MECHANICS OF MATERIALS 17ME34

Module 5: Theories of Failure

Objectives:

Various types of theories of failure and its importance

Learning Structure
• 5.0 Introduction
• 5.1 Stress-Strain relationships
• 5.2 Types of Failure
• 5.3 Use of factor of safety in design
• 5.4 Theories of Failure
• 5.5 Problems
• Outcomes
• Further reading

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5. 0 Introduction:

Failure indicate either fracture or permanent deformation beyond the

operational range due to yielding of a member. In the process of designing a
machine element or a structural member, precautions has to be taken to avoid
failure under service conditions.

When a member of a structure or a machine element is subjected to a system of

complex stress system, prediction of mode of failure is necessary to involve in
appropriate design methodology. Theories of failure or also known as failure
criteria are developed to aid design.

5.1 Stress-Strain relationships:

Following Figure-1 represents stress-strain relationship for different type of
materials.

Ductile material e.g. low carbon steel Low ductility

Brittle material Elastic – perfectly plastic material

Figure-: Stress-Strain Relationship

Bars of ductile materials subjected to tension show a linear range within which the materials
exhibit elastic behaviour whereas for brittle materials yield zone cannot be identified. In general,
various materials under similar test conditions reveal different behaviour. The cause of failure of a
ductile material need not be same as that of the brittle material.

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5.2 Types of Failure:

The two types of failure are,

Yielding - This is due to excessive inelastic deformation rendering the structural member or
machine part unsuitable to perform its function. This mostly occurs in ductile materials.

Fracture - In this case, the member or component tears apart in two or more parts. This
mostly occurs in brittle materials.

5.3 Use of factor of safety in design:

In designing a member to carry a given load without failure, usually a factor of safety (FS or N) is
used. The purpose is to design the member in such a way that it can carry N times the actual
working load without failure. Factor of safety is defined as Factor of Safety (FS) = Ultimate
Stress/Allowable Stress.

5.4 Theories of Failure:

a) Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine Theory)

b) Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant’s theory)
c) Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca theory)
d) Maximum Strain Energy Theory (Beltrami’s theory)

5.4.1 Maximum Principal Stress Theory (Rankine theory)

According to this, if one of the principal stresses σ 1 (maximum principal stress), σ2 (minimum
principal stress) or σ3 exceeds the yield stress (σy), yielding would

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occur. In a two dimensional loading situation for a ductile material where

tensile and compressive yield stress are nearly of same magnitude

σ1 = ± σy σ2 = ±σy

Yield surface for the situation is, as shown in Figure-2

Figure- 2: Yield surface corresponding

to maximum principal stress theory

Yielding occurs when the state of stress is at the boundary of the rectangle.
Consider, for example, the state of stress of a thin walled pressure vessel. Here
σ1= 2σ2, σ1 being the circumferential or hoop stress and σ2 the axial stress. As
the pressure in the vessel increases, the stress follows the dotted line. At a point
(say) a, the stresses are still within the elastic limit but at b, σ1 reaches σy
although σ2 is still less than σy. Yielding will then begin at point b. This theory
of yielding has very poor agreement with experiment. However, this theory is
being used successfully for brittle materials.

5.4.2 Maximum Principal Strain Theory (St. Venant’s Theory)

According to this theory, yielding will occur when the maximum principal
strain just exceeds the strain at the tensile yield point in either simple
tension or compression. If ε1 and ε2 are maximum and minimum
principal strains corresponding to σ1 and σ2, in the limiting case

ε1 = (1/E)(σ1- νσ2) |σ1| ≥ |σ2|

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ε2 = (1/E)(σ2- νσ1) |σ2| ≥ |σ1|

This results in,

E ε1 = σ1- νσ2 = ± σ0
E ε2 = σ2- νσ1 = ± σ0

The boundary of a yield surface in this case is shown in Figure – 3.

Figure-3: Yield surface corresponding to

maximum principal strain theory

5.4.3 Maximum Shear Stress Theory (Tresca theory)

According to this theory, yielding would occur when the maximum shear
stress just exceeds the shear stress at the tensile yield point. At the tensile
yield point σ2= σ3 = 0 and thus maximum shear stress is σy/2. This gives us
six conditions for a three-dimensional stress situation:

σ1- σ2 = ± σy
σ2- σ3 = ± σy
σ3- σ1 = ± σy

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Figure – 4: Yield surface corresponding

to maximum shear stress theory

In a biaxial stress situation (Figure - 4) case, σ3 = 0 and this gives

σ1 − σ2 = σy if σ1 > 0, σ2 <0
σ1 − σ2 = −σy if σ1 < 0, σ2 >0
σ2 = σy if σ2 > σ1 >0
σ1 = −σy if σ1 < σ2 <0
σ1 = −σy if σ1 > σ2 >0
σ2 = −σy if σ2 < σ1 <0

This criterion agrees well with experiment.

In the case of pure shear, σ1 = - σ2 = k (say), σ3 = 0

and this gives σ1- σ2 = 2k= σy
This indicates that yield stress in pure shear is half the tensile yield stress and
this is also seen in the Mohr’s circle (Figure - 5) for pure shear.

Figure – 5: Mohr’s circle for

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pure shear

5.4.4 Maximum strain energy theory (Beltrami’s theory)

According to this theory failure would occur when the total strain energy
absorbed at a point per unit volume exceeds the strain energy absorbed per
unit volume at the tensile yield point. This may be expressed as,

(1/2)(σ1 ε1 + σ2 ε2 + σ3 ε3) = (1/2) σy εy

Substituting ε1, ε2, ε3 and εy in terms of the stresses we have

σ12 + σ 22 + σ 32 - 2 υ (σ1 σ2 + σ2 σ3 + σ3σ 1) = σ y2
(σ1/ σy)2 + (σ2/ σy)2 - 2ν(σ1 σ2/ σy2) = 1

The above equation represents an ellipse and the yield surface is shown in
F igure - 6

Figure – 6: Yield surface corresponding

to Maximum strain energy theory.

It has been shown earlier that only distortion energy can cause yielding but in
the above expression at sufficiently high hydrostatic pressure σ1 = σ2 = σ3 = σ
(say), yielding may also occur. From the above we may write σ2(3 − 2ν) = σy2
and if ν ~ 0.3, at stress level lower than yield stress, yielding would occur. This
is in contrast to the experimental as well as analytical conclusion and the
theory is not appropriate.

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5.4.5 Superposition of yield surfaces of different failure theories:

A comparison among the different failure theories can be made by superposing
the yield surfaces as shown in figure – 7. It is clear that an immediate
assessment of failure probability can be made just by plotting any experimental
in the combined yield surface. Failure of ductile materials is most accurately
governed by the distortion energy theory where as the maximum principal strain
theory is used for brittle materials.

Figure – 7: Comparison of different failure theories

5.5 Problems:

Numerical-1: A shaft is loaded by a torque of 5 KN-m. The material

has a yield point of 350 MPa. Find the required diameter using Maximum
shear stress theory. Take a factor of safety of 2.5.

Torsional Shear Stress, τ= 16T/πd3, where d represents diameter of the shaft

Maximum Shear Stress theory, √

Factor of Safety (FS) = Ultimate Stress/Allowable Stress

Since σx = σy = 0, τmax = 25.46 X 103/d3

Therefore 25.46 X 103/d3 = σy/(2*FS) = 350*106/(2*2.5)

Hence, d = 71.3 mm

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Numerical-2: The state of stress at a point for a material is shown in

the following figure Find the factor of safety using (a) Maximum shear
stress theory Take the tensile yield strength of the material as 400 MPa.

From the Mohr’s circle shown below we determine,

σ1 = 42.38MPa and
σ2 = -127.38MPa

from Maximum Shear Stress theory

(σ1 - σ2)/2= σy/(2*FS)

By substitution and calculation factor of safety FS = 2.356

Numerical-3: A cantilever rod is loaded as shown in the following

figure. If the tensile yield strength of the material is 300 MPa determine the

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rod diameter using (a) Maximum principal stress theory (b) Maximum
shear stress theory

At the outset it is necessary to identify the mostly stressed element. Torsional

shear stress as well as axial normal stress is the same throughout the length of
the rod but the bearing stress is largest at the welded end. Now among the four
corner elements on the rod, the element A is mostly loaded as shown in
following figure

Shear stress due to bending VQ/It is also developed but this is neglected due to
its small value compared to the other stresses. Substituting values of T, P, F and
L, the elemental stresses may be shown as in following figure.

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The principal stress for the case is determined by the following equation,

By Maximum Principal Stress Theory, Setting, σ1 = σy we get d = 26.67mm

By maximum shear stress theory by setting (σ1 – σ2)/2 = σy/2, we get, d =

30.63mm

Numerical-4: The state of plane stress shown occurs at a critical point

of a steel machine component. As a result of several tensile tests it has been
found that the tensile yield strength is σy=250MPa for the grade of steel
used. Determine the factor of safety with respect to yield using maximum
shearing stress criterion.

Construction of the Mohr’s circle determines

σavg = ½ (80-40) = 20MPa and τm= (602+252)1/2 = 65MPa

σa= 20+65 = 85 MPa and σb= 20-65 = -45 MPa

The corresponding shearing stress at yield is τy= ½ σy = ½ (250) = 125MPa

Factor of safety, FS = τm/ τy = 125/65 = 1.92

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Summary:
Different types of loading and criterion for design of structural
members/machine parts subjected to static loading based on different failure
theories have been discussed. Development of yield surface and optimization of
design criterion for ductile and brittle materials were illustrated.

Assignments:

Assignment-1: A Force F = 45,000N is necessary to rotate the shaft shown

in the following figure at uniform speed. The crank shaft is made of ductile steel
whose elastic limit is 207,000 kPa, both in tension and compression. With E =
207 X 106 kPa and ν = 0.25, determine the diameter of the shaft using
maximum shear stress theory, using factor of safety = 2. Consider a point on the
periphery at section A for analysis (Answer, d = 10.4 cm)

Assignment-2: Following figure shows three elements a, b and c subjected

to different states of stress. Which one of these three, do you think will yield
first according to i) maximum stress theory, ii) maximum strain theory, and iii)
maximum shear stress theory? Assume Poisson’s ratio ν = 0.25 [Answer: i) b,
ii) a, and iii) c]

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Assignment-3: Determine the diameter of a ductile steel bar if the tensile

load F is 35,000N and the torsional moment T is 1800N.m. Use factor of safety
= 1.5. E = 207*106kPa and σyp = 207,000kPa. Use the maximum shear stress
theory. (Answer: d = 4.1cm)

Assignment-4: At a pint in a steel member, the state of stress shown in

Figure. The tensile elastic limit is 413.7kPa. If the shearing stress at a point is
206.85kPa, when yielding starts, what is the tensile stress σ at the point
according to maximum shearing stress theory? (Answer: Zero)

Outcomes:
Can determine various types theories of failure and its importance

Further Reading
TEXT BOOKS:
1. James M Gere, Barry J Goodno, Strength of Materials, Indian Edition, Cengage Learning,
2. R Subramanian, Strength of Materials, Oxford, 2005.
REFERENCE BOOKS:
1. S S Rattan, Strength of Materials, Second Edition, McGraw Hill, 2011.
2. Ferdinand Beer and Russell Johston, Mechanics of materials, Tata McGraw Hill, 2003.

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