Lecture 5

Learning

PT10103
Introduction to Psychology
Dr. Getrude Cosmas
Faculty of Psychology and Education, UMS
 What is Learning?
• Learning
• Any relatively permanent change in behavior brought about by
experience or practice.

– When people learn anything, some part of their brain is

physically changed to record what they have learned.

– Any kind of change in the way an organism behaves is

learning.

Attitude learned through various of methods.

1. Classical conditioning
2. Operant conditioning
3. Cognitive learning
4. Observation/Imitation/Social learning
Associative learning – learning that occurs when we make a
connection, or an association, between two events.
1. Classical conditioning (Pavlovian conditioning/Respondent
conditioning)

Conditioning is a form of learning in which an association is

acquired between a stimulus and a response.
A basic form of learning in which organism involuntarily learns to
associate stimulus;
A previously neutral stimulus is paired with an unconditioned
stimulus to elicit a conditioned response that is identical (similar)
to the unconditioned response.
The components of classical conditioning
All classical conditioning shares the following parts;
Neutral stimulus - something that does not elicit a response.
Unconditioned stimulus (US) – Rangsangan tidak terlazim
Any stimulus that causes a reflex or emotional response without any
learning or conditioning required.

Unconditioned response (UR)- Gerak balas tidak terlazim

The reflex response evoked by a stimulus without any learning
required.

Conditioned stimulus (CS)- Rangsangan terlazim

A previously neutral stimulus that, through conditioning, now causes a
classically conditioned response.

Conditioned response (CR) – Maklum balas terlazim

A learned response to a previously neutral stimulus that has been
associated with the stimulus through repeated pairings.
Acquisition (initial
learning) - the
repeated pairing of
the NS and the UCS;
the organism is in
the process of
acquiring learning.
BEFORE
Neutral stimulus No response
(McDonald Restaurant) (NS)
Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response
(Burger McDonald) (UCS) (saliva) (UCR)
DURING
Neutral stimulus Unconditioned unconditioned
(NS) stimulus (UCS) response (UCR)
(Restaurant) (Burger) (saliva)
AFTER
Conditioned conditioned
Stimulus (CS) response (CR)
(Restaurant) (saliva)
 Conditioning sequences

Delayed conditioning NS presented before Bell presented before

(more effective) UCS and remains food until dog begins
until UCR begins to salivate
Simultaneous NS presented at the Bell and food
conditioning same time as UCS presented
simultaneously
Trace conditioning NS presented and Bell rung, but food
then taken away, or presented only once
ends before UCS the sound stop
presented
Backward UCS presented Food presented
conditioning before NS before the bell
(least effective)
Phases of classical conditioning
1. Extinction (penghapusan)
The gradual suppression of a behavior or a response that occurs
when a conditioned stimulus (CS- bell) is repeatedly presented
without the unconditioned stimulus (UCS-food) with which it had
been previously associated.

2. Spontaneous recovery (pemulihan spontan)

When a condition response (CR-saliva) that had been extinguished
spontaneously reappears.

4. Generalization
The occurrence of a learned response not only to the original stimulus
but also to other similar stimulus.

5. Discrimination
The occurrence of learned response to a specific stimulus but not to
other, similar stimulus. Only the CS elicits the CR.
First order conditioning

CS US
bell meat powder

Second order conditioning – when a second CS (CS2) is added to the

chain, as in;

CS2 CS1 US
Drum bell meat powder

Higher-order conditioning

CS2 CS2 US
tambourine drum meat powder
Conditioned emotional responses (Maklum balas emosi
terlazim)

Fears and anxieties can be classically conditioned. Conditioned

emotional responses (CER) can occur when we encounter a CS (rat)
that was conditioned previously.

However, CER need not be negative; the sight of a loved one can
arouse feelings of love, attraction or joy.
BEFORE
Neutral stimulus No response
(NS) (white rat)
Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response
(loud noise) (UCS) (crying) (UCR)

DURING
Neutral stimulus Unconditioned unconditioned
(NS) white rat stimulus (UCS) response(crying)
(UCR)

AFTER
Neutral stimulus conditioned conditioned
(NS) white rat stimulus (CS) response(crying)
(CR)
Classical conditioning in real life
Prejudice, phobia, medical treatment for drug addiction,
advertising influence and politicians’ messages are all cited as
examples of classical conditioning.
Aversive conditioning
A form of treatment that consists of repeated pairings of stimulus
with a very unpleasant stimulus.

E.g., electric shock and nausea-inducing substances are example of

‘noxious (harmful) stimuli’.
BEFORE
Neutral stimulus (Alcohol) ------------- not cause Nausea
Unconditioned stimulus Unconditioned response
(Antabuse) (UCS) (Nausea) (UCR)

DURING
Neutral stimulus Unconditioned unconditioned
(Alcohol) stimulus (UCS) response (UCR) (nausea)
(Antabuse)

AFTER
Neutral stimulus conditioned conditioned
(NS) alcohol stimulus (CS) response (nausea)
(alcohol) (CR)
Operant conditioning (OC)
(Instrumental conditioning/Skinnerian)

A second type of conditioning.

OC was originally investigated by Edward Thorndike and later by

B.F Skinner and occurs when people or animals learn by the
consequences of their responses. These consequences may consist
of either reinforcement or punishment.

Based on the consequences of an organism’s behavior. Behavior is

strengthened if followed by reinforcement and diminished if
followed by punishment.
Menu
Skinner is regarded as
the father of operant
conditioning, but his
work was based on
Thormdike (1898) Law
of effect. According to
this principle, behavior
that is followed by
pleasant consequences
is likely to be repeated,
and behavior followed
by unpleasant
consequences is less
likely to be repeated.
Principles of Operant conditioning

1. Reinforcement (Peneguhan)
Anything that is likely to cause and increase in the response.
Primary reinforces – satisfy an unlearned biological need (food, water)
Secondary reinforces – have learned value (good grade, allowance).

Positive reinforcement (peneguhan positif)

Occurs when something is added to increase the response rates.

Negative reinforcement (peneguhan negatif)

Different from punishment, occurs when something is removed in
order to increase the response rates.

There are several kinds of schedules of reinforcement

1. Continuous – reinforce each response
2. Partial – reinforce some, but not all responses.
Punishment
Anything that is likely to cause a decrease in the response.

Positive punishment
Occurs when something is given to decrease the response rate.

Negative punishment
Consists of removing something to decrease the response rate.

Law of effect (Hukum kesan)

The law of effect stated that behaviors that result in a subsequent

reward would likely be repeated in the future, while those that
result in punishment would likely not be repeated.
 Increase behavior decrease behavior

increase good
behavior decrease
disobeying

increase good
decrease going out
driving habits
with friends
 How to Make Punishment More Effective

1. Punishment should immediately follow the behavior it is meant

to punish. Immediate punishment is more effective than delayed
punishment in decreasing the occurrence of a behavior.

2. Punishment should be consistent.

3. Punishment of the wrong behavior should be paired, whenever

possible, with reinforcement of the right behavior.
 Behavior Resistant to Conditioning
• Instinctive drift - tendency for an animal’s behavior to revert to
genetically controlled patterns.
– Each animal comes into the world (and the laboratory) with
certain genetically determined instinctive patterns of
behavior already in place.
– These instincts differ from species to species.
– There are some responses that simply cannot be trained into
an animal regardless of conditioning.

Raccoons commonly dunk their food

in and out of water before eating.
This “washing” behavior is controlled
by instinct and difficult to change
even using operant techniques.
 Latent Learning (implicit learning)
Edward Tolman’s best-known experiments in learning involved
teaching three groups of rats the same maze, one at a time (Tolman &
Honzik, 1930).

Group 1 – rewarded each time at end of maze.

• Learned maze quickly.

Group 2 – In maze everyday, only rewarded on 10th day.

• Demonstrated learning of maze almost immediately after
receiving reward.

Group 3 – never rewarded.

• Did not learn maze well.

• Latent learning - learning that remains hidden until its application

becomes useful.
 Shaping
Guide dog
• Shaping - the reinforcement of
simple steps in behavior that lead
to a desired, more complex
behavior.
– Successive approximations - small
steps in behavior, one after the
other, that lead to a particular goal
behavior.
 Applied Behavior Analysis
• Applied Behavior Analysis (Behavior Modification) - the use
of operant conditioning techniques to bring about desired
changes in behavior. Modern term for a form of behavior
modification that uses shaping techniques to mold a desired
behavior or response.

• E.g., Give rewards to staff who can completed their work on

time (positive reinforcement) or apply silent treatment to
someone who like to talk much (negative punishment).
 Insight
• Insight - the sudden perception of relationships among
various parts of a problem, allowing the solution to the
problem to come quickly.
• a clear perception of the nature of a complex
situation or problem.

– Cannot be gained through trial-and-error learning

alone.

– “Aha” moment.
Cognitive- social learning
1. Insight and latent learning
Wolfgang Kohler, working with chimpanzees, demonstrated that
learning can occur with a sudden flash of insight.

Stick problem Box problem

Stick experiment
He placed a banana just outside the reach of a caged Chimpanzee. To
reach the banana, the chimp would have to use a stick placed near the
cage to extend its reach. Kohler noticed that he seemed to sit and
think about the situation for a while. Then, in a flash of insight, the
chimp picked up the stick and maneuvered the banana within its
grasp.

Box problem
To master the box problem, the chimpanzee must stack several boxes
to reach the banana.

Although these two experiments are basically the same, the solutions
to the problems are different.
Stick experiment
He placed a banana just outside the reach of a caged Chimpanzee. To
reach the banana, the chimp would have to use a stick placed near the
cage to extend its reach. Kohler noticed that he seemed to sit and
think about the situation for a while. Then, in a flash of insight, the
chimp picked up the stick and maneuvered the banana within its
grasp.

Box problem
To master the box problem, the chimpanzee must stack several boxes
to reach the banana.

Although these two experiments are basically the same, the solutions
to the problems are different.
Seligman Depressed Dog: Learned Helplessness (Positive
Psychology)
Two dogs in two different cages

The dog was placed in a box that contained two

chambers separated by a low barrier.
The dog heard a tone followed by electric shock
try to escape but fail (several times).

No electric shock, try to escape and success.

Seligman Depressed Dog: Learned Helplessness (Positive
Psychology)

The dog previously subjected to the classical conditioning made no

attempts to escape, even though avoiding the shock simply involved
jumping over a small barrier.

The dog tend to fail to act to escape from a situation because of a

history of repeated failures.

Learned helplessness can have a profound impact on mental health and

well-being. People who experience learned helplessness are likely to
experience symptoms of depression, elevated stress levels, and
less motivation to take care of themselves (physical health).
Observational learning/imitation/modeling
Observational learning theory was proposed by
Albert Bandura to explain how people learn by
observing others who serve a models.

Bobo doll study

Four Elements of Observational Learning (AMMR)
1. Attention
To learn anything through observation, the learner must first pay
attention to the model.

2. Retention (memory)
The learner must also be able to retain the memory of what was
done, such as remembering the steps in preparing a dish that was
first seen on a cooking show.

3. Motor reproduction
The learner must be capable of reproducing, or imitating, the
actions of the model.

4. Reinforcement
Finally, the learner must have the desire to perform the action.
(An easy way to remember the four elements of modeling is to
remember the letters ARMR, which stands for the first letters of
each of the four elements).
 Real World Example
• Training a cat to use the
toilet will involve:
– Shaping.
– Preparing “the training arena.”
– Positive reinforcement on a
variable schedule.
 QUIZ
1. Michael noticed that whenever he moved his dog’s food fish, his dog
would come into the kitchen and act hungry and excited. He reasoned
that because he feeds the dog using that dish, the sound of the dish
had become a(n)……………

A. Unconditioned stimulus.
B. Conditioned stimulus
C. Unconditioned response
D. Unconditioned response
 QUIZ
2. In Watson’s experiment with ‘Little Albert’, the conditioned stimulus
was………………………..

A. the white rat.

B. the loud noise.
C. the fear of the rat.
D. the fear of the noises.

3. In the Watson’s experiment, the loud bang represent……….

A. unconditioned stimulus.
B. conditioned stimulus
C. unconditioned response
D. unconditioned response
 QUIZ
4. Zamri found that the CS (conditioned stimulus) must come
…………………. the UCS (unconditioned stimulus) for
conditioning to take place.

A. replace.
B. after.
C. at the same time.
D. predict.
 QUIZ
5. Which theory is commonly referred to as the ‘aha’ phenomenon?

A. Tolman’s latent learning theory.

B. Kohler’s insight theory.
C. Seligman’s learned helplessness theory.
D. Bandura’s observational learning.

6. Nathan’s mother was upset to find that Nathan had not picked up his
building blocks after repeated requests to do so. The next morning
, Nathan found all his block had been picked up and put in a bag on top
of the refrigerator. Nathan’s mother told him that he couldn’t play with
his blocks for the next two days. Which type of discipline did she use?
A. Negative punishment.
B. Positive punishment
C. Negative reinforcement
D. Positive reinforcement.
 QUIZ
7. What is the correct sequence of the four elements of observational
learning?

A. Attention, memory, desire and imitation.

B. Imitation , attention, memory, desire.
C. Attention, memory, imitation, desire
D. Desire, attention, imitation, memory