchyats were established, but later
they were abolished.

Obligatory duties of the Panchayats were mainly of a civil nature that is, making
provisions for sanitation, street lights and drinking water. The discretionary
functions covered the fields of agriculture, cooperation, animal husbandry, self-
defense and other such administrative and development works.

Village Panchayats are controlled and supervised by Zilla Parishads, Panchayat

Samitis and their officers. The state government also has direct control over
Panchayats through the Collector of the district. District Village Panchayat officers
work under ZillaParishads to supervise and control the village Panchayats, and are
appointed by the state governments. There is however, no proper machinery for the
public to air their grievances and control malpractice in ZillaParishads. Vested
interests in the government have always been found to be sheltering corrupt
elements in the system and they are now well entrenched. Government control over
this institution has seldom proved to be effective and the poor masses at the
grassroots level are yet to get benefit from the existing system of Panchyati Raj. In

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view of these shortcomings, part IX, consisting of Article 243 to 243 was inserted
by the Constitution (73 rd Amendment) Act, 1992.

Recommendations of Balwant Rai Mehta Committee

The Balwant Rai Mehta Committee was a committee appointed by the Government
of India in January 1957 to examine the working of the Community Development
Programme (1952) and the National Extension Service (1953) and to suggest
measures for their better working. The recommendations of the committee were
approved by NDC in January 1958 and this set the stage for the launching of
Panchayati Raj Institutions throughout the country. The committee recommended
the establishment of the scheme of ‘democratic decentralization’ which finally
came to be known as Panchayati Raj.

Establishment of a 3-tier Panchayati Raj system – Gram Panchayat at the

village level, PanchayatSamiti at the block level, and ZilaParishad at the district
level. This system was adopted by state governments during the 1950s and 60s, as
laws were passed to establish panchayats in various states. It also found backing in
the Indian Constitution, with the 73rd amendment in 1992 to accommodate the
idea. The Amendment Act of 1992 contains provision for devolution of powers and
responsibilities to the panchayats both for the preparation of economic
development plans and social justice, as well as for implementation in relation to
29 subjects listed in the eleventh schedule of the constitution.

The panchayats receive funds from three sources:

1. Local body grants, as recommended by the Central Finance Commission

2. Funds for implementation of centrally sponsored schemes
3. Funds released by the state governments on the recommendations of the State
Finance Commissions.

The BalwantRai Mehta Committee was a committee appointed by the Government

of India in January 1957 to examine the working of the Community Development
Programme (1952).

The recommendations of Balwantrai Mehta Committee were implemented by

many states in the country. Till the mid sixties, Panchayati Raj system flourished in

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India. But there was decline in Panchayati Raj Institutions after the mid sixties
mainly because of centralized tendencies of functioning all over the country.

The elections were not held regularly and the participation of people weakened in
these bodies. Inefficiency, corruption, favoritism, uncertainty and irregularity led
to their decline. Most of the development programmes were kept out of
their preview.

Centrally sponsored schemes were initiated; parallel administrative bodies were

created and government reduced funds considerably. During the period of national
emergency, bureaucracy got the upper hand and these institutions lost their
significance. The village panchayats were made subordinate units of government to
implement its programmes.

Ashok Mehta Committee (1977)

In this backdrop in 1977, the Janata government appointed a Committee with

Ashok Mehta as chairman and was entrusted with the task of enquiring into the
causes responsible for the poor performance of Panchayati Raj Institutions. It was
also asked to suggest measures to strengthen Panchayati Raj Institutions.
The committee suggested two tire system of Panchayati Raj consisting of
ZillaParishads at the district level and Mandal Panchayat sat the grass root level as
against three tier system suggested by the Balwantrai Mehta Committee. The
committee recommended constitutional protection to the Panchayati Raj
Institutions and further decentralization of power at all levels.

The Ashok Mehta Committee Suggested

1. Reservation of seats for the weaker sections.
2. Two seats for women.
3. Adequate financial resources for the panchayats.
4. Requirement of Constitutional sanctions.
5. To extend people’s participation in developmental activities.

Functions of village Panchayat

1. Constructing public roads

2. Arrangement for water

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3. Medical treatment and health

4. Education
5. Statistics
6. Progress of agriculture and cottage industries
7. Sanitation and security
8. Administration
9. Control of buildings
10.Other activities

TRADITIONAL

Culture consists of the beliefs, behaviors, objects, and other characteristics

common to the members of a particular group or society. Through culture, people
and groups define themselves, conform to society's shared values, and contribute to
society. Thus, culture includes many societal aspects: language, customs, values,
norms, mores, rules, tools, technologies, products, organizations, and institutions.
This latter term institution refers to clusters of rules and cultural meanings
associated with specific social activities. Common institutions are the family,
education, religion, work, and health care.

Characteristics of culture

1. Culture is a acquired quality

2. Culture is communicative
3. Culture is social, not individual
4. Culture has the characteristics of adaptation

Social Norms-In general parlance, the term ‘norm’ refers to that which is most
common, or that which is ‘normal’. For sociologists, norm means any shared
standard of behavior which in turn entails certain expectations of behavior in a

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given situation. As such, that which is normal (most common) is not necessarily
normative (a shared expectation).

According to Oxford Dictionary of Sociology (1994), “a norm is a shared

expectation of behavior that connotes what is considered culturally desirable and
appropriate”.

M. Haralambos (2000) defines it as “a norm is a specific guide to action

acceptable and appropriate behavior in particular situation”.

In simple terms, norms are guidelines which direct our conduct in particular
situation. They are similar to rules and regulations in being prescriptive, although
they lack the formal status of rules. These rules or social expectations (norms)
specify how people should and should not behave in various situations.

-Folkways and mores-Societal norms, or rules that are enforced by members of

a community, can exist as both formal and informal rules of behavior. Informal
norms can be divided into two distinct groups: folkways and mores. Folkways are
informal rules and norms that, while not offensive to violate, are expected to be
followed. Mores (pronounced more-rays) are also informal rules that are not
written, but, when violated; result in severe punishments and social sanction upon
the individuals, such as social and religious exclusions.

The concept of folkways is associated with the name of William Sumner who
made one of the clarifying analyses of culture and its implications. In his
sociological classic folkways he has made a notable contribution to the
understanding of individual behavior. Sumner conceived of culture in terms of
folkways and mores and used the terms folkways in a very comprehensive sense.
According to him They are like products of natural forces which men
unconsciously set in operation or they are like the instinctive ways of animals
which are developed out of experience which reach a final form of maximum
adaptation to an interest which are handed down by tradition and admit of no
exception or variation yet change to meet new conditions still within the same
limited methods and without rational reflection or purpose.

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Folkways are recognized ways of behavior in a society which arise automatically

within a group to meet the problems of social living. Social life is full of problems
and man seems to have tried every possible way of dealing with such problems.

According to Lundberg, folkways designate those uniformities in the behavior of

a group which develop relatively spontaneously and even unconsciously in
adapting to common life conditions and which become established through
repetition and general occurrence. Thus they are those unconscious collective
modes of behavior that are believed to ensure the survival and growth of the group.
They include the innumerable ways of behavior men have evolved about the
business of social living. They are the customs and usages which have been passed
from old generations and to which new elements are added according to the
changing needs of times. They represent man's unique means of adapting himself
to his environment. No member of the group ever questions a folkway nor is
anyone needed to enforce a folkway.

Customs -Every society has some definite but relax able laws and rules for
etiquette and general social intercourse. These modes of conduct that win the
approval of society and receive its sanction are customs.

Traditions- Traditions forms an important part of man’s social heritage. Tradition

is inclusive of all those social laws are handed down from one generation to
another. Traditions keep alive the knowledge and beliefs of the group. It is the sum
of all the ideas, habits, customs that belongs to a people and are transmitted from
one generation to another.

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Unit-5

SOCIAL STRATIFICATION

SOCIAL STATUS AND ROLE

Definitions of status

According to Lundberg, it is the, “comparative amount of prestige, deference or

respect accorded to persons who has been assigned different roles in group or
community.”

According to Davis, “status is a position in the general institutional system,

recognized and supported by the entire society spontaneously evolved rather than
deliberately created, rooted in the folkways and mores.”

According to H.T. Mazumdar, “status means the location of the individual

within the group — his place in the social network of reciprocal obligation and
privileges, rights and duties.”

Meaning of status

Recognitions of the position of an individual in the social system and the authority
he holds in consequence are the basis of status system. Status is position that one
holds in a given system. It means the location of the individual within the group –

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his place in the social network of reciprocal obligations and privileges, duties and
rights.

Thus, every position (father, mother, teacher, and employer) defines a different
status. It is by status differentiation that social positions are defined and
distinguished from one another by assigning to each a set of rights and
responsibilities.

Essential Elements and Characteristics of Status

As the definitions have pointed out the term status has physical as well as a
psychological situation. This situation forms certain element and characteristics.

These element and characteristics of status may be enumerated as below:

1. The status is determined by the cultural situation of the particular society,

2. The status is determined only in relevance of the other members of the society,

3. Every individual has to play certain role in accordance with the status,

4. Status is only a part of the society as a whole,

5. As a result of status the society is divided into various groups,

6. Every status carries with it some prestige,

7. According to status people may be divided into various categories.

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Types of status

1. Ascribed status
The status which is given to an individual on the basis of the situation in the
society or by other members of the society is called ascribed status. Such a
status may be given by birth or by placement in a social group. For example, a
person may enjoy a particular status because of the sex or age of birth in a rich
family. An infant gets a family status which includes family name and prestige,
share in social standing and the right of heritage.

2. Achieved status
The status or the position that a person has earned out of his own personal
efforts is called achieved status. This status is given by the ability, capacity and
the efforts of the individuals. Some persons achieve a particular status because
if the facilities available to them but some have to achieve that status as against
the odds and difficulties.

Definitions of role

Linton, “The term role is used to designate the sum total of the cultural pattern
associated with a particular status. It thus includes attitude, values and behavior
ascribed by the society to any and all person occupying this status…. In so far as it
represents overt behaviour and a role has the dynamic aspect of the status: what is
the individual has to do in order to validate the occupation of the status.”

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Ogburn and Nimkoff say, “A set of socially expected and approved behavior
patterns, consisting of both duties and privileges associated with a particular
position in a group.” Role is “the behavioral enacting of the patterned expectations
attributed to that position,” In role performance, the emphasis is on quality. One’s
role as a father implies a more specific and particular manner of performance.

Meaning of role

The position or the situation that a person occupies in society is called status. As a
result of that status and position he is expected to discharge certain functions.
These functions are known as roles. In life, we have a great variety of roles –
father, mother, businessman, shop assistant, consumer, bus-driver, teacher, voter,
and politician and so on. These roles are an integral part of group behavior.

Role Conflict

Role conflict is the psychological stress created when persons do not filter roles
(personal role-conflict), when relevant others disagree with the individual about his
or her role (intra role-conflict), or when several different roles make mutually
exclusive demands on an individual (intra role conflict).

Role Conflict is a social-psychological concept used to investigate and explain

individual’s experiences of competing or conflicting demands.

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Status-Role Inter-Relation

Status-role coordination is the woof and Warf arrangement of a social group. The
status-role of an individual depends on the position, he holds in the group and in
consequence of which he is expected to exercise his authority to fulfill his
obligations. The status role is the basis-of social order.

A social group cannot function if this arrangement is not in due and related order.
This coordination harmonizes the social relations. It is an arrangement of
convenience, sanctified by tradition or underwritten by the law of the land. It is
historical in character as in all age’s men and women inherited or acquired status-
role position, it is universal as the system exists in all societies.

SOCIALIZATION

Definitions of socialization

According to Lundberg, socialization consists of the “complex processes of

interaction through which the individual learns the habits, skills, beliefs and
standard of judgment that are necessary for his effective participation in social
groups and communities”.

Peter Worsley explains socialization “as the process of “transmission of culture,

the process whereby men learn the rules and practices of social groups”.

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H.M. Johnson defines socialisation as “learning that enables the learner to

perform social roles”. He further says that it is a “process by which individuals
acquire the already existing culture of groups they come into”.

Kinsley Davis.” is the emergence and gradual development of the self or ego. It is
in terms of the self that personality takes shape and the mind comes to function”. It
is the process by which the newborn individual, as he grows up, acquires the
values of the group and is molded into a social being.

Meaning of Socialization

Socialisation is a process of cultural learning whereby a new person acquires

necessary skills and education to play a regular part in a social system. The process
is essentially the same in all societies, though institutional arrangements vary. The
process continues throughout life as each new situation arises. Socialisation is the
process of fitting individuals into particular forms of group life, transforming
human organism into social being sand transmitting established cultural traditions.

The newborn is merely an organism. Socialization makes him responsive to the

society. The process indeed, is endless. The cultural pattern of his group, in the
process gets incorporated in the personality of a child. It prepares him to fit in the
group and to perform the social roles. It sets the infant on the line of social order
and enables an adult to fit into the new group. It enables the man to adjust himself
to the new social order.

Features of Socialisation

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1. Inculcates basic discipline

2. Helps to control human behaviour

3. Socialisation is rapid if there is more humanity among the- agencies of

socialisation

4. Socialisation takes place formally and informally

5. Socialisation is continuous process

Agencies of Socialisation

1. Family

2. Peer Group

3. Religion

4. Educational Institutions

5. Occupation

Phases of socialisation

1. Primary Socialisation

2. Secondary Socialisation

3. Anticipatory Socialisation

4. Developmental socialisation

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5. Re-socialisation

Factors of the phases of socialization

1. Imitation

2. Suggestion

3. Identification

4. Language

Theories of socialization

 Socialization and self

 Cooley’s theory (Theory of looking glass self)
 Theory of Durkheim (Collective representation theory)
 Mead’s theory (Self-Conscious theory)
 Freud’s psychological theory of Socialization

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SOCIAL CONTROL

Definition of Social Control

MacIver Social Control is a way in which entire social order coheres and
maintains itself how it operates itself as a whole as a changing equilibrium.

Mannheim defines social control as the sum of those methods by which a society
tries to influence human behavior to maintain a given order.

Ogburn and Nimkoff the patterns of pressure which a society exerts to maintain
order

Lapiere social control is a corrective for inadequate socialization.

G.A Lundberg has defined social control as designating those social behaviors
which influence individuals or groups towards conformity to established or desired
norms.

Kimball Young defines social control as the use of coercion, force, restraint,
suggestion or persuasion of one group over another or of a group over its members
or of persons over others to enforce the prescribed rules of the game.

Need of Social Control

Social control is necessary for an orderly social life. The society has to regulate
and pattern individual behaviour to maintain normative social order. Without social
control the organisation of the society is about to get disturbed. If the individual is

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effectively socialised, he confirms to the accepted ways from force of habit as well
as from his desire of being accepted and approved by other persons.

If he is inadequately socialised, he has a tendency to deviate from the accepted

ways, but he is forced towards conformity by the pressures of social control.

According to Kimball Young, it is necessary “to bring about conformity,

solidarity and continuity of a particular group or society”. It is possible only
through social control. Society has to make use of its mechanism to accomplish the
necessary order and discipline.

Herbert Spencer has put forwarded the view that society is a collection of group
of individuals. Man lives in society because it has a utility. Through society he is
able to preserve his identity and views. In order to preserve his identity and
characteristics, he has to exercise some control for which certain rules and
institutions are created. These agencies of social control are helpful for preserving
the identity of the individuals and society.

Various social thinkers have expressed their views in different ways about the
need of social control which is discussed as under:

1. Reestablishing the Social System

The main need of the social control is to keep the existing order intact. In other
words it is the desire of the society to make its member to live in manner in which
their forefathers have been living. Although enforcement of the old order in a
changing society may hinder social progress, yet it is necessary to maintain
continuity and uniformity in society.

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2. Regulation of Individual Social Behaviour

Social control is necessary in order to regulate the individual behaviour in

accordance with the social objectives and social values. This helps to maintain the
social order. Unless the individuals live up to the prescribed norms of conduct and
unless their self-seeking impulses are subjugated to the welfare of the whole, it
would be quite difficult to maintain social organisation effectively. Hence, social
control is necessary for the society in order to exist and progress.

3. Obedience to Social Decisions

Society takes certain decisions. These decisions are taken in order to maintain and
upheld the values of the society. Through social control attempt is made to get the
social decision obeyed.

4. To Establish Social Unity

Unity is not possible without social control. Social control regulates the behaviour
of individuals in accordance with established norms which brings uniformity of
behaviour and brings unity among the individuals.

5. To bring Solidarity

Social control is to create the feeling of solidarity in the minds of people. In the
competitive world, the weaker group may be exploited by the stronger group or
equally powerful groups may clash among themselves. This affects the harmony
and order. Some groups may develop anti-social attitudes and pose danger to the
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organisation of the society. Therefore, there is necessity for the different groups
and institutions.

6. To bring Conformity in Society

Social control is intended to bring about uniformity in the behaviour of the

individual members of the society and to bring about different types of
conformities in their societies.

7. To Provide Social Sanction

Any marked deviation from the accepted norms, is considered a threat to the
welfare of the group as a whole. Hence, sanctions are used by the group to control
the behaviour of the individuals.

8. to Check Cultural Maladjustment

Society is continuously undergoing changes. The individual has to adjust his

behaviour according to changes taking place in the society. But all the individuals
cannot adjust themselves to new situations. Some may become deviants. Thus,
social control is necessary to cheek maladjustment of individuals.

No doubt social control is needed to prevent the society from disintegration. The
need is greater in modern society because of its highly complex character and
disintegrating forces present in it, says Kimball Young. It has become the habit of
the people to violate rules and social norms. If the agencies of social control do not
act effectively society may suffer from chaos and disintegration.

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Means of social control

1. Law

2. Education

3. Religion

4. Coercion

5. Public opinion

6. Folkways and mores

7. Ceremonies and rituals

8. Norms and Values

Agencies of Social Control

There are various agencies through which social control is exercised. By ‘agencies’
of social control we mean those arrangements through which values and norms of
society are communicated. They are definite entities through which the
institutional norms can be operative in a society. They are ‘executive’ agencies
through which norms function effectively. They are the institutions for procedural
operation. The family, the school, State, and Public opinion an important agencies
of social control.

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1. Family

Family is a very important instrument agency of social control. On the one hand it
socialises an individual and on the other it trains him about social behaviour.
Family prescribes rules and regulations that the members have to follow. These
rules and regulations form a part of social control. Family teaches the child to
conform to the norms of the society. It exercises control over its members to bring
about the desired action.

2. State

The state, as the society’s overall regulative system, is the chief agency of social;
control. It exercises control over its members through legislations, the police, the
armed forces and the prisons. Really speaking, emergence of secondary group is a
gift of modern complicated social order.

In such a social order the State exercises control through rules and regulations in! a
more effective way. Law is the most important method of man-made social
control. In the words of Maclver and Page “Law means the code upheld by the
state, because of its inclusive applicability is thus guardian of society itself.

State is the agency of society that exercises its social control in the most effective
manner.

3. Educational Institutions

The educational institutions – schools are powerful agencies of social control and
these institutions are committed to the moulding of citizens. Formal education in
modern societies communicates ideas and values which play a larger part in
regulating behaviour. Education teaches to conform to the norms of the society.

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Education provides a conscious teaching programme that assists society in

socialising children so that they will absorb its values, beliefs and norms.

As Gillin and Gillin say, “The only sense, therefore, in which education can be
used as a means of social control is that in teaching people how to arrive at truth,
it trains them in the use of their intelligence and thus enlarges the scope of
control through feelings, customs and traditions”.

4. Neighbourhood

The neighborhood reinforces the individual family as an agency of social control.

In the neighbourhood group controls traditionally take the form of mores. They are
kept alive and enforced by the older members of the locality.

5. Public Opinion

Opinion of the people is the most important method of social control in a

democratic set up. Every man tries to escape from the criticism and condemnation
by the society. He therefore, tries to act according to public opinion and public
sentiments. In a democratic set up, public opinion is more effective and important
than any other agency.

6. Propaganda and Press

Propaganda is the deliberate effort to control the behaviour and relationships of

social groups through the use of methods which affect the feelings and attitudes of
the individuals who make up the group. Radio, television, press and literature not
only influence the ideas of the people but also bring about the changes in the way
of life and way of thinking.

7. Economic Organisation

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With the rise of modern industrial organisation, the increase in the size of
communities, a shift in the distribution of social control among the major
institutions has occurred. The agencies which have risen to the forefront of social
control are economic organisation, education and Government. The fear of losing a
job compels an individual to follow the rules and regulations of the industry.

Deviance

Deviance is defined as any violation of norms, whether the infraction is as minor as

driving over the speed limit, as serious as murder.

According to sociologist Howard S. Becker It is not the act itself but the
reactions to the act that make something deviant.

Law as a social control

Law is the most important formal means of social control. Early societies depended
upon informal means of social control but when societies grew in size and
complexity they were compelled to formulate rules and regulations which define
the required types of behavior and specify the penalties to be imposed upon those
who violate them. Law is a body of rules enacted by legally authorized bodies and
enforced by authorized agencies. It defines clearly rights, duties as well as the
punishments for their violation. The modern societies are large in size. Their
structure is complex consisting of a number of groups, organizations, institutions

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and vested interests. Informal means of social control are no longer sufficient to
maintain social order and harmony.

In modern society relationships are of secondary nature. Security of life and

property as well as the systematic ordering of relationships make formalization of
rules necessary. Law pre-scribes uniform norms and penalties throughout a social
system. Touchability act prohibits untouchability in any form and a person
practicing untouchability is liable to punishment. Prohibition act forbids drinking
at public places. In this way law exercises a powerful influence upon the behavior
of people in modern societies.

BY:-AKASH KARANWAL