Overview of SLA Principles and Theories

Principle Proponents Period Key Features Implications for the Classroom

Introduced
To learn a B.F. Skinner Before Habit formation through: • Focus on producing the sound,
language is to 1970s • Memorization rhythm and flow of L2
learn a behavior Paul Pimsleur • Repetition • Audio Lingual Method (e.g., recitation
• Copying and repetition of scripted dialogues;
• Practice Jazz Chants)
• Memorization drills
Acquiring a second Steven Krashen 1980s • Natural Order Hypothesis: • Learners go through the same natural
language is like Learners acquire language features in order of acquisition of particular
acquiring a first Tracy Terrell roughly the same order, regardless of the features (e.g. verb endings,
language order in which they’re taught. questions), but not all learners in
IF James Asher • Comprehensible Input: your classroom will be at the same
certain conditions Language that can be understood by stage or advance at the same rate.
are met Heidi Dulay learners despite them not understanding • Instructor language is at or just above
all the words and structures (like learner comprehension level.
Marina Burt “motherese”). To progress, language input • To keep the monitor and affective
needs to be just beyond the learner’s level filter low, the instructor and
(I + 1). classmates are supportive, learners
• Learning vs. Acquisition: are relaxed and the curriculum is
Learning = Thinking about the language; motivating (e.g., learner-centered;
focused on learning the rules and patterns goal-oriented, uses formative
of the language. assessments).
Acquisition = Understanding and using L2 • Emphasis is on language input, not
• Monitor Hypothesis: learners’ output (e.g., Silent
Learned language acts as a “monitor.” Sustained Reading; Total Physical
Checking and correcting language output. Response) especially for beginners
Overuse can result in stilted, unnatural • Use of authentic materials and
speech. authentic contexts, scaffolded as
• Affective Filter: needed.
Learners’ emotional state as they acquire • The Natural approach; Immersion
language; Confidence, motivation, and model.
anxiety levels impact a student’s ability to
comprehend input. [Comprehensible Input
+ Low Affective Filter = Necessary
conditions for SLA]
 Principle Proponents Period Key Features Implications for the Classroom
Introduced
Language learners Steven Krashen 1980s Five Stages: • Pre-production: Provide activities
go through stages 1. Pre-production/Silent, 0-6 months geared to tap learner knowledge, but
of language Tracy Terrell 2. Early production, 6 months -1 year do not force production (speaking).
development 3. Speech emergent, 1-3 years Pointing, labeling, and drawing
Judy Haynes 4. Intermediate fluency, 3-5 years activities work well. (TPR)
5. Advanced fluency, 5-7 years • Early production: Ask easy yes/no,
Harald Clahsen either/or questions or simple who,
what, where, when questions.
Learners can demonstrate their
comprehension of material by giving
short responses.
• Speech emergence: Ask students at
this stage how and why questions
that elicit short responses.
• Nearly fluent: Ask open-ended
questions that allow students to
create more complicated responses
and to use complex sentences.
• Advanced fluency: Offer challenging
activities to expand the student's
vocabulary knowledge. Provide
support in fine-tuning oral and
written language skills.
Language learners Larry Selinker 1970s Correct errors judiciously ( e.g.,
• Interlanguage is the type of language •
develop an accept that they are part of language
produced by second-language learners who
Interlanguage in Richard Schmidt development, while also noticing
are in the process of learning a language. It
the process of patterns that could lead to
preserves some features of the first
their language fossilization).
language and can also include some
development To help prevent fossilization and
overgeneralized second language writing •
and speaking rules. gradually increase accuracy, expose
learners to ample authentic,
• It can “fossilize” or cease to develop at any unscripted language through task-
stage. Fossilization in language acquisition based / communicative activities.
may occur when students feel their
communicative needs are being met.
 Principle Proponents Period Key Features Implications for the Classroom
Introduced
Language learning Merill Swain 1990s • Pushed output: • Design instruction to include ample
takes place when Language learners need not only opportunities for students to talk and
the learner comprehensible input in a relaxed, write in the L2.
encounters a gap supportive classroom (per Krashen), they • Include attention to both
in his or her also need communicative tasks that push communication and accuracy, i.e.,
linguistic them to use language and make second language acquisition as well
knowledge of the themselves understood. as learning the rules and patterns of
second language • Noticing - Hypothesis testing - language (language awareness)
and repairs it. Internalizing: • Fossilized errors may never be
Through language production, students noticed by the learner unless the s/he
identify patterns, try out different sees a reason to (e.g. if it is seriously
strategies until they get it right, then hindering communication or if they
internalize the elements of the language are pointed out). Teachers can help
they are learning in the classroom. learners notice their fossilized errors
by, for example, recording them
speaking, or asking them to keep a
record of their written errors as part
of a language portfolio.
The development Michael Long 1990s • The Interaction Hypothesis: • Provide students with many
of language The effectiveness of comprehensible input opportunities for authentic
proficiency is Susan Gass is greatly increased when learners have to interaction to encourage them to
promoted by face- negotiate for meaning. work through their communication
to-face interaction A combination of the Input and Output difficulties, and receive feedback on
and authentic Hypotheses, the Interaction Hypothesis modifications required to make
communication. emphasizes the importance of: language comprehensible.
• Negotiation of Meaning: When speakers • Provide direct instruction on
encounter a communication problem communicative and language
(mispronunciation, vocabulary or grammar acquisition strategies.
misusage, etc.), they naturally negotiate or • Assign out-of-class communicative
provide feedback to one another to modify activities.
their speech and make it more
comprehensible.
• Modified Language: We modify our
language depending upon who we are
talking to, the topic, and the context. We
simplify, repeat, clarify, and rephrase.
 Principle Proponents Period Key Features Implications for the Classroom
Introduced
The rate of second Jim Cummins 1980s • BICS and CALP (Basic Interpersonal • Provide opportunities for learners to
language Communication Skill and Cognitive develop academic English skills,
acquisition Academic Language Proficiency) take 1-2 critical thinking, and problem solving
depends on the years and 5-7 years, respectively, to in addition to English conversational
kind of language acquire. skills.
and context in • For example, teach Tier 2 vocabulary,
which it is used. use complex texts, work towards
CCRSAE standards.
Second language John Schumann 1978- • Second language acquisition is directly • Develop an understanding of the
acquisition is Present linked to the acculturation process, which factors that influence acculturation
linked to the Geert Hofstede is influenced by social and psychological • Establish a climate of respect in the
extent to which factors. classroom that acknowledges and
learners orient Sharan Merriam • Acculturation factors: affirms cultural differences.
themselves to the  Integration pattern • Teaching the target culture enhances
culture of the  Enclosure acquisition of the target language.
target language.  Size
 Cohesiveness
 Cultural congruence
 Social dominance
 Attitude
 Intended length of residence

Individual learner Po-Sen Liao 1990s • Individual learner characteristics include: • Use information about individual
characteristics  Age students to address and differentiate
have an impact on Rod Ellis  Motivation their instruction.
the rate and  Attitude
proficiency level of Zolten Dornyei  Aptitude
second language  Cognitive Style
acquisition, some  Language Learning Style
more than others.  Personality
**Created by the SABES ESOL Curriculum and Instruction PD Center, 2017, updated 9/2018