MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM
OBJECTIVES:
At the end of the lesson, you are expected to:
✓ Familiarize with the basic operations on Boolean functions and
logic gates
✓ Evaluate Boolean functions and simplify expression using the
properties of Boolean algebra
✓ Design circuit using basic logic designs & digital systems.
✓ Solve some problems in Digital Logic and Digital System
LEARNING CONTENTS:
a. Boolean Expression and Function
b. Representing Boolean functions
c. Logic gates
d. Minimization of circuits
Start your lesson here.
Digital logic is the representation of signals and sequences of a digital
circuit through numbers. It is the basis for digital computing and provides a
fundamental understanding on how circuits and hardware communicate within a
computer. Digital logic is typically embedded into most electronic devices,
including calculators, computers, video games, and watches. Knowledge of
digital logic lends itself to many different computer technology design and
engineering professions.
Digital systems are designed to store, process, and communicate
information in digital form. They are found in a wide range of applications,
including process control, communication systems, digital instruments, and
consumer products. The digital computer, more commonly called the computer,
is an example of a typical digital system.
A computer manipulates information in digital, or more precisely, binary
form. A binary number has only two discrete values — zero or one. Each of these
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
discrete values is represented by the OFF and ON status of an electronic switch
called a transistor. All computers, therefore, only understand binary numbers. Any
decimal number (base 10, with ten digits from 0 to 9) can be represented by a
binary number (base 2, with digits 0 and 1).
State Truth Value Voltage Switch Status
0 False Low Off
1 True High On
Lesson 1: BOOLEAN EXPRESSION AND FUNCTION
In 1854 George Boole introduced a systematic treatment of logic and
developed for this purpose an algebraic system known as symbolic logic, or
Boolean algebra.
Boolean functions derive from Boolean algebra, a form of mathematical
logic. This is a branch of algebra in which the values of variables used can assume
only truth values, i.e., true and false. It was developed for logical operations.
Boolean Algebra Terminologies
Boolean Algebra – algebra of truth values and operations performing on them
which is used in Digital Circuits for performing logical operation.
Boolean Expression: Combining the variables and operation yields Boolean
expressions.
Boolean Function: A Boolean function typically has one or more input values and
yields a result, based on these input value, in the range {0, 1}.
Boolean operators represent the actions that performed on a set of variables in a
Boolean expression.
Truth table: a table that gives all the possible values of logical and the combination
of the variables. It is possible to convert the Boolean equation into a truth table.
The number of rows in the truth table should be equal to 2 n, where “n” is the
number of variables in the equation. For example, if a Boolean equation consists
of 3 variables, then the number of rows in the truth table is 8. (i.e.,) 2 3 = 8.
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Boolean Laws/Identities
Distributive Law a(b + c) = ab + ac
Associative Law For addition:
a + (b + c) = (a + b) + c
For Multiplication:
(ab)c = a(bc)
Commutative Law For Addition
a+b=b+a
For Multiplication
ab = ba
Identity Law a+0=a
a▪1=a
Complement Law a + 𝑎̅ = 1
a ▪ 𝑎̅ = 0
Idempotent Law a + a= a
a ▪ a= a
Dominance Law a+1=1
a▪0=0
Double Complement Law 𝑎̿ = 1
Absorption Law a + (a ▪ b)= a
a ▪ (a + b)= a
Simplification Law a + (𝑎̅ ▪ b)= a + b
a ▪ (𝑎̅ + b)= a ▪ b
De Morgan’s Law a ▪ b = a̅ + b
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅
a + b = a̅ ▪ b
̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅ ̅
Example: Simplify the expression F = c + 𝒃𝒄
̅̅̅̅
F= c + (𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅ ) (De Morgan’s Law)
F= c + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅ (Commutative Law)
F= c + 𝑐̅ + 𝑏̅ (Complement Law)
F= 1 + 𝑏̅ (Dominance Law)
F= 1
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Lesson 2: REPRESENTING BOOLEAN FUNCTIONS
Consider the following example,
F(a, b, c, d) = a + 𝑏𝑐
̅̅̅ + d
Boolean Function Boolean Expression
TWO FORMS OF BOOLEAN EXPRESSIONS
• Sum – of – Products (SOP) Form/Sum of Minterms (SOM)
- Represented by ∑
Minterm – a product of all variables taken either in direct or complemented form
Any Boolean function can be expressed as a sum of its 1 - minterms and the inverse
of the function can be expressed as a sum of its 0 - minterms.
F(list of variables) = ∑(list of 1 - minterm indices) and
F̅ (list of variables) = ∑(list of 0 - minterm indices)
a b c Term Minterm
0 0 0 𝑎̅𝑏̅𝑐̅ mo
0 0 1 𝑎̅𝑏̅𝑐 m1
0 1 0 𝑎̅𝑏𝑐̅ m2
0 1 1 𝑎̅𝑏𝑐 m3
1 0 0 𝑎𝑏̅𝑐̅ m4
1 0 1 𝑎𝑏̅𝑐 m5
1 1 0 𝑎𝑏𝑐̅ m6
1 1 1 abc m7
Example:
F(a, b, c) = 𝑎̅𝑏̅𝑐̅ + 𝑎𝑏̅𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏𝑐̅ + abc
F(a, b, c) = mo+ m5 + m6 + m7
F(a, b, c) = ∑(0,5,6,7)
Complement:
F̅(a, b, c) = 𝑎̅𝑏̅𝑐 + 𝑎̅𝑏𝑐̅ + 𝑎̅𝑏𝑐 + 𝑎𝑏̅𝑐̅
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
F̅(a, b, c) = m1 + m2 + m3 + m4
F̅(a, b, c) = ∑(1, 2, 3, 4)
• Products – of – Sum (POS) Form/Product of Maxterms
- Represented by ∏
Maxterm – addition of all variables taken either in direct or complemented form
Any Boolean function can be expressed as a product of its 0 - maxterms and the
inverse of the function can be expressed as a product of its 1 - maxterms.
F(list of variables) = ∏ (list of 0 - maxterm indices) and
F̅ (list of variables) = ∏ (list of 1 - maxterm indices)
a b c Term Maxterm
0 0 0 a+b+c MO
0 0 1 𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅ M1
0 1 0 𝑎 + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐 M2
0 1 1 𝑎 + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅ M3
1 0 0 𝑎̅ + 𝑏 + 𝑐 M4
1 0 1 𝑎̅ + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅ M5
1 1 0 𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐 M6
1 1 1 𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅ M7
Example:
F(a, b, c) = (𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅) (𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐)(𝑎̅ + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅)(a+ b +c)
F(a, b, c) = M7+ M6 + M5 + M0
F(a, b, c) = ∏ (0, 5, 6, 7)
Complement:
F̅(a, b, c) = (𝑎 + 𝑏 + 𝑐̅)( 𝑎 + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐) (𝑎̅ + 𝑏 + 𝑐) (𝑎 + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅)
F̅(a, b, c) = M1 + M2 + M3 + M4
F̅(a, b, c) = ∏ (1, 2, 3, 4)
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Lesson 3: LOGIC GATES
Logic gate - basic building block of any digital system
- used to carry out logical operations on single or multiple binary inputs
and give one binary output.
- small transistor circuit that is part of different forms in an integrated
circuit. Each type of gate has one or usually two inputs and one output.
- important concept if you are studying electronics. Often found in
circuits such as safety thermostat, push-button lock, automatic watering
system, light-activated burglar alarm and many other electronic
devices.
Different Types of Logic Gates
Boolean Expression Symbol Truth Table Explanation
AND gate
Inputs Output In AND gate the output
a b F
F = ab of an AND gate attains
0 0 0
0 1 0 the state 1 if and only if
1 0 0 all the inputs are in state
1 1 1
1.
OR gate
Inputs Output OR gate gives a HIGH
a b F
F=a + b output if either or both
0 0 0
0 1 1 of the input are HIGH
1 0 1
1 1 1
NOT gate
Input Output NOT gate gives HIGH
a F
F = 𝑎̅ output if the input is
0 1
1 0 LOW
NAND gate
Inputs Output This basic logic gate is
a b F
F = ̅̅̅
𝑎𝑏 the combination of
0 0 1
0 1 1 AND and NOT gate.
1 0 1
1 1 0
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
NOR gate
Inputs Output This gate is the
a b F
combination of OR and
F = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎+𝑏 0 0 1
0 1 0 NOT gate.
1 0 0
1 1 0
XOR gate
Inputs Output XOR gate gives high
a b F
output if either input a
F = (a ⨁ b) 0 0 0
0 1 1 or input b but not both
= 𝑎̅b + a𝑏̅ 1 0 1 are high.
1 1 0
XNOR gate
Inputs Output XNOR gate gives high
a b F
F = ̅̅̅̅̅̅̅̅
𝑎 ⨁𝑏 output if both inputs are
0 0 1
= ab + 𝑎̅𝑏̅ 0 1 0 the same that is, both 0
1 0 0 or both 1.
1 1 1
Lesson 4: MINIMIZATION OF CIRCUITS
Minimization - the process of simplifying the algebraic expression of a boolean
function
- it is important to find the most economic equivalent representation of
a boolean function.
Example:
Simplify the function F2 = 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅z + 𝑥̅ yz + x𝑦̅. By applying the different Boolean
Laws/Identities, the function can be minimized to F2 = 𝑥𝑦̅ + 𝑥̅ z.
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
The circuits associated with above expressions is –
Minimization Of Boolean Expressions:
There are following two methods of minimizing or reducing the boolean
expressions-
A. Minimization using Algebraic Manipulation:
- simplest of all methods used for minimization. It is suitable for medium
sized expressions involving 4 or 5 variables.
Example 1
Simplify the function F = 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅z + 𝑥̅ yz + x𝑦̅.
Solution:
F = 𝑥̅ 𝑦̅z + 𝑥̅ yz + x𝑦̅
= 𝑥̅ z (𝑦̅ + y) + x𝑦̅ (Complement Law)
= 𝑥̅ z (1) + x𝑦̅ (Identity Law)
= 𝑥̅ z + x𝑦̅
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Example 2
Simplify the function F = ((𝑎𝑏𝑐
̅̅̅̅̅)( 𝑏̅ + c)) + 𝑎𝑐
̅̅̅.
Solution:
F = ((𝑎𝑏𝑐
̅̅̅̅̅)( 𝑏̅ + c)) + 𝑎𝑐
̅̅̅
= ((𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅)( 𝑏̅ + c)) + (𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅) (De Morgan’s Law)
= ((𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅)( 𝑏̅ + c)) + 𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅ (Associative Law)
= 𝑎̅𝑏̅ + 𝑏̅𝑏̅ +𝑏̅𝑐̅ + 𝑎̅c + 𝑏̅c + 𝑐̅c + 𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅ (Distributive Law)
= 𝑎̅𝑏̅ + 𝑏̅ +𝑏̅𝑐̅ + 𝑎̅c + 𝑏̅c + 𝑐̅c + 𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅ (Idempotent Law)
= 𝑎̅𝑏̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑏̅𝑐̅ + 𝑎̅c + 𝑏̅c + 𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅ (Complement Law)
= 𝑏̅(𝑎̅ + 1) +𝑏̅(𝑐̅ + c) + 𝑎̅(c + 1) + 𝑐̅ (Distributive Law)
= 𝑏̅ +𝑏̅(𝑐̅ + c) + 𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅ (Identity Law)
= 𝑏̅ +𝑏̅ + 𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅ (Complement Law)
= 𝑏̅ + 𝑎̅ + 𝑐̅ or 𝑎̅ + 𝑏̅ + 𝑐̅ (Idempotent Law)
B. Minimization using K-Map:
Karnaugh Map-
The Karnaugh Map also called as K Map is a graphical representation that provides
a systematic method for simplifying the boolean expressions.
For a boolean expression consisting of n-variables, number of cells required in K Map
= 2n cells.
Two Variable K Map-
Two variable K Map may be represented as-
Here, A and B are the two variables of the given boolean function.
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Three Variable K Map-
Three variable K Map may be represented as-
Here, A, B and C are the three variables of the given boolean function.
Four Variable K Map-
Four variable K Map may be represented as-
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Here, A, B, C and D are the four variables of the given boolean function.
Karnaugh Map Simplification Rules-
To minimize the given boolean function,
• We draw a K Map according to the number of variables it contains.
• We fill the K Map with 0’s and 1’s according to its function.
• Then, we minimize the function in accordance with the following rules.
Rule-01:
• We can either group 0’s with 0’s or 1’s with 1’s but we can not group 0’s
and 1’s together.
• X representing don’t care can be grouped with 0’s as well as 1’s.
NOTE
There is no need of separately grouping X’s i.e. they can be ignored if all 0’s and 1’s
are already grouped.
Rule-02:
• Groups may overlap each other.
Rule-03:
• We can only create a group whose number of cells can be represented in
the power of 2.
• In other words, a group can only contain 2 n i.e. 1, 2, 4, 8, 16 and so on
number of cells.
Example-
Rule-04:
• Groups can be only either horizontal or vertical.
• We cannot create groups of diagonal or any other shape.
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Rule-05:
• Each group should be as large as possible.
Example:
Rule-06:
• Opposite grouping and corner grouping are allowed.
• The example of opposite grouping is shown illustrated in Rule-05.
• The example of corner grouping is shown below.
Example-
Rule-07:
• There should be as few groups as possible.
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Example 1:
Minimize the boolean function F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 2, 5, 7, 8, 9, 10, 13, 15)
Solution:
F(A, B, C, D)
= (𝐴̅B + AB)( 𝐶̅ D + CD) + (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅B + AB + A𝐵̅) 𝐶̅ D + (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ 𝐷
̅ + C𝐷
̅)
= BD + 𝐶̅ D + 𝐵̅𝐷
̅
F(A, B, C, D) = BD + 𝐶̅ D + 𝐵̅𝐷
̅
Example 2:
Minimize the boolean function F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 1, 3, 5, 7, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15)
Solution-
F(A, B, C, D)
= (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅B + AB + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ D + CD) + (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ 𝐷
̅ + 𝐶̅ D)
= D + 𝐵̅𝐶̅
F(A, B, C, D) = 𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ + D
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Example 3:
Minimize the boolean function-
F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(1, 3, 4, 6, 8, 9, 11, 13, 15) + Σd(0, 2, 14)
Solution-
F(A, B, C, D)
= (AB + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ D + CD) + (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ D + CD) + (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ 𝐷 + 𝐶̅ D)
+ (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅B)( 𝐶̅ 𝐷
̅ + C𝐷
̅)
= AD + 𝐵̅D + 𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅𝐷
F(A, B, C, D) = AD + 𝐵̅D + 𝐵̅𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅𝐷
̅
Example 4:
Minimize the boolean function F(A, B, C) = Σm(0, 1, 6, 7) + Σd(3, 5)
Solution-
F(A, B, C)
= 𝐴̅ (𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ + 𝐵̅C) + A(BC + B𝐶̅ )
= 𝐴̅𝐵̅ + AB
F(A, B, C) = AB + 𝐴̅𝐵̅
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Example 5:
Minimize the boolean function F(A, B, C) = Σm(1, 2, 5, 7) + Σd(0, 4, 6)
Solution-
F(A, B, C)
= (A + 𝐴̅)( 𝐵̅ 𝐶̅ + 𝐵̅C) + A(𝐵̅𝐶̅ + 𝐵̅ C + BC + B𝐶̅ ) + (A + 𝐴̅)( 𝐵̅𝐶̅ + B𝐶̅ )
= 𝐵̅ + A + 𝐶̅
F(A, B, C) = A + 𝐵̅ + 𝐶̅
Example 6:
Minimize the boolean function F(A, B, C) = Σm(0, 1, 6, 7) + Σd(3, 4, 5)
Solution-
F(A, B, C)
= (A + 𝐴̅)( 𝐵̅𝐶̅ + 𝐵̅C) + A(𝐵̅𝐶̅ + 𝐵̅C + BC + B𝐶̅ )
= 𝐵̅ + A
F(A, B, C) = A + 𝐵̅
Example 7:
Minimize the boolean function F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(0, 2, 8, 10, 14) + Σd(5, 15)
Solution-
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
F(A, B, C, D)
= (AB + A𝐵̅)C𝐷
̅ + (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ 𝐷
̅ + C𝐷
̅)
= AC𝐷
̅ + 𝐵̅𝐷
̅
F(A, B, C, D) = AC𝐷
̅ + 𝐵̅𝐷
̅
Example 8:
Minimize the boolean function F(A, B, C, D) = Σm(3, 4, 5, 7, 9, 13, 14, 15)
Solution-
F(A, B, C, D)
= 𝐴̅B(𝐶̅ 𝐷
̅ + 𝐶̅ D) + (𝐴̅𝐵̅ + 𝐴̅B)(CD) + (AB + A𝐵̅)( 𝐶̅ D) + AB(CD + C𝐷
̅)
= 𝐴̅B𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅CD + A𝐶̅ D + ABC
F(A, B, C, D) = 𝐴̅B𝐶̅ + 𝐴̅CD + A𝐶̅ D + ABC
Example 9:
Consider the boolean function F(W, X, Y, Z) = Σm(1, 3, 4, 6, 9, 11, 12, 14)
This function is independent ________ number of variables. Fill in the blank.
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
Solution-
F(W, X, Y, Z)
= (𝑊
̅ X + WX)( 𝑌̅𝑍̅ + Y𝑍̅) + (𝑊
̅ 𝑋̅ + W𝑋̅ )( 𝑌̅Z + YZ)
= X𝑍̅ + 𝑋̅Z
=X⊕Z
F(W, X, Y, Z) = X ⊕ Z
Clearly, the given boolean function depends on only two variables X and Z.
Hence, it is independent of other two variables W and Y.
COMBINATIONAL LOGIC
- a digital logic that implements Boolean circuits where the output is a
function of the present input alone. The logical function of the current
input state, logic “0” or logic “1”, at any given instant time determines
the outputs of combinational logic.
WAYS TO SPECIFY THE FUNCTION OF A COMBINATIONAL LOGIC CIRCUIT
BOOLEAN EXPRESSION
It is the algebraic expression that shows the operation of the logic circuit for each
input variable.
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MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
LOGIC DIAGRAM
- shows the wiring and connections of each logic gate, which are
represented by a specific graphical symbol.
Logic Diagram of the Boolean Equation
TRUTH TABLE
- defines the function of a logic gate using a list that shows all the output
states in tabular form for each possible combination of the input
variable.
Truth Table of the Boolean Equation
ACTIVITIES
Solve the following.
I. Find for the Boolean expression of the following logic diagram
by simulating it. Construct a truth table.
x
y F
1.
ISUR – ICT – InM – 065 Prepared by: ENGR. MARY JANE C. BANIQUED
Effectivity: October 21, 2018
Revision: 0
MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
x
F
y
z
2.
II. Simplify the Boolean expression from the above logic diagrams
using
▪ Algebraic Manipulation
▪ K – Mapping
III. Draw the logic diagram of the function and find for the
simplified Boolean expression of the following:
1. F(a, b, c) = ∑(0, 2, 3, 4, 5, 6)
2. F(a, b, c, d) = ∑(0, 2, 3, 4, 6, 8, 10, 12, 13, 14, 15)
3. F(a, b, c, d) = ∏(1, 2, 4, 5, 6, 7, 10, 11, 13, 15)
SELF – ASSESSMENT
Given:
x
y
a. Simulate the logic diagram and write the truth table
b. Write the Boolean expression
c. Simplify the expression using
ISUR – ICT – InM – 065 Prepared by: ENGR. MARY JANE C. BANIQUED
Effectivity: October 21, 2018
Revision: 0
MODULE 6: INTRODUCTION TO DIGITAL LOGIC AND DIGITAL SYSTEM IT 123/ IT 51 – Discrete Mathematics
1. Algebraic Manipulation
2. K Map
d. Draw the logic diagram of the simplified expression
References
• Mano, Morris. Digital Design, 5th edition
• Levin, Oscar. DISCRETE MATHEMATICS: AN OPEN INTRODUCTION.
CreateSpace. USA. 2016
• Detlovs, Vilnis et.al. INTRODUCTION TO MATHEMATICS LOGIC. University of
Latvia. USA. 2017
• Lehman, Eric. MATHEMATICS FOR COMPUTEER SCIENCE. 12 th Media
Services. USA. 2017
• https://www.tutorialspoint.com/discrete_mathematics/discrete_mathema
tics_relations.htm
• https://www.cl.cam.ac.uk/teaching/1314/DiscMath/DiscMathNotes.pdf
• https://cseweb.ucsd.edu/~gill/BWLectSite/
• https://arxiv.org/pdf/0805.0585.pdf
ISUR – ICT – InM – 065 Prepared by: ENGR. MARY JANE C. BANIQUED
Effectivity: October 21, 2018
Revision: 0
