1. What is a computer?

A computer is an electronic device that accepts data and instructions and translates the data
into a meaningful form with great speed and accuracy. It is also a machine that accepts data
from an input device, stores it temporarily in the internal memory, performs the arithmetic and
logical operations and relays the information through an output device .. It may also be defined
as a device that works under the control of stored programs automatically accepting, storing
and processing data to produce information that is the result of that processing.
The forms of information processed include:

Data – e.g. invoices, sales ledger and purchase ledger, payroll, stock controls etc.

Text – widely available in many offices with microcomputers

Graphics – e.g. business graphs, symbols

Images – e.g. pictures

Voice – e.g. telephone

Processing includes creating, manipulating, storing, accessing and transmitting.

CHARACTERISTICS OF A COMPUTER
The salient features of a computer are:

- A computer operates at a higher speed than other data processing tools. Computer speed is
expressed in Hertz.

- It is consistently accurate and the degree of accuracy depends on its design. Errors occur at
times but this is due to human and technical weakness.

- Unlike human beings, the computer is free from getting tired and lack of cooperation and
hence it can work for long hours.

- A computer is versatile in that it is capable of performing any task it has been programmed to
perform.

- Computers can process different types of data: they can manipulate text, numbers as well as
pictures.

- With the help of networking, computers are capable of transferring information from one
location to another.

- A computer can store data in a compact way and hence save on storage space.

- The computer‟s intelligent quotient is zero and thus it can only perform the tasks that human
beings perform. The difference is only speed and accuracy.
A computer program – Set of instructions controlling the computers to process data. These
computer programs guide the computer through orderly set of actions specified by people
called programmers.
Data – Raw facts that have not undergone processing and therefore not meaningful especially
for decision making e.g hours worked, names, rates of pay account.
Information – Is data that has undergone processing and hence useful to the recipients for
decision making e.g. net pay, total deductions to be made to respective statutory bodies.
2. Why use computers?
Use of computers has become a necessity in many fields. Computers have revolutionized the
way businesses are conducted. This is due to the advantages that computer systems offer over
manual systems.
The advantages include:

Speed – Computers have higher processing speeds than other means of processing, measured
as number of instructions executed per second.

Accuracy – Computers are not prone to errors. So long as the programs are correct, they will
always give correct output. A computer is designed in such a way that many of the
inaccuracies, which could arise due to the malfunctioning of the equipment, are detected and
their consequences avoided in a way, which is completely transparent to the user.

Consistency – Given the same data and the same instructions computers will produce exactly
the same answer every time that particular process is repeated.

Reliability – Computer systems are built with fault tolerance features, meaning that failure of
one of the components does not necessarily lead to failure of the whole system.

Memory capability – A computer has the ability to store and access large volumes of data.

Processing capability – A computer has the ability to execute millions of instructions per
second.

3. Computer application areas

Some of the areas that computers are used include:

Communication – digital communication using computers is popular and is being adopted

worldwide as opposed to analogue communication using the telephony system. Computers
have also enhanced communication through email communication, electronic data interchange,
electronic funds transfer, Internet etc. More specific examples include:

Banking – the banking sector has incorporated computer systems in such areas as credit
analysis, fund transfers, customer relations, automated teller machines, home banking, and
online banking.
 Organizational management – the proliferation of management information systems have
aided greatly the processes of managerial planning, controlling, directing as well as decision-
making. Computers are used in organization for transaction processing,managerial control as
well as decision-support. Other specific areas where computer systems have been incorporated
include sales and marketing, accounting, customer service etc.

Science, research and engineering – computers used

o as research tools, complex computations

o for simulation e.g. outer-space simulations, flight simulations

o as diagnostic and monitoring tools,

o computerized maps using global positioning satellite (GPS) technology

o for modern mass production methods in the auto industry using computer driven
technology

Education– computers incorporate databases of information that are useful in organizing and
disseminating educational resources. Such E-learning and virtual or distributed classrooms
have enabled the teaching industry to have a global reach to the students. Computers are also
used for test scoring uniform tests done in schools, school administration and computer aided
instructions.

Management of information materials- The Internet has massive reference material on

virtually every learning area. Computer systems have enabled the efficient running of libraries
for information storage and retrieval.

Manufacturing and production – computer aided design (CAD), computer integrated

manufacturing (CIM), process control systems among other technologies are computer systems
that have revolutionized the production industry.

Entertainment – use of computers in the entertainment industry has increased tremendously

over the years. Computers enable high-quality storage of motion pictures and music files using
high-speed and efficient digital storage devices such as CDs, VCDs and DVDs. The Internet is
also a great source of entertainment resources. Computer games have also become a major
source of entertainment.

Retailing – computers are used in point of sale systems and credit card payment systems as
well as stock inventories.
 Home appliances – computers (especially embedded computers or microprocessors) are
included in household items for reasons of economy and efficiency of such items. Major
appliances such as microwave ovens, clothes washers, refrigerators and sewing machines are
making regular use of microprocessors.

Reservation systems – guest booking, accommodation and bills accounting using computers
in hotels have made the process to be more efficient and faster. Airline computer reservation
systems have also enhanced and streamlined air travel across major airlines. Major players in
the industry have also adopted online reservation systems.
Health care and medicine – computers have played an important role in the growth and
improvement of health care that the use of computers in medicine has become a medical
specialty in itself. Computers are used in such areas as maintenance of patient records, medical
insurance systems, medical diagnosis, and patient monitoring.

4. History of Computers
The first electronic computers were produced in the 1940s. Since then, a series of breakthroughs
in electronics have occurred leading to great improvements in the capacity, processing speed
and quality of computer resources.
5. Computer Generations
The view of computers into generations is based on the fundamental technology employed.
Each new generation is characterized by greater speed, larger memory capacity and smaller
overall size than the previous one.

i. First Generation Computers (1946 – 1957)

o The operating speed was quite slow.

o Power consumption was very high.

o It required large space for installation.

o The programming capability was quite low.

o Cumbersome to operate – switching between programs, input and output

ii. Second Generation Computers (1958 - 1964)

 with transistors.

the use of high – level programming languages and the provision of system software with the
computer.

filament and require no heating. Manufacturing cost was also lower. Thus the size of the
computer got reduced considerably.

programming language and input and output units were developed. The programming
languages such as COBOL, FORTRAN were developed during this period.

iii. Third Generation Computers (1965 - 1971)

remained. The transistors were individually mounted in separate packages and interconnected
on printed circuit boards by separate wires. This was a complex, time consuming and error-
prone process.

-scale integration (SSI). Computers of this

generation were smaller in size, lower cost, larger memory and processing speed was much
higher.

iv. Fourth Generation Computers (1972 - Present)

technology to construct computers. Over 1,000 components can be placed on a single

integrated-circuit chip.

v. Fifth Generation Computers

components can be incorporated on a single integrated chip.

parallel processing. The concept of Artificial intelligence has been introduced to allow the computer
to take its own decision.

6. Classification of computers
Computers can be classified in different ways as shown below:
Classification by processing
This is by how the computer represents and processes the data.

a) Digital computers are computers which process data that is represented in the form of
discrete values by operating on it in steps. Digital computers process data represented in the
form of discrete values like 0, 1, 2. They are used for both business data processing and scientific
purposes since digital computation results in greater accuracy.

b) Analog computers are used for scientific, engineering, and process-controlled purposes.
Outputs are represented in the form of graphs. Analogue computers process data represented by
physical variables and output physical magnitudes in the form of smooth graphs.

c) Hybrid computers are computers that have the combined features of digital and analog
computers. They offer an efficient and economical method of working out special problems in
science and various areas of engineering.

Classification by purpose
This is a classification by the use to which the computer is put.

a) Special purpose computers are used for a certain specific function e.g. in medicine,
engineering, manufacturing.
b) General-purpose computers can be used for a wide variety of tasks e.g. accounting, word
processing

Classification by generation
This is a time-based classification coinciding with technological advances.
The computers are categorized as First generation through to Fifth generation.

a) First generation. Computers of the early 1940s. Used a circuitry of wires and vacuum tubes.
Produced a lot of heat, took a lot of space, were very slow and expensive. Examples are LEO 1
and UNIVAC 1.

b) Second generation. Computers of the early 1950s. Made use of transistors and thus were
smaller and faster. (200KHz). Examples include the IBM system 1000.

c) Third generation. Computers of the 1960s. Made use of Integrated Circuits. Speeds of up to
1MHz. Examples include the IBM system 360.
d) Fourth generation. Computers of the 1970s and 1980s. Used Large Scale Integration (LSI)
technology. Speeds of up to 10MHz. Examples include the IBM 4000 series.

e) Fifth generation. Computers of the 1990s. Use Very Large Scale Integration (VLSI) technology
and have speeds up to 400MHz and above.

Classification by power and size/ configuration

a) Supercomputers. the largest and most powerful. Used to process large amounts of data very
quickly. Useful for meteorological or astronomical applications. Examples include Cray and
Fujitsu.

b) Mainframe computers. Large computers in terms of price, power and size. Require a
carefully controlled environment and specialist staff to operate them used for centralized
processing for large commercial organizations. Manufacturers include International Business
Machine (IBM).

c) Minicomputers. Their size, speed and capabilities lie somewhere between mainframes and
microcomputers. Used as departmental computers in large organizations or as the main
computer in medium-sized organizations. Manufacturers of minicomputers include IBM and
International Computer Limited (ICL).

d) Microcomputers. These are the personal computers commonly used for office and leisure
activities. Examples include Hewlett Packard (HP), Compaq and Dell. They include desktops,
laptops and palmtops.
Data representation in computers
Data exists as electrical voltages in a computer. Since electricity can exist in 2 states, on or off,
binary digits are used to represent data. Binary digits, or bits, can be “0” or “1”. The bit is the
basic unit of representing data in a digital computer.
A bit is either a 1 or a 0. These correspond to two electronic/magnetic states of ON (1) and OFF
(0) in digital circuits which are the basic building blocks of computers. All data operated by a
computer and the instructions that manipulate that data must be represented in these units.
Other units are a combination of these basic units. Such units include:

3 bits = 8 bits – usually used to represent one character e.g. „A‟

– 210 bytes = 1024 bytes (usually considered as 1000 bytes)

– 220 bytes = 1048576 bytes (usually considered as 1000000 bytes/1000 KB)

 – 230 bytes = 1073741824 bytes (usually considered as 1,000,000,000 bytes/1000
MB)

– 240 bytes = 1099511627776 bytes (usually considered as one trillion

bytes/1000 GB)

Bit patterns (the pattern of 1s or 0s found in the bytes) represent various kinds of data:

Numerical values (using the binary number system)

Text/character data (using the ASCII coding scheme)

Program instructions (using the machine language)

Pictures (using such data formats as gif, jpeg, bmp and wmf)

Video (using such data formats as avi, mov and mpeg)

Sound/music (using such data formats as wav, au and mp3)

Computer data is represented using number systems and either one of the character coding
schemes.
8. Functional/Logical parts of a digital computer
The system unit houses the processing components of the computer system. All other computer
system devices are called peripherals, and are connected directly or indirectly into the system
unit.

Input devices – Enters program and data into computer system.

Central Processing Unit (CPU) – This is the part of the computer that processes data.
Consists of main memory, the control unit and the arithmetic and logic unit.
 Main Memory – Temporary storage to hold programs and data during execution/
processing.

Control Unit – Controls execution of programs.

Arithmetic Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs actual processing of data using program
instructions.

Output devices – Displays information processed by the computer system.

Storage devices – Permanent storage of data and programs before and after it is processed by
the computer system.

Communication devices – Enable communication with other computers.

8.1 Hardware
Refers to the physical, tangible computer equipment and devices, which provide support for
major functions such as input, processing (internal storage, computation and control), output,
secondary storage (for data and programs), and communication.
Hardware categories
A computer system is a set of integrated devices that input, output, process, and store data and
information. Computer systems are currently built around at least one digital processing device.
There are five main hardware components in a computer system: the central processing unit
(CPU); primary storage (main memory); secondary storage; and input and output devices.
Basic elements of hardware
The basic elements that make up a computer system are as follows:

a) Input

Most computers cannot accept data in forms customary to human communication such as
speech or hand-written documents. It is necessary, therefore, to present data to the computer in
a way that provides easy conversion into its own electronic pulse-based forms. This is
commonly achieved by typing data using the keyboard or using an electronic mouse or any
other input device.

Keyboard can be connected to a computer system through a terminal. A terminal is a form of

input and output device. A terminal can be connected to a mainframe or other types of
computers called a host computer or server. There are four types of terminals namely dumb,
intelligent, network and Internet.

Dumb Terminal

- Used to input and receive data only.

- It cannot process data independently.

- A terminal used by an airline reservation clerk to access a mainframe computer for flight
information is an example of a dumb terminal

Intelligent Terminal

- Includes a processing unit, memory, and secondary storage.

- It uses communications software and a telephone hookup or other communications link.

- A microcomputer connected to a larger computer by a modem or network link is an example

of an intelligent terminal.

Network Terminal

- Also known as a thin client or network computer.

- It is a low cost alternative to an intelligent terminal.

- Most network terminals do not have a hard drive.

- This type of terminal relies on a host computer or server for application or system software.

Internet Terminal

- Is also known as a web terminal.

- It provides access to the Internet and displays web pages on a standard television set.

- It is used almost exclusively in the home.

Direct data entry devices – Direct entry creates machine-readable data that can go directly to
the CPU. It reduces human error that may occur during keyboard entry. Direct entry devices
include pointing, scanning and voice-input devices.

Pen input devices e.g. Lightpen

Pen input devices are used to select or input items by touching the screen with the pen. Light
pens accomplish this by using a white cell at the tip of the pen. When the light pen is placed
against the monitor, it closes a photoelectric circuit. The photoelectric circuit identifies the spot
for entering or modifying data. Engineers who design microprocessor chips or airplane parts
use light pens.
Touch sensitive screen inputs
Touch sensitive screens, or touch screens, allow the user to execute programs or select menu
items by touching a portion of a special screen. Behind the plastic layer of the touch screen are
crisscrossed invisible beams of infrared light. Touching the screen with a finger can activate
actions or commands. Touch screens are often used in ATMs, information centres, restaurants,
and or stores. They are popularly used at gas stations for customers to select the grade of gas or
request a receipt at the pump (in developed countries), as well as in fast-food restaurants to
allow clerks to easily enter orders.
ii. Scanning Devices
Scanning devices, or scanners, can be used to input images and character data directly into a
computer. The scanner digitises the data into machine-readable form. The scanning devices
used in direct-entry include the following:

Image Scanner – converts images on a page to electronic signals.

Fax Machine – converts light and dark areas of an image into format that can be sent over
telephone lines.

Bar-Code Readers – photoelectric scanner that reads vertical striped marks printed on items.

Character and Mark Recognition Devices – scanning devices used to read marks on
documents.

Character and Mark Recognition Device Features

of character and mark recognition devices:

- Magnetic-ink character recognition (MICR)

Magnetic ink character recognition, or MICR, readers are used to read the numbers printed at
the bottom of checks in special magnetic ink. These numbers are an example of data that is both
machine readable and human readable. The use of MICR readers increases the speed and
accuracy of processing checks.
- Optical-character recognition (OCR)
Read special preprinted characters, such as those on utility and telephone bills.

- Optical-mark recognition (OMR)

Reads marks on tests – also called mark sensing. Optical mark recognition readers are often
used for test scoring since they can read the location of marks on what is sometimes called a
mark sense document. This is how, for instance, standardized tests, such as the KCPE, SAT or
GMAT are scored.

iv. Voice–input devices

Voice-Input Devices can also be used for direct input into a computer. Speech recognition can
be used for data input when it is necessary to keep your hands free. For example, a doctor may
use voice recognition software to dictate medical notes while examining a patient. Voice
recognition can also be used for security purposes to allow only authorized people into certain
areas or to use certain devices.
 -input devices convert speech into a digital code.

-input device is the microphone.

Note:
Point-of-sale (POS) terminals (electronic cash registers) use both keyboard and direct entry.

Keyboard Entry can be used to type in information.

Direct Entry can be used to read special characters on price tags.

Point-of-sale terminals can use wand readers or platform scanners as direct entry devices.

-readable code.

‟s barcode e.g. price appear on terminal‟s digital

display.

b) Storage

Data and instructions enter main storage, and are held until needed to be worked on. The
instructions dictate action to be taken on the data. Results of the action will be held until they
are required for output.

c) Control

Each computer has a control unit that fetches instructions from main storage, interprets them,
and issues the necessary signals to the components making up the system. It directs all
hardware operations necessary in obeying instructions
d) Processing

Instructions are obeyed and the necessary arithmetic and logic operations are carried out on the
data. The part that does this is called the Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU).
Processing devices
(i) The CPU (Central Processing Unit)
The CPU (Central Processing Unit) controls the processing of instructions. The CPU produces
electronic pulses at a predetermined and constant rate. This is called the clock speed. Clock
speed is generally measured in megahertz, that is, millions of cycles per second.
It consists of:

o Control Unit (CU) – The electronic circuitry of the control unit accesses program instructions,
decodes them and coordinates instruction execution in the CPU.
o Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU) – Performs mathematical calculations and logical
comparisons.

o Registers – These are high-speed storage circuitry that holds the instruction and the data
while the processor is executing the instruction.

o Bus – This is a highway connecting internal components to each other.

(ii) Main Memory

Primary storage, also called main memory, although not a part of the CPU, is closely related to
the CPU. Main memory holds program instructions and data before and after execution by the
CPU. All instructions and data pass through main memory locations. Memory is located
physically close to the CPU to decrease access time, that is, the time it takes the CPU to retrieve
data from memory. Although the overall trend has been increased memory access time,
memory has not advanced as quickly as processors. Memory access time is often measured in
milliseconds, or one thousandths of a second.

e) Output

Results are taken from main storage and fed to an output device. This may be a printer, in
which case the information is automatically converted to a printed form called hard copy or to a
monitor screen for a soft copy of data or information.
Output devices
Output is human-readable information. Input (data) is processed inside the computer‟s CPU
into meaningful output (information). Output devices translate the machine-readable
information into human-readable information.

-column card in columns by combining

punches in different locations; a special card reader reads the cards and translates them into
transactions for the computer. These are now used only for older applications.

Paper tape punch

Printers
– Outputs printout on paper often referred to as hard-copy output.
Categorized according to:
(i) Printing capacity

o Character printers – Print one character at a time.

o Line printers – Print one line at a time.

o Page printers – Print a whole page at a time.

(ii) Mode of printing

o Dot matrix printers

Forms images via pins striking a ribbon against a paper. The print head typically have 9 or 24
pins. The images are relatively of poor quality since dots are visible upon close inspection.
Though inexpensive compared to other types, they are noisy and low-end models are slow
(speed varies with price).

o Ink jet printers

Forms images by “shooting” tiny droplets of ink on paper. They offer relatively good image
quality with so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They
are relatively quiet compared to dot matrix and most can print colour images.

o Laser jet printers

Forms images using copier technology – a laser/LED (Light Emitting Diode) lights up dots to
be blackened and toner sticks to these dot positions on the paper. They have excellent image
quality – so many small dots that they are not noticeable, even upon close inspection. They are
quieter than ink jet printers.

o Thermal Printers

Forms images using heat elements and heat – sensitive paper. It is very quiet and not widely
used by home PC users. Some very expensive colour models are available. “Ink” in these
computers is wax crayons.
Plotters
Plotters are typically used for design output. They are special-purpose output devices used to
produce charts, maps, architectural drawings and three-dimensional representations. They can
produce high-quality multi-colour documents or larger size documents. Plotters produce
documents such as blueprints or schematics
Monitors
– Output device for soft-copy output (temporal screen display of output which lasts as long as
the monitor‟s power is on). They are the most frequently used output devices. Some are used
on the desktop; others are portable. Two important characteristics of the monitor are size and
clarity.
Voice-output devices

-output devices make sounds that resemble human speech.

-output devices use prerecorded vocalized sounds to produce output.

-output devices are stereo speakers and headphones.

Examples of voice output uses:

-drink machines, the telephone, and in cars.

be used as a tool for learning.

Auxiliary/Secondary Storage devices

Secondary storage devices store a larger amount of data or instructions than does main
memory, on a more permanent basis. On a per megabyte basis, secondary storage is also
cheaper than primary storage. Secondary storage is also infinitely extendable, unlike main
memory, which is finite. Secondary storage is not volatile. Secondary storage is also more
portable than primary storage – that is, it is possible to remove it from a computer and use the
device and its contents in another.
Types of secondary storage devices

Magnetic disks – Stores bits as magnetic spots. Magnetic disks are similar to magnetic tapes
in that areas are magnetized to represent bits. However the disks‟ read/write head can go
directly to the desired record, allowing fast data retrieval. Magnetic disks can range from small
and portable, such as diskettes with 1.44MB of storage capacity, to large capacity fixed hard
disks, which are more expensive and less portable.

o Floppy disks (diskettes)

5 ¼ floppy disks

3 ½ floppy disks – The most common size with a capacity of 1.44 MB. They are not very
fast and durable.
o Hard disks/Fixed disks – Also called hard drives. Their capacity range from 20 to 120 GB.
They are fast and durable though not foolproof. Most are internal, but disks that use
removable cartridge are available. Disk compression can be used to increase capacity but
slows performance.

Optical Disks – Store bits as “pits” and “lands” on surface of disk that can be detected (read)
by a laser beam.

o CD-ROM (Compact-Disk Read Only Memory) – Only read and cannot be erased for
rewriting. Has a capacity of 650 MB
 o CD-R (Compact-Disk Recordable) / WORM (Write Once, Read Many) – Usually blank at
first and can be written only once. Has a capacity of 650 MB

o CD-RW (Compact Disk ReWritable) – Can written and read more than once. Has a
capacity of 650 MB.

o DVD-ROM (Digital Video Disks) – They are similar to CDs except that it has high quality
sound and high-resolution video. Has a normal capacity of 4.7 GB and up to 17 GB if
double-sided with double layering. Uses laser technology. They are a relatively new
technology usually used in the entertainment industry.

Magnetic Tapes – Magnetic tape is similar in composition to the kind of tape found in
videotapes and audiotapes. A plastic film is coated with iron oxide, which is magnetized to
represent bits.

o Tape cartridges – Used in personal computers. Has up to 20 GB per tape (probably even
more).

o Tape reels – Used in minicomputers and mainframes.

Other Backup Options

o Zip drive/disk – Uses special diskettes that hold 100 MB, 250 MB or 750 MB

o SyQuest drive – Uses special cartridges that hold 200 MB

RAID - RAID stands for redundant arrays of independent or inexpensive disks. RAID
technology is fault tolerant; that is, it allows data to be stored so that no data or transactions are
lost in the event of disk failure. RAID involves using multiple hard disks in a special controller
unit and storing data across all the disks in conjunction with extra reconstruction information
that allows data to be recovered if a hard disk fails.

Storage Area Network (SAN) – A storage area network connects servers and storage devices
in a network to store large volumes of data. Data stored in a storage area network can be
quickly retrieved and backed up. The use of storage area networks is likely to increase in the
near future.
Computer Output Microfilm (COM) -Companies that must store significant numbers of
paper documents often use computer output microfilm. These devices transfer data directly
from the computer onto the microfilm, thus eliminating the intermediate step of printing the
document on paper. Newspapers and journals typically archive old issues in this manner,
although some are now using optical storage devices.

Storage capacity abbreviations

KB - kilobyte - 1000 (thousand)

 MB - megabyte - 1,000,000 (million)

GB - gigabyte - 1,000,000,000 (billion)

TB - terabyte - 1,000,000,000,000 (trillion)

Communication devices

- Modems allow computers (digital devices) to communicate via the phone system
(based on analog technology). It turns the computers digital data into analog, sends it over the
phone line, and then another modem at the other end of the line turns the analog signal back
into digital data.

Fax/modem - basic digital/analog modem enhanced with fax transmission hardware that
enables faxing of information from computer to another fax/modem or a fax machine (NOTE: a
separate scanner must be connected to the computer in order to use the fax/modem to transfer external
documents)

Computer Memory
Memory capability is one of the features that distinguish a computer from other electronic
devices. Like the CPU, memory is made of silicon chips containing circuits holding data
represented by on or off electrical states, or bits. Eight bits together form a byte. Memory is
usually measured in megabytes or gigabytes.
A kilobyte is roughly 1,000 bytes. Specialized memories, such as cache memories, are typically
measured in kilobytes. Often both primary memory and secondary storage capacities today
contain megabytes, or millions of bytes, of space.
Types of Memory

1. RAM (Random Access Memory) /RWM (Read Write Memory) – Also referred to as main
memory, primary storage or internal memory. Its content can be read and can be changed and is
the working area for the user. It is used to hold programs and data during processing. RAM
chips are volatile, that is, they loose their contents if power is disrupted. Typical sizes of RAM
include 32MB, 64MB, 128MB, 256MB and 512MB.

a. DRAM – Dynamic RAM

b. SDRAM – Synchronous
2. ROM (Read Only Memory) – Its contents can only be read and cannot be changed. ROM
chips is non-volatile, so the contents aren‟t lost if the power is disrupted. ROM provides
permanent storage for unchanging data & instructions, such as data from the computer maker.
It is used to hold instructions for starting the computer called the bootstrap program.

ROM: chips, the contents, or combination of electrical circuit states, are set by the manufacturer
and cannot be changed. States are permanently manufactured into the chip.
PROM: the settings must be programmed into the chip. After they are programmed, PROM
behaves like ROM – the circuit states can‟t be changed. PROM is used when instructions will be
permanent, but they aren‟t produced in large enough quantities to make custom chip
production (as in ROM) cost effective. PROM chips are, for example, used to store video game
instructions.
Instructions are also programmed into erasable programmable read-only memory. However,
the contents of the chip can be erased and the chip can be reprogrammed. EPROM chips are
used where data and instructions don‟t change often, but non-volatility and quickness are
needed. The controller for a robot arm on an assembly line is an example of EPROM use.

a. PROM (Programmable Read Only Memory) – It is written onto only once using special
devices. Used mostly in electronic devices such as alarm systems.

b. EPROM (Erasable Programmable Read Only Memory) –Can be written onto more than once.

3. Cache Memory - Cache memory is high-speed memory that a processor can access more
quickly than RAM. Frequently used instructions are stored in cache since they can be retrieved
more quickly, improving the overall performance of the computer. Level 1 (L1) cache is located
on the processor; Level 2 (L2) cache is located between the processor and RAM.

4. BUBBLE MEMORY

This represents data and instructions in terms of magnetic principles called bubbles where
presence of a bubble represents‟ 1‟ and its absence represents „0‟. This memory is convenient
and easy to develop. It can withstand adverse weather conditions such as dust. Bubble memory
is suitable when the internal memory id to be expanded limitlessly i.e. where high speed access
is necessary for transferring small manageable data in form of segments. The memory cells do
not lose data when they are de-energized by switching off the power However, it is very
expensive.

5. OPTICAL/HOLOGRAPHIC MEMORY

This type of memory uses the principle of light to store data or information. The data or
information is stored in the form of dots on a light sensitive plate. This memory is non-volatile
and has a vast storage capacity.

6. CORE MEMORY
This is an internal store made up of small magnetic rings which are magnetized by wires
threaded on them. The memory cells are the basis of storage. The polarity of the magnetic rings
are set using currents to represent data, instructions or or information in binary logics, 0‟s
and1‟s.This memory stores data, information or programs more permanently and the set of
polarities do not change even if the power goes off (it is non-volatile). However, it is expensive
and reading is achieved through a sense of wire which is used to determine the polarity of the
desired chores.

7. SEMI-CONDUCTOR MEMORY

This memory is faster and cheaper than magnetic core memory and is used in all modern
computers. Semi-conductor memory consists of electronic circuits (flipflop/ storage cell)
prepared on silicon chips. The physical size of this memory is very small. The major drawback
of this memory is that it is volatile in that it loses its contents on case of power failure but this
drawback can be overcome by having a back-up power unit. Semi-conductor memories has
gained popularity over the core memories due to the following:
They are small and occupy less space.
They have a vast storage capacity.
They are fast since they operate purely on electronic principles and hence are reliable.
They are cheap to produce
8.
COMPUTER SOFTWARE.
All computers work under special instructions called software. Software is a set of instructions
that help in running and managing computer resources enabling the computer to operate
effectively. The computer software makes the computer to work i.e. it helps in running the
computer hardware. It instructs the computer on what to do and hoe to do it. There are two
categories of computer software.

1. System software.

2. Application software.

SYSTEMS SOFTWARE
This is a set of instructions or programs developed and installed in the computer system
designed to manage and control the computer resources hence enhancing the functional
capabilities of the computer system. It is used within the computer for organising internal
functions of the system. System software are developed by the manufacturers of computer
hardware
Systems software can be divided into three:-

programs

a) OPERATING SYSTEM
This is an integrated collection of programmes that manage the operations of the C.P.U, other
peripheral and hardware. Operating system therefore manages the computer resources to
enhance the optimum utilisation and efficiency of the computer.
FUNCTIONS OF OPERATING SYSTEM
Job scheduling- This is the process of lining up jobs particularly where such jobs have to pass
through several devices, for example several jobs awaiting printing. The operating system
performs job scheduling thus ensuring that the CPU time is not dedicated to one job only; the
CPU idle time is therefore reduced to a great extent. The jobs may be lined up in order of
priority, order of complexity etc.
Peripheral devices/ input- output control- It monitors the flow of data between the
input/output devices and the CPU. Peripheral devices are the physical elements of the
computer system which are connected to the system to enhance its usage. By regulating the
speed imbalance between the peripheral devices and the CPU, the operating system facilitates
optimum utilization of the CPU time.
Memory management- The operating system allocates memory location to data, ensuring that
programs are transferred into the available memory location from the external store. It defines
the available, occupied and the damaged memory which can no longer hold data.
File management- The operating system normally arranges the stored data and allows the users
to perform file related activities such as creation and deletion of files, file interrogation, file
dumping among others. It also allows for the protection of files from accidental or deliberate
corruption (file security)
Error reporting- In the event that errors occur during program execution, the operating system
will send diagnostic messages to the user so that the program execution can stop for the user‟s
corrective responses. Thus it does not take long before the user realizes that errors have
occurred. Indeed, a good operating system should offer automatic recovery from error
situations.
Logging and accounting. The system accounts for who logged in i.e., who gained access to the
computer at a given time. It keeps the records of the jobs created, indicating which jobs were
created when and by who.
Enhancing systems security- The operating system allows the users to use passwords through
which they can be recognized as legitimate users. This ensures that data stored in the computer
at a given time is not subjected to any sort of deliberate or accidental corruption.
Interface between the users and the computer system- It enables the users to access the
computer system to issue the instructions for the processing tasks to be performed. The form of
„conversion is therefore established between the operating system and the operator, usually
through console in multi-user system. Console is when the keyboard is used together with the
visual display unit.
CATEGORIES OF OPERATING SYSTEMS

i) Single user operating system – This operating system allows one program to be executed at a
time. It can only be used by one user.

ii) Single user multitasking operating system - This is a program which allows one user to
perform several tasks at the same time.
iii) Multi-user multitasking operating system – This is sometimes referred to concurrent
operating system. It allows the computer to carry out several tasks at the same time while being
used by different users.

iv) Time sharing operating system – This allows multiple users to access a single computer by
supervising the clockwise rotation from one user to the other. The attention of the C.P.U is
switched among users on a timed basis controlled by the operating systems.

UTILITY PROGRAMS/ SERVICE PROGRAMS

These are programs used to carry out routine tasks such as merging, sorting, dumping among
others. They are normally supplied by the manufacturers to make the computer work
efficiently. Utility programs are said to be more efficient than the operating system. If the
programs which are performed by every computer were to be written separately for each
installation, there could be a lot of programmers‟ time wasted, hence the manufacturers have to
provide a wide range of programs for performing routine tasks which will eventually meet the
users‟ requirements.. The most commonly used utility programs include:

- This is a utility program used to create and manipulate text information using the
computer. The users can therefore make any alterations to the text documents to meet their
needs or even make changes to programs. This editing is carried out by using the edit keys
found on the keyboard or by using a series of commands. Character, line and page editors can
be used for this purpose.

- A bug is a program error. Debuggers are therefore used to remove errors from
programs during program development. Debugging adjusts the program to remove variances
between actual and expected output. However, it does not point out logical or arithmetic errors.

- Sorting is the process of arranging records in a file so that they can be read in a
particular predetermined sequence for example on ascending or descending order. Sort ulility
facilitates the sorting process

- This combines two or more related files into a single file.

- This facilitates copying the contents of the main memory onto external storage
devices such as magnetic disks for security purposes. Computers and related facilities are prone
to security threats such as theft and fire outbreaks and in the event of such threats which may
lead to loss of data from the main memory, the lost data can be recovered from the external
storage facilities.

-virus utility-This scans the computer‟s hard disk and the external storage devices to
detect virus. A virus is a malicious program that has the capability of deleting other programs
and files present in a computer system

- This removes redundant elements from or unnecessary data from

the computer memory.
 – for managing the printing process by arranging the printing tasks in a given
order.

TRANSLATION PROGRAMS
These are programs that convert the source code instructions (instructions written in 2nd, 3rd,
4th and 5th generation languages) into machine code i.e. O‟S and I‟S.
There are 3 types of translation programs:

i) Assemblers: These are translators which transform programs written in 2nd generation into
machine codes.

ii) Compilers: These are translators which transform programs written in high level languages
into machine codes several statements at a time.

iii) Interpreters: These are translators which transform programs written in high level language
into machine code one statement at a time.

APPLICATION SOFTWARE
Application software is a set of instructions used to accomplish specific tasks other than just
running the computer system; they are designed to help the users solve specific problems.
Application software can be bought off- shelf or can be developed in-house depending on the
needs of organisation. An advantage of acquiring a suite of programs rather than individual
programs is that it will be cheaper. A suite is a set of applications put together. Application
software are normally designed to solve particular problems and they can be categorised into
two;-

i) Off shelf packages

ii) Tailor-made/in-house/bespoke packages.

OFF- SHELF PACKAGES
These are standardised ready made programs that can be bought directly from the
manufacturers. They are designed to solve a particular problem but are not meant for a
particular user.
They are suitable under the following circumstances:

i) When problem to be solved is of general nature.

ii) When the programmers are not available in the organisation.

iii) When cheaper to buy them than develop them in-house.

iv) When the problem at hand is urgent.

Examples:

i) Accounting Packages

These are application programs designed to help accountants solve their day to day problems
such as preparation of financial statements and bank reconciliation Examples include
QuickBooks, Sage and Pastel.

ii) Spreadsheets.

They allow users to create tables and prepare schedules by allowing data to be displayed in
rows and in columns on the visual display unit. A spreadsheet is simply a grid of rows and
columns used by accountants and others to produce financial reports and projections.
An electronic spreadsheet allows users to create tables by entering data in the section of a row
and a column referred as a cell. Typically an electronic spreadsheet offers the following
facilities:

1. Graphics

It allows users to display numerical data in a variety of forms such as bar graphs and file charts.

2. Consolidation.

This feature allows the users to merge several worksheets and give a summery sheet while
keeping the original sheet intact.

3. Functions.

Spreadsheets offer various functions include summation average, subtraction and any other
function used in mathematical and statistical analysis.

4. Formatting
This allows the users to improve on the appearance of the spreadsheet e.g. changing colour,
style e.t.c

5. Windows- A spreadsheet provides the users with several working areas thus allowing for
multitasking.

iii) Text manipulation packages.

a) Word processing packages.

These are application packages designed to allow users create, manipulate, format, merge, edit
and save text documents. They are commonly used for preparation of business documents such
as letters, reports, notices, memos, circulars e.t.c. Examples include: Microsoft word,
WordPerfect and word star.
b)

Desktop publishing (graphic packages)

These are application packages that allow users to carry out some amount of text manipulation
and also carry out design work. They are enhanced word processors. Organizations commonly
use desk-top publishing for designing reports, adverts, press releases, business cards,
publications and business logos.
Sources of software

ADVANTAGES OF APPLICATION PACKAGES

i) They are portable i.e. most of them can be run on a variety of computers and different
hardware.

ii) They are developed by experts and therefore tested and likely to be free from errors.

iii) They are cheap since they are produced in large quantities and the cost of developing can be
distributed to customers.
iv) They are readily available and therefore it takes a short time to implement them.

v) They are user friendly(easy to learn and use)

vi) They are well documented i.e. they are accompanied by well designed user manuals.

DISADVANTAGES OF OFF-SHELF SOFTWARE

i) Since they are not tailor-made, they may not solve the unique problems of the users.

ii) The user does not have ownership rights and therefore cannot modify or sell the packages.

iii) They require regular training especially every time a new version comes into the market.
iv) Since they need regular maintenance and are subject to frequent obsolescence due to rapid
technological development, they become out of date very fast.

TAILOR MADE/INHOUSE/BESPOKE PACKAGES

These are programs designed to meet the unique needs of the users. They are developed to
solve a specific problem and are suitable under the following circumstances:

i) When problem at hand is not urgent since they take long to implement.

ii) When users problem is unique and cannot be solved using readily available standardised
packages.

iii) When there is availability of programmers to develop the packages internally.

iv) When it is cheaper to develop them in-house in comparison to acquiring them from the
manufacturer.

ADVANTAGES OF IN-HOUSE PACKAGES

i) They are tailor made and therefore are capable of solving the users‟ specific problems.

ii) They require less training because users are involved in developing them.

iii) The user develops them and therefore he acquires the ownership right which allows for
modification.

iv) Security- only users within the organisation have knowledge of the way the software
operates and therefore outsiders may not have access to how the packages operate.

DISADVANTAGES OF IN-HOUSE PACKAGES

i) Require a lot of time to implement.

ii) They are not highly portable i.e they are machine specific.

iii) Most of them may not be documented as compared to off- shelf packages.

iv) They are usually costly because the user has to meet all the expenses of development testing
and maintenance.

v) They are likely to have errors due to improper testing.

DIFFERENCES BETWEEN OFFSHELF PACKAGES AND TAILORMADE PACKAGES

PARAMETER OFF- SHELF TAILOR-MADE
User needs General purpose Specific purpose
Cost Cheaper due to cost sharing Expensive since the user
meets development, testing
and maintenance costs.
Portability Portable Machine specific
Security Less secure More secure
Training Requires more training Requires less straining due to
user involvement
Documentation Well documented May not be well documented
Implementation time Take a short time to Takes a long time to
implement implement.