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Atomic Theory and Structure

The Periodic Table of Elements
BY ANTHONY CARPI, PH.D.

Table of contents 

Arrangement of the modern periodic table

Electron configuration and the table
Electron configuration shorthand

Terms you should know 

config uration : the way parts are arranged; referring to how electrons are distributed in orbitals, or
electron shells, around the nucleus of an atom
element : a pure chemical substance that is made on only one kind of atom
g roup : a column of elements in the periodic table
period : a row of elements in the periodic table

In 1869, the Russian chemist Dmitri Mendeleev first proposed that the chemical elements
exhibited a "periodicity of properties." 
Mendeleev had tried to organize the chemical elements
according to their atomic weights , assuming that the properties of the elements would
gradually change as atomic weight increased. What he found, however, was that the chemical
and physical properties of the
elements increased gradually and then suddenly changed at
distinct
steps, or periods .  T o account for these repeating trends, Mendeleev grouped the
elements in a table that had both rows and columns. 
 

T he Periodic T able of Elements

Arrangement of the modern periodic table

T he modern periodic table of elements is based on Mendeleev's observations ; however,
instead of being organized by atomic weight , the modern table is arranged by atomic number
(z).  As one moves from left to right in a row of the periodic table, the properties of the
elements gradually change.  At the end of each row, a drastic shift occurs in chemical
properties. T he next element in order of atomic number is more similar (chemically speaking)
to the first element in the row above it; thus a new row
begins on the table.  

For example, oxygen (O), fluorine (F), and neon (Ne) (z = 8, 9 and 10,respectively) all are stable
nonmetals that are gases at room temperature. Sodium (Na, z = 11), however, is a silver metal
that is solid at room temperature, much like the element lithium (z = 3). T hus sodium begins a
new row in the periodic table and is placed directly beneath lithium, highlighting their chemical
similarities.

Rows in the periodic table are called periods .  As one

moves from left to right in a given period,
the chemical properties of the elements slowly change.  Columns in the periodic table are
called groups .  Elements in a given group in the periodic table share many similar chemical and
physical properties. 
Comprehension Checkpoint

Why does sodium appear directly below lithium in the periodic table?
a. Sodium comes after lithium alphabetically.
b. Sodium is similar to lithium in terms of chemical properties.

Electron configuration and the table

T he "periodic" nature of chemical properties that Mendeleev had discovered is related to the
electron configuration of the atoms of the elements . In other words, the way in which an
atom's electrons are arranged around its nucleus affects the properties of the atom.

Niels Bohr's theory of the atom tells us that electrons are not
located randomly around an
atom's nucleus , but they occur in specific electron shells (see our Atomic T heory II module for
more information). Each shell has a limited capacity for electrons. As lower shells are filled,
additional electrons reside in more-distant shells.

T he capacity of the first electron shell is two electrons and for the second shell the capacity is
eight. T hus, in our example discussed above, oxygen, with eight protons and eight electrons,
carries two electrons in its first shell and six in its second shell. Fluorine, with nine electrons,
carries two in its first shell and seven in the second. Neon, with ten electrons, carries two in the
first and eight in the second. Because the number of electrons in the second shell increases, we
can begin to imagine why the chemical properties gradually change as we move from oxygen to
fluorine to neon.

Sodium has eleven electrons . T wo fit in its first shell, but

remember that the second shell can
only carry eight electrons. Sodium's eleventh electron cannot fit into either its first or its second
shell. T his electron takes up residence in yet another orbit, a third electron shell in sodium.
T he reason that there is a dramatic shift in chemical properties when moving from neon to
sodium is because there is a dramatic shift in electron configuration between the two
elements . But why is sodium similar to lithium? Let's look at the electron configurations of
these elements.
 Electron Configurations for Selected Elements

As you can see in the illustration, while sodium has three electron shells and lithium two, the
characteristic they share in common is that they both have only one electron in their outermost
electron shell . T hese outer-shell electrons (called valence
electrons) are important in
determining the chemical properties of the elements .

An element 's chemical properties are determined by the way in which its atoms interact with
other atoms. If we picture the outer (valence) electron shell of an atom as a sphere
encompassing everything inside, then it is only the valence shell that can interact with other
atoms – much the same way as it is only the paint on the exterior of your house that "interacts"
with, and
gets wet by, rain water.

An atom's valence shell “covers” inner

electron shells

T he valence shell electrons in an atom determine the way it will interact with neighboring
atoms, and therefore determine its chemical properties. Since both sodium and lithium have
one valence electron , they share similar chemical properties.

Comprehension Checkpoint

T he chemical properties of an element are determined by the number of electrons in

a. the electron shell closest to the nucleus of the atom.
b. the outermost electron shell.
Electron configuration shorthand
For elements in groups labeled A in the periodic table (IA, IIA, etc.), the number of valence
electrons corresponds to the group number. T hus Li, Na, and other elements in group IA have
one valence electron . Be, Mg, and other group-IIA elements have two valence electrons. B, Al,
and other group-IIIA elements have three valence electrons, and so on. T he row, or period,
number that an element resides in on the table is equal to the number of total shells that
contain electrons in the atom. H and He in the first period normally have electrons in only the
first shell; Li, Be, B, and other period-two elements have two shells occupied, and so on. T o
write the electron configuration of elements, scientists often use a shorthand in which the
element's symbol is followed by the element's electron shells . A few examples are shown
below.

Element Config uration Shorthand

Element Configuration Shorthand

Hydrog en H 1e-

Lithium Li 2e- 1e-

Fluorine F 2e- 7e-

Sodium Na 2e- 8e- 1e-

For further details, the table linked below shows the electron configurations of the first eleven
elements .

Interactive Animation:
Atomic and ionic
structure of the first 12
elements

Summary
T he modern periodic table is based on Dmitri Mendeleev’s 1896 observations that chemical
elements can be grouped according to chemical properties they exhibit. T his module explains
the arrangement of elements in the period table. It defines periods and groups and describes
how various electron configurations affect the properties of the atom.

NGSS
HS-C1.1, HS-PS1.A2

Further Reading
Atomic T heory II

Anthony Carpi, Ph.D. “The Periodic Table of Elements” Visionlearning Vol. CHE-1 (4), 2003.
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