IF

UNDERSTANDING
TTXTILES
SIXTH EDITION

Brr-r-rc J. Collrun
Un iu ers i ty of Te nn es s e e

Puynrs G. Tonronn
Queens College

w 1

Upper Saddle River, New Jersey 07458

WovEN FnBRtcs

abrics can be constructed in a variery of ways, ranging from the matting together
of fibrous materials to the intricate interlacing of complex yarn sysrems. The follow-
ing discussion outlines and defines the major classifications of fabric constructions.
The specific techniques and processes by which these different fabrics are made are
discussed in the chapters that follow.
276 UHornsnnorHo Texrtrrs

Flenrc GorusrnucnoN Mrrnoos

Woaen Fabrics. Weaving of fabrics consists of interlacing systems of yarn. By
varying the interlacings, a wide variery of difTerent fabric constructions can
be made.

Looped Fabrics. Fabrics can be constructed from one or more continuous

yarns by the formation of a series of interconnected loops. Knitting,
though a complex form, is one tyPe of looping construction. Crochet is
another.

Knotted Fabrics. Some fabrics are created by knotting yarns together. Lace,
nets' macramd, and tatting are created by knotting.

Braided Fabrics. Fabrics may be created by plaiting together yarns or strips of

fabrics.l'he components are interlaced in a diagonal pattern over and un-
der one anorhef to form a flat or tubular fabric of relatively narrow width.

Fihns,since films are not made from {ibers, they are not considered to be true
textiles even though they are often used in products that have traditionally
been made from textiles such as showel curtains or upholstery. They are
sometimes laminated to textiles and therefore may be part of the structure
of some textile products. They are usually synthetic polymers extruded in
the form of sheets rather than as fibers. Polymer films can also be de-
posited on or "cast" on surfaces from solutions in a process analogous to
fiber wet spinning. In some cases, these films are eventually made into fi-
brous form by a process called fibrillation or by cutting the sheet into
fibers.

Nonuoaens. Webs of fibers can be held together into a fabric by interlocking

of 6bers by mechanical action or by fusing fibers together with heat, adhe-
sives, or chemicals. Examples of a ferv fabrics constructed by these means
include spunlaced, spunbonded, and needle-punched fabrics, and bonded
webs. Felt and bark cloth, older fabric making techniques, are also con-
structed from webs of fibers, but are not technically defined as nonwovens.

Stitcb-Tbrough Fabrics. Stitch thlough or stitch bonding is a relatively new

technique for constructing fabrics in which two sets of yarns or masses of
fibers are stitched together into a fabric structure by another set ofyarns'

Tbxtih Cornposites, These materials generally consist of one or more textile

components impregnated with or embedded in a resin matrix. Textile
composites are generally used for high-technology products for industry,
the military, and aerospace.

Tur CnrATroN oF WovEN FABRtcs

Fabrics can be woven from yarns on a simple hand loom or on a highly complex, to-
tally automated power loom. In either case, the fabric that is produced will be made
by interlacing one yarn with another. The lengthwise-direction yarns in a woven fab-
ric are called the warp yarns or ends. Crosswise yar-ns are called f//ing yarns, uefi yarns,
or picks. Warp ar.rd filling yarns normally interlace with each other at right angles.
 Wovrl Franlcs 2ll
The Hqnd loom

As with spinning, the. principies of weaving

are easily understood by reviewing the
operarions perlormed in hand weauing._Maiy weavers conrinue
ro pracrice this craFr.
veaving requires rhat the *"rp yr.ni be h.ld
und.r r.nrion. r-t"ri"g strerched our
one set ofyarns, rhe weaver then takes
a second yarn and interlaces i, iri,h
The simplest ,h. *"rp..
interlacing is.made by moving the filling over the fi;; ;".p, under the
second, over the third. and under the "o,.,.
fou.ih, ,o In the second row, the fill-
ing moves under the firsr warp, over the ".rd
second, under the third, and so on. The
row repeats the pattern ofthe first' and third
the fourth row repeats rrr. ofthe
ond row' Known as a prain we/tue or tabby, f"rr.." sec-
rhis is the simplest f..rl oi*."rri.rg.
Th-r filling yarns, those running
.by hand'
. .igh, angles to ,rr.
", *"rp., ."i b. irrtrodu..d
As the weaving process d.i.lopi, weavers found it was easier either to use
some device such as a ne,edre . o, ,o *r"p
the yarns around a stick. This latter
had the advantage of allowing th. y".n method
,o'L. ur*o.rnd as the stick was moved
through the warps. Ultimately,-ya.n *",
*ourd onto a bobbin, and the bobbin was
placed into a boatlike t?t!/t:The pointed
end of the shuttle allowed the carrier to
move smoorhly, while the bobbin
the yarn to unwind as ir was needed.
"ilo*ed
Filling varns tended to be somewh", loor. in placement h"J to be pushed
into place more firmly. The earriest^weavers ".rd
painsrakingry pushed each yarn into place
with a small stick. A larer, more efEcient
method ur.j, *ood." .,i.( ,n"p.d like a
sword' that was slipped behind the f ing "
yarns.and pushed them tightly against the
fabric that had already been woven. fhir"*.",r.rr
r*ord, o. U"r,.r,, f..l_e a perma_
nent parr of the loom, although its shape
was rransform.d g;;;;;iil;io a comblik.
device called a reec/ that was mounted
o., f."m.. The frame retained the name bat_
ten' and a pull of the hand on the batten "
frame moved the reed for*"rd, r*inging
reed against the filling the
Larl ayd pushing it (,,beating up,,) firmly n.
At 6rst the finished,croth was pro6"bly the same f,f"*.
Egyptian fabrics of lonq dimensions
dimensions th. roo-, but
i"u. b..., found, and r, i, p"rriul ", ,iat
have used Froller b.".i ,yrt"m. A they may
beam with warp yarns wrapped around
yarns to be fed continuously to the it atowed
weaver, and as the fabric was woven,
wrapped around a roller at the other end ir was
of the room. In this way conrinuous lengths
of fabric, longer than the loom, could
be .o.rr,*.,.d.
As long as each warp yarn had to be
raised by hand before the filling was
laced with. it, the process of weaving inter_
,.-",n.d rr;
improvised a means of speeding.,p.tf,. ";;-,;;;;;*.
pro..dure of raising
weavers

f*,r"1". rows of warps *r" pl-"..d *r, ,hr) ""dl;*;;;;; warp yarns.
-d, a srickthat rifted them above the
level of their neighboring yarns. This ^
formation of raised Io*...J -arp yarns is
called the shed. The bobbin could be
,hrrr* l.ro* the "nd entire width of the cloth
through the shed without stopping to raise
each individuar warp yarn. The arternate
set of warp yarns was threadJ thi.-ough
a series of string loops that were tied
other rod' This rod courd.raise the..c"ond.", ro an_
thrusting the bobbin under this second
of y"r.r, p*;;:rJ;;. rh.d.od. ny
r., oiu"rn, th"t had b.., ."irJ
by an up-
wa'd pull on the rod, the fiiling interlaced
*iJi alternate set of yarns. Alternate
raising and lowering of the rod-made
it possible "r,
to interlace warp and fiiling yarns
quickly and efficiently. The rod that herd
ih. ,..o',d set of warps was called a harnes,
the loops were cailed heddtes variery
*."* .o,rtd be achieriJ ;;;
i,.r
the use of
multiple harnesses, each raising a diiferent
,., of *"rpr.
The widespread use of silk probabry broughr
abour cerrain improvemenrs in
loom structure' Since sirk firament y".n,
*.r. fii. and slippery, use of the shed rods
made weaving more difficult. In silk
weaving, th. ,h.d ,"d'*";;;i;;il;
second
"
278 UNornsnHotHoTrxrtles

the shed rod,

harness with heddles, as the smooth, fine yarns tended to slide against
while the heddles held them securely'
by foot treadle
The change from hand manipulation of harnesses to oPeration
Pressufe on a foot
so that trea-
was another improvement. The loom was constfucted
hand to operate the shut-
dle raised and lowered the harness frame. This released the
the weaver could work'
tle and the batten and increased the speed with which
Probablythesingle-orti-po't"ntinventionthatprecededautomationofthe
Kay and patented in
loom was ti-t. flyi,-,g ,L.rttl.. The f'ying shuttle' d'esrgned by John
L.!h"ni.- that threw the shuttle across the loom
1733, was a device'with
" 'prinj was activated by a cord on
from one side to the oth.r. In hind weat'ing' Kay's device
either side of the loom that was pulle<i by t]tt *t"ut''
When the machine was mech-
operated mechanically'
the flying shuttle *r, i']to'po'"ttd into the loom and
".,ir.d, by the time of the
Figure 14.1 depicts the basic hand loom that had developed
have the same rype of
Industrial Revolution. Hand looms used by weavers today
structure.

Auiomolion of Weoving
conditions had
To transform weaving from a hand to a mechanical operation,_several
in hand weaving had to be automated' The
to be satisfied. The various morions made
Enc\clopediaofTbxtiles(1980)notesthat..thepowerloomoftodayisessentiallythe
to rotary driving" (1. 30). A further requirement of power
looms
n".,a too-
"d"p,.d loom h"Jto ,top automatically when a warP or filling yarn
was rhar a power,operated
would be flawed'
had broken. If the loom continued to function' the cloth
ThefirstautomaticloomwasdevisedbyEdmundCarrwrightinlTS4,Although
a number of defects, this loom did work well enough
to demonstrate that au-
it had
inventions by different individuals
tomatic loom weaving was feasible. Gradually,
economically viable automatic loom'
each contributed to the development of an

Frounr l4.l Harnesses Reed Warp Yarns

ContempororY weover's loom

with some of the Ports lobeled'
Loom belonging io JudY
Glosten, Huntington, N Y Batten

Cloth
Beam

Treadles
 Wovrr Flsnlcs 279

Eventually, upper limits on production speecl of shuttre rooms were reached..

Aiso, shuttle looms are extremely noisy. To overcome these deficiencies, l<-,oms were
invented that transported filling yarns without a shuttle. These shuttleless weaving
machines are faster and less noisy than shuttle looms. Currently, their operations are
monitored by compure rs.

Moornn Wrlvllro Pnocrssrs

Present-day looms can be divided into two major classifications: those that produce
cloth in flat form and those that produce cloth in tubular form. Looms ,hr, pro-
duce flat woven cloth predominate. Flat looms can be further subdivide<l into t*o
categories: (1) those that use a shuttle ro transporr filling yarns and (2) shuttleless
weaving machines, those that use some other means for carrying the filling from
side to side.

Preliminory Sleps
Preporing the Worp Yorns for Weoving
Before their use on the loom, warp and filling yarns musr be prepared for weaving.
The essential characteristics of suitable warp and filling yarns Jlff.r. vz.rp yarns un-
dergo greater stress and abrasion during weaving than do filling yarns; th.i.for., *".p
yarns must be strong enough to withstand these pressures. warp yarns must be clean,
fi'ee from knots, and uniform in size. A single warp yarn is calied an end.
warp yarns are wound onto the warp beam from many cyrindrical packages of
yarrr which ale called cheeses. (See Figure 14.2.) To strengthen and lubricate warp
yarns, sizing or slashing is added. Size is made up of starches or synthetic poly-.r,
such as pollwinyl alcohol (PVA) that act as lubricants. The yarns are passed from one
warp beam through a solution of sizing material. The sized y"rn. dried immedi-
ately after trearmenr and are wound onto another warp beam. sizing "r.is not
always re-
quired on filament yarn warps.
The warp beam containing the sized yarns is placeci on the room. In prepararion
for weaving, each warp end (yarn) must be threaded through its own <1rop wire, hed-
dle eye, and reed dent. The drop wire is a device that *il1 stop the loom if an end
should break, the heddle eyeis rhe opening in a heddre th"t c"ri-ies the yarn, and the
reed dent is an opening in tl.re reed, the comblike device that will pusir each filling
yarn close against the completed fabric.

_ Placing the warp yarns on the loom is done either by drawing-in or 6y tying-in.
lf warp yarns from a previously woven fabric are in place an<i if i-har fabric had the
same number of warps, the new warps are tied into place by attaching them to
the
warps already on the loom.

_ If the new warp is different from that previously wo\.en or if tl.rere is rro warp or.r
the loom, then the warps must be drawn-in. To draw,in or tie-in each end by hand
would be enormously rime consuming; therefbre, a varietl'of machines has been de-
veloped for drarving-in. A separate machine car.r be used for each step (that is, draw-
ing through the drop wire, the heddle eve, ancl the reed dent), or one machine can
perform all three steps. when a loom makes the same rabric, warp after warp, the
new warp can be tied-in to the old.
Heddle wires are held in frames callcd hantesses. 'fhe number of harnesses re-
quirecl for the loorn is iletermined bv the weave.
 t

280 UHo:nsml.totl.to Trxrtlrs

Frounr 14.2
"cheeses" of yorn Photogroph courtesy of the Notionol
Worp beom being prepored from severol hundred
Cotton Council of Americo

,r"

1
4

Preporing the Filling Yorns for Weoving

yarn that is to be used for the filling must be packaged in some form that allows it to
be unwound easily for rransporr thro.rgh the shed. In shuttle looms
the device that
the shed is called a shuttle and is made up of a wooden carrier
carries the yarn across
into which a quill, or pirn, is placed. (See Figure 14'3') The filling varn is wound
fro- l.ig., p".k"ges of yarn. For shuttleless looms this step of wind-
onto the quills
fillitrg yarn is drawn directly from large packages car-
ing quills i, ,r.rn...rr"ry-b..".r..

Frounr 14.3

The wooden shuttle (into which

is fiited o quill or Pirn on which
yorns ore wound) corries Yorn
ocross the loom, PhotogroPh
courtesy of Steel Heddle
 Wovrl Flsnrcs 281

rying2 to 3 pounds of yarn that are mounted on the sides of the loom. If yarn that
has been prepared for use in the filling is not ro be used immediately, it is usually con-
ditioned, kept in a room with hot, humid air. conditioning
yarn to relax and
helps to prevenr the formation of kinks. "llo*s

Blslc Monons oF Wmvlno

Loom Operolions
Once the filling yarns have been prepared and the warp yarns have
been set into
place, the loom goes through a series of motions: shedding, picking,
beating up, and
letting off. (See Figure 14.4.)

Floun: 14.4

Steps in the oction of o loom when o filling yorn is inserted in o ploin-weqve

fobric, (o) Shed is formed by
seporoting worp yorns to crecte spoce through which the shutfle con
trovel. (b) Shutfle is projected through
the shed' (c) Beoting up of yorn tokes ploce to push new filling firmly
ogoinst the others olreody in plqce,
(d) Positions of worp yorns ore reversed to reform shed, ond tnl procesi
is repeoted with the shutle troveling
in the opposite dlrection,

(a)

"TP
(d)
282 Uruornsntorno Texnlrs

Shedding
The shed is formed by raising the harnesses to form an open area between the sets of
warps. The formation of the shed is known as shedding.

Picking
\,X4rile the shed is open, the yarn is transported across rhe opening, laying a filling
yarn across the width of the loom. The insertion of the filling is known as piching. A
single filling yarn is known as a picb. Speed of weaving machines is generally ex-
pressed as the number of picks per minute, yards or meters of filling inserted per
minute, or yards or meters of fabric per hour. Speed obviously is related to the width
of the loom. \fider looms, u.eaving wider fabrics, would require more rime for one
filling insertion.

Beoting Up
Beating up ts done by the reed, the comblike device that pushes the filling yarn close
against the woven Fabric.

Letling Off
As the woven fabric is formed, it must be moved or let offrhe loom and taken up on
the cloth beam to make room fol the formation of more fabric. All these functions
are synchronized so that they occur in the appropriate sequence and do not interfere
with one another.

Monitoring Yorn Breokoge

There is always the danger that a warp or filling yarn may break during weaving,
causing a flaw in the cloth. \(arp yarns are rhreaded through drop wires, small metai
plates with holes, which are drawn down when a yarn breaks or they may be moni-
tored by electronic scanners that indicate when a yarn is broken. Through signals re-
sulting from either the drop wires or a break in the electronic contacr, the loom is
shut off, allowing the broken yarn to be repaired.

Ylnru TmruspoRT METHoDS

The carrier used for rransporring the filling yarn may differ from one kind of loom
to another. The different devices used form the basis for classifring different rypes of
looms. Wirhin rhe indusrry many people reFer ro newer equipmenr as weauing ma-
chines rather than looms. weaving machines vary from older, shuttle looms to mod-
ern shuttleiess machines with sophisticated electronic controls. This newer equipment
now predominates in the United States textile industry.

Shultle Looms
In shuttle looms the shuttle rraverses the cloth, and the fiiling yarn unwinds from the
quill. Quills in the shuttle must be replaced when the yarn supply is exhausted. The
frequency with which a quill has to be replaced depends on the fineness of the filling
yarn. Coarse yarns require more frequent replacement; 6ner yarns need to be replaced
Iess often.
 Wovrl Flanlcs 2gg

In the mechanical changeq furl quilrs are kept ready in a revolving

case. The ma-
chine rams them into rhe shuttle when the ,huttl. .o-..
,o ..., uri.R'y crossing
yarn. The pressure of the full quiil crowds the empty "rrer
th_e quiil out ol th. ,h,rttl.. It
falls through a slot into a container under the roo-.tir.'rr.w
quill is p.,.h.d me-
chanically into place in the shuttle, which has a self-threading
device that automati_
cally picks up the yarn when the new quiil is inserted.
This allows the weaving to
continue without a stop.
A specialized process has been developed that allows winding
of quiils to take place
at the loom. In the unifil sysrem, empty quils are carried
or, .Irrrr.y.. bert to a point
where yarn from a large package is *ouni onto an empry "
quill that is then returned to
a position where it can be placed in the shuttle. (See
Figuie i+.s^.)This system requires
that.fewer wound quills be supplied, but it has ,.'n.r"l limitations.
It is useful only for
single-color picks, and because the cost of the system is high,
it is most economical for
coarse yarns that would require especially f..q*n,
quill replacement.
Picking when rwo or more difTerent .oio* oi,yp.s of filling
yarn are used re-
quires rwo or more shuttles and a more complex
.ortly ,yp! .r loom arrange-
ment. A conventional shuttle loom has one shuttle ".ri
box on .".t iia. of the machine.
(See Figure 14.5bj
To insert yarns of different colors or rypes, a number of shuttle
boxes must be
moved up and down to bring shuttles into position to creare
the pattern. Such looms
are.often called picb and pich looms. Amon[the advantage,
of -ort shuttleless looms
is that they draw yarn for each pick directly from yarn
pl.k"g.r, making it easier and
less costly to inserr a number of different colors
or ryp.. of y"r.r.
rapid crossing of the shed by the shuttle 1."*, layer of
, Ih:
the shed is changed, the yarn is locked into place by "
filling yarn. \When
the change in *"ri positioning.
However, to make the yarn lie flat and in its proper
position, it must be'beat.n into
place.

Frounr 14.5

(o) Box loom Quills thot ore being filled on the

Unifil system ore visible ot the point indicoted by the
orrow.
coroorotion. (b) Fiiled quilts o= ro""Lo, reody for insertion tnio
:::3.?j::3:::t]:jl^.t^?":1or
not visible. Phoiogroph courtesy of the rnternoiionor
Linen promotion clil."'iJril.
rhe shuiite, which is
284 UxornsrlltorHe Trxnlrs

Shutlleless Weoving Mqchines

Shuttleless weaving machines were invenred ro increase the speed of weaving and re-
duce the literally deafening noise. The modern loom with a shuttle, although much
faster in operation than the eariiest automatic looms, is not susceptible to further in-
creases in speed because of the variery of operations that the machine must perform.
Time is required for stopping the shuttle and accelerating it in the other direction
and the weight of yarn on the quill that must be carried across the shed limits the
speed. For this reason, future loom developments are likely to be in the area of shut-
tleless weaving.
Shuttleless machines may be classified as to the method used in inserting the fill-
ing yarns. Four basic types have been developed:

1. Machines with grippers or projectiles (throw across)

2. Machines with mechanically operated gripper arms or rapiers (reach across)
3. Machines employing water or air jets to carry rhe filling Gpit or blow
across)
4. Machines that form multiple sheds (multiphase)
In hand weaving and automatic shuttle weaving, the filling yarn is continuous
and runs back and forth across the fabric, but in most shuttleless weaving, the filling
yarn extends oniy from selvage to selvage, as it is cut ofT before it passes across rhe
shed. In all shuttleless weaving, the yarn for the filling is unwound from large, sta-
tionary packages of yarn that are sometimes set on one side and at other times set on
both sides of the loom. Since weaving speed depends on fabric width, there is every
incentive to build wider machines for more efficient filling insertion.

Projectile or Gripper Loom

In the gripper or projectile rype of weaving machine, a small hooklike device grips
the end of the filling yarn. (See Figure 14.6.) As the gripper is projected across the
warp shed, it tows the filling behind it. The gripper can move more quickly than
a conventional shuttle because of its decreased size; it can travel farther more eas-
ily, thereby making possibie the weaving of wider fabrics, and it does not require
the step of filling the shuttle; it pulls the yarn directly from a prepared yarn pack-
age.
Two rypes of gripper looms are used. In one, rhe gripper travels only in one di-
rection. It is returned to rhe starting point by a conveyor belt. To maintain rhe weav-
ing speed, each machine must have several grippers, although only one is in use at
any one time.
In the other rype of gripper machine, a single gripper inserts one filling yarn al-
ternately from the right- and left-hand sides of the loom. The gripper serves rhe same
function as a conventional shuttle, but instead of holding a quill, it carries the yarn
behind it. Packages of yarn musr, rherefore, be placed on both sides of the machine.
The gripper machine not only weaves fabric more quickly than does the shuttle
loom, but it runs with Iess noise, making it possible for manufacturers to comply
more easily with government regulations that restrict noise levels.
There is also a saving in power costs for wide-width fabrics. Narrow fabrics are
not economically woven on rhis loom since too much time is spent in periods of ac-
celeration of the gripper. wide fabric widths are quite productive, as rhe power con,
sumed is less than that for a conventional shuttle loom of the same size. Sheets are
woven side by side on some of these machines to take advantage of these savings. Ac-
 WovrN Flanrcs 2gs

Frounr 14.6

Gripper projectile corries the

weft yorn into the shed,
Photogroph courtesy of Sultzer
Texiile.

cording to data from producers of these machines, the rooms

can reach speeds slightly
over 1,200 meters of fillingyarn per minute.

Ropier Loom
As in the gripper loom, a stationary package of yarn is used
to supply the filling yarns
to the rapier machine. one end of a rapiei, a rod or steel tape,
."rri., th" nilirig. rh.
of the rapier is connected to th. .o.rtrol .yrt.-. Th. ,"pi.,
:'hrr.rll
the width of the fabric, canying the fiiling
moves across
th.ough the shed to the opposite
side. The rapier is th.n retr"ct.d, leaving rL.".ror.
rr.* fillingln place.
In some versions of the machine, rwo rapiers are used, each half
thewidth of the
fabric in size. rapier carries the yarn ,o ,h. ..r,,., of the shed, where
_one the oppos-
ing rapier picks up the yarn and carries it the remainder
of the way across the shed.
(See Figure 14.7.) A disadvantage of both
these techniques is the sp"ce.equired for
the machine if a rigid rapier is used. The housing for
the rapiers must take up as
much space as the width of the machine. To o,rer.ome this
problem, rooms with flex-
ible rapiers have been devised. The {iexible rapier can
be coiled as it is withdrawn and
will therefore require less space. However, if the rapier is too stiff,
it will not coil; if
it is too flexible, it will buckle. The double ,apier is used more frequently
than the
single-rapier. Rigid and flexible rapier machin., op.r"r.
at speeds of up to 1,300 me-
ters of filling per minute.
286 UHornsrlxotHo Ttxrtres

Frounr 14.7
yorn to the center of the shed where o
(o) ln ihe two-ropier type of shuttleless mochine, one ropier corries the of
rest of the width of the fobric Photogrophs courtesy
second ropier grosps the yorn ond (b) cqrries it ocross the
Americqn Dornier Mochinery Corporotion

7aw'/13181;/ttl;:t1j:'tti:t"t|;t"

Woter-Jet Loom
yarns' Therefore' the use of
Water-soluble warp s-izings are use<I on most staple warp
are nonabsorbent, and those
water-jet looms is i..,ri.id to filament yafns, varns that
come off the loom wet
that do not lose strength when wet. Furthermore, these fabrics
force and, with it, a fill-
and must be dried. In this technique a watef iet is shot under
the shed carries the yarn to
i,rg y"rt. The force of the water as it is propelled across
jet of only 0'1
th! opporlt. side. This machine is economical in its operation..Awater
yarn acfoss a 48-inch shed. The amount of water re-
centimeter is sufficient to carry a
Water-jet machines can
quired for each filiing yarn is iess than 2.0 cubic centimeters.
reach speeds of 2,000 meters of filling per minute'

Air-Jet Loom
Instead of project-
Air-jet looms opefare in a manner similar to water-jet machines.
The initial propulsive
ing ,,r."* of *",., acfoss the shed, a .iet of air is projected.
" by a main nozzle. (See Figure 14.g.) Electronically controlled
relay
foi.. i, provided
across the shed' Data from
nozzles prouid. additional booster jets to carry the yarn
manufacturers indicate that air-jet looms operate at speeds up to 2'200 meters of fiIl-
make plaids and are
ing inserted per minute. They can weave multicolored yarns to
(discussed later in
available with both dobby ancl jacquard patterning mechanisms
this chapter).

Multiphose Loom
all the
All the weaving techniques discussed thus far require that the shed be open
yarns to pass through the
way across th."n1".hi,]. for the device carrying the filling
shed. This imposes a limit on loom speed'
many different
The muliiphase machine ou.r.o-*., this limitation by forming
as the filling yarn
sheds at different places across the machine and forming these only
 Woven Frenlcs 297

Frsunr 14.8

Air-jet nozzles spoced ocross

the weoving mochine trcnsport
fi lling yorns, Photogroph

courtesy of Sulzer Textil,

is inserted. In this way, a number of filling yarns can be inserted, one behind the
other. As a section of the shed opens, the filling passes, and the shed closes, opening
again in the new parrern as the next filling yarn arrives. (see Figure 14.9.) speed is
increased because of the number of yarns that can be insertecl almost simult"r-r"ourly
one right after the other, but the actual speed of movemenr of the filling yarns is
lower than in other types of machines. For this reason, filling yar-ns that are weaker
can be used. Sultzer Ruti, the manufacrurer of a multiphase Lachine, states that
its
loom will insert up to 5,400 meters of filling per minutc.

Selvoges
Many shuttleless weaving machines insert filling yarns from one side. In the shuttle
rype of loom, the carrying of the continuous filling back and forth across the fabric
creates a closed selvage edge, with no loose yarn ends to fray or ravel.
In shuttleless
looms, howevet one or both of the selvages is fringed. It is necessary to reinforce
this
edge if the fabric is not to fray at the edges. Methods of reinforcement
include pro-
viding for tucking the yarns at. the open edge or use of a reno seruage, a serf-selvage
in
which two warp yarns at the edges of the fabric twist around each 6"lling. The tu&ed-

Frounr 14.9

Multiphose loom continuolly

inserts weft yorns from yorn
ccrriers. Rotory bect-up devjces
press inserted yorn firmly ogoinst
previously formed cloth. lf the
WEFT YARN CARRIERS CHANGES pottern chonges, smoll groups
of yorns ore chonged into o
ROTARY BEAT-UP new shedding position ofler
DEVICES eoch new yorn corrier hos
possed,
 288 UrornsnNorNofexnlrs

Frcunr 14.I0

Alternotive selvoge fi nishes

NORMAL FRINGED TUCKED LENO

SE LVAG E SELVAGE SELVAGE SELVAGE

in finish is the more durable. For heary industrial fabrics made from heat-sensitive or
thermoplastic fibers, hot melting devices cause the yarns to fuse together to form a
tight selvage. (See Figure 14.10.)

Advontoges of Shuttleless Weoving Mochines

\fhen patterned fabrics are woven on shuttleless weaving machines, colors can be
changed more easily. Unlike shuttle looms in which a different shuttle must be pro-
vided for each different color, the shuttleless machines can be provided with a variety
of colors directly from yarn packages. Other advantages include lower power require-
ments, lower sound levels, smaller space requirements, and higher speeds of fabric
production. (See Thble 14.1.) On the other hand, the higher production rates of shut-
tleless machines require that yarn qualiry be high to ensure trouble-free operation.
Trends in loom purchases within the textile industry in the United States show
clearly that shuttleless weaving machines are replacing traditional shuttle looms. In
1985 there were 160,000 shuttle looms in place in the United States, and 6y 1997
that number had dropped to less than 70,000 (Isaacs 1998). Currently the most
widely used machines worldlvide are rapier and projectile rypes. Air-jet looms are be-
coming more popuiar in North America.

Trgu l4.l
Comporison ol Weoving Speedst

Polenliol Ronge ol Speeds Reported in

Type of Loom Melers ol Filling lnserled Per Minule
'1,200
projectile weoving mochines obout
flexible ropier weoving mochines 950 to 1,300
rigid ropier weoving mochines 1,000 to 1,300
woterjet weoving mochines 1,800 to 2,000
.l,100
oir jet weoving mochines to 2,200
multiphose weoving mochines 5,400
conventionol shuttle loom 3002

rDoto reported by weoving mochine monufocturers in Textile world. MclY 1998, poges 90
to 109.
2Doto provided by Americon Textile Monufociurers Institute,

t-_
 Wovrt Flsnlcs 289

Conrnor oF Looru Motorls

The essential motions in loom operation are the motion of the harnesses to form the
shed and the activation of devices for carrying the filring through the shed.

Com loom
In the past the motions in most simple weaves were controlled by mechanical devices
called cams. The shape or profile of the cam is followed by a device called the cam fol-
lower, and the irreguiarities in the cam shape are translated by the cam follower into
the motions of the loom. (See Figure 14.n) In this way simpie repeat patterns can
be created. Repeats are limited to six or fewer picks, but this includes a substantial
majority of the most commonly used fabrics. More comple4 designs require dobby or
jacquard looms. Such looms are rapidly being replaced by more *oJ.r' machines
with electronic control of motions.

Dobby Loom
-fhe dnbby
loom rs a conventional loom with a somewhat enlarged dobby "head." (see
Figure l4.l2a.) The traditional dobby mechanism uses a partern chain on which
there are pegs. Needles or feelers conracr the pegs in the pattern chain and are posi-
tioned by the pegs. The feelers cause hooks within the dobby head to be connected
or disconnected, and the motion of the hooks is translated to the harnesses that move
from up to down or to in-between positions as dictated by the pattern.
From wventy-four to thirry shedding combinations are conrrolled in this way, so
that the repears are limited to about thirry rows in size. A machine called the double-
cylinder dobby loom has been developed that approximatery doubles the size of the
repeat that can be made. The fabrics woven on this loom are less complex than are
jacquard parrerns and usually consist of small fancy or geometrical figr,r.,
o, designs.
(See Figure 14.126.) Plain terry rowels are also woven on
dobby looris. vith the de-
u..lopT:1, of electronic jacquard looms that can make both jacquard and dobby fab-
rics, dobby looms are becoming less important.

Frounr l4.l I
Com follower tronslotes the
motion of the coms to the
hornesses, which ore roised ond
lowered occording to the
"instructions" tronsmitied by the
shope of the com, ln this woy
voriotions in the weove con be
ochieved.
29O UrornsrlNorHo frxnlrs

Frounr 14.12

(o) Electronicolly controlled

dobby heod thot uses o
memory cord insteod of o
pottern cord io control loom
movements, Photogroph of l'
Muroto MX-8E mochine
courtesy of Muroto Mochinery
Ltd. (b) Fobric woven on o
mochine with o dobby heod.

Jqcquqrd Loom
The jacquard loom is the descendant of an oriental loom, the draw loom, which was
used to weave complex patterned fabrics. (See Figure 14.13a.) Operation of the drau'
loom required two workers: the weaver who threw the shuttle and operated the bat-
ten and a drawbol, who raised and lowered a series of cords that controlled the pat-
tern. The drawboy had to work from a platform above the loom while the weaver sat
below.
Since the drawboy could make mistakes in the selection of cords, later modifica-
tions of the loom structure introduced a mechanical device for raising and lowering
the cords. In 1805 JosephJacquard, a Frenchman, perfected the principle of the me-
chanical draw loom. To this day, this same type of loom used in weaving complex
patterns is known as the jacquard loom and the weave is known as the jacquard
weaue. (See Figure 14. 13b.)
 Wovrt Flanlcs 291

Froune 14.13

(o) Photogroph of o fcbric thot

illustrotes the complexity of
designs thot cqn be woven on
the jocquord loom ond
jocquord weoving mochines
with iwo differeni
confi gurotions, (b) Dornier
ropier weoving mcchine, Type
HTVS 8/J, eight-jocquord type.
Photogroph courtesy of
Americon Dornier Mochinery
Corporotion. (c) Bonos U,S,A,
elecironicolly operoied
jocquord loom. Photogroph
courtesy of Bonos U.S.A,, lnc.
292 UlornsnnorNo Texrrus

The abiliry of the jacquard loom to weave a variery of complex fabrics is a result
of the abiliry of this machine to control each warp yarn separately. Each warp yarn is
threaded through a loop in the end ofa leash or cord.
Before the loom is set up, a design is worked out on graph paper, and the posi-
tion of each of the yarns in the design is analyzed. A punched card is prepared that
corresponds to each of the fillingyarns. The card contains a "code," a set of punched
holes that will determine which warp yarns must be lifted for each passage of the fill-
ing. The punched cards are laced together in the correct order for the design. As each
card advances to the operating position, needles rest against the card. The needles are
held under the pressure of a spring. V/hen a needle position coincides with a hole in
the card, the needle moves through the hole. The movement of the needle engages a
hook, which in turn lifts the cords attached to the hook. The cords raise the yarns
they hold to form the shed. \When the filling has been inserted, the needles retract,
the cards move to the next position, and diflbrent sets of needles engage holes in the
next card. This, in turn, causes other warp yarns to be lifted to form a different shed.
Some electronically operated jacquard machines require far less space than me-
chanically operated jacquards. (See Figure 14.13c.) Other advantages of electronic
machines are increased speed of operation; the abiliry to change patterns with greater
ease, which makes possible the production of short runs of fabric; and computer in-
terfacing to rapidly translate design to production.

Blsrc Wrrvrr.ro Concrprs AND Trnurruorocy

\foven fabrics, with a few exceptions (such as triaxial fabrics, discussed later in chapter
15) are constructed by interlacing warp (lengthwise) yarns and filling (crosswise) yarns
at right angles. In theory, warp and filling yarns should intersect at right angles. V/hen
this relationship is perfect, the fabric is said to be on true grain or grain perfect As a re-
sult of the stresses and strains imposed during weaving or finishing, these yarns may
not lie in the proper position, and when this occurs, the fabric is said to 6e offgrain.
The oFgrain relationship of warp and filling yarns is described by different
terms, depending on how the distortion lies. \Varp yarns are usually straight, as they
are subject to lengthwise tension throughout the processing of fabrics. Filling yarns
are usually responsible for the distortion, but they may be distorted in a straight line
(skewed) or in a curved line (bowed1. (See Figure 14.14.)
\foven and other fabrics can be designated as reversible, that is, having the same
appearance on both front and back, or not reversible. For fabrics that are not re-
versible the side to be displayed in the finished textile is termed theface of the fabric
and the other side is the bach.
\Tithin the textile and apparel industries, comparative measurement sysrems are
necessary. The concept of yarn size expressed as yarn number was discussed in chapter
13.'{4ren dealing with fabrics, comparisons of size are made in terms of the number
of yarns per inch or fabric count, the width of the fabric, and the weight of the cloth.
The closeness of the weave is expressed as the fabric clunt. With a small magni-
fying glass calibrated in inches or centimeters, it is possible to count the number of
yarns in 1 inch or centim€ter of warp and in 1 inch or centimeter of filling. \W&en
the number of yarns in the warp is similar to the number of yarns in the filling, the
weave is said to be a balanced weaue. The fabric count is often expressed in numeri-
cal form as 80 X 64, indicating that there are 80 warp yarns per inch by 64 fillings.
 Wovrl Flsnlcs 299

Frounr I4.14
Groin posiiions, (o) Worp ond
filling interloce ot 90. ongle,
Fobric is on "true groin " (b)
Filling is off the squore, skewed,
Though stroight. the filling is nol
oi 90'to the worp, (c) Filling is
"bowed"-stroight for port of
the woy, then curved toword
one selvoge, (d) Filling is
"bowed" or curved from
selvoge to selvoge,

when warp and filling are perfectly balanced, or equal, the count may be stated as g0
square' meaning there are 80 yarns per inch in the rvarp and g0 yarns
per inch in the
filling. Alternatively, the number may be doubled, in which case a'counr of 1g0
would indicare a count of 90 yarns per inch in each direction. Balanced-weave fab-
rics with the same rype of ya'ns in warp and lilling are more durable
because the fab-
ric wears evenly in borh warp and Glling directions.
Fabric count is usually measured with a calibratecl, square magnifying
glass called
either a_ linen tester or pick g/ass. (See Figure 14. 15.)
The glass i.L"*.j,iffi,, f.".-
tions of an inch or in centimeters, and the number of w"rp and filling yarns beside
these calibrations can be viewed in magni{ied form with the gl".s
lo.,',t.d.
In those fabrics where fabric counts are not balanced, th.-l"rg.,"nd number of yarns
will usually be found in the warp direction. unbalanced fabr.ics usually exhibit so-
 294 UlornsrlruornoTrxrtrs

Froune 14.15

Pick counter used to focilitote

counting yorns per inch or
woles qnd courses of knitted
goods, Photogroph courtesy oi
Alfred Suter Co,, Inc,

called rib effects created when numerous finer warp yafns cross over coarser filling
yarns. Costs increase more rapidly as the number of picks (fillingyarns) per inch in-
creases; therefore, fabrics u,ith balanced weaves or those with more yarns in the fill-
ing than in the warp are more costly to manufacture.
Counts are taken in the greige (that is, unfinished) goods, and since fabrics may
shrink during finishing, the count provided may not be exactly accurate. If only one
number appears, it can generally be assumed that the fabric has a balanced weave.
Fabric widths will vary with the size of the loom on which they were woven.
Since the introduction of automated looms and with improvements in the technol-
ogy for transporring the filling yarns, fabric widths have increased dramatically. A sur-
vey of the specifications of shuttleless looms, for exampie, notes width possibilities of
as much as 500 centimeters (197 inches), while narrow looms are available for weav-
ing specialty items such as tapes (Issacs 1998.)
Fabric weight is expressed as ounces per linear (running) yard, yards per pound,
or ounces per square yard. Woolens, worsteds, and fabrics of similar weight made
from blends or manufactured fibers are often measured in ounces per yard. For ex-
ample, one may see designations such as a l4-ounce tweed or an 8-ounce tropical
worsted. In this svstem of measurement, the higher the numbe r, the heavier the fab-
ric. As measurements tend to move to the metric system, these weights may be ex-
pressed in grams per square meter rather than in ounces.
Yards per pound is a measure of the number of yards of cloth in 1 pound. In this
measure, higher numbers indicate lighter-weight fabrics. This system of measurement
is used mostly for cottons, cotton blends, or lightweight manufactured fabrics.
\fhen measuring ounces per yard or yards per pound, the width of the fabric is
not taken into account. These measures are, therefore, less precise than is the measure
of ounces per square yard or grams per square meter.
Fabric weights may range widely. Fabrics weighing less than I ounce per square
yard would be very lightweight, as for example in some sheer curtain fabrics' gauzes.
or even mosquito netting. Fablics weighing from 2 to 4 ounces per square yard are
also relatively lighrweight. 'l'hese are often referred to in the industry as top-weight

t
I
 Wovslr Flenrcs 295

fabrics and are typically used for shirts or blouses. Medium-weight fabrics, 5 to 7
ounces per square yard, are referred to as bottom-weightfabrics and are used for items
such as skirts or slacks. Hear.yweight fabrics lange from 9 to I 1 ounces (for example,
some jeans), andweights over 14 ounces are classified as uery heauyweight(perhapsfor
upholstery).

SuvuulnY ,

\(/oven fabrics are made on looms, or weavi'g machines. The various types of equip-
ment described in this chapter can create an enormous variety of fabrics. Profession-
als in the textile industries must selecr not only appropriate equipment but also raw
materials-libers and yarns-from which to produce goods for apparel, home fur-
nishi'gs, and scientific and industrial applications. As br-rsinesspersons in a highly
competitive global economy, thev musr make choices that allow them to produce
these goods in the most ef{icient and cost-effective way.
In the next chapter, readers will become acquainted with the wide variety of wo-
ven fabrics that are produced on these weaving machines.

References
American Fabrics and Fashions Magazine, 1980. Encyclopedia of textiles,3d ed. En-
glewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prenrice Hall.
Isaacs, M. 1998. Loom makers get ready for ITMA 99. Textile world r48 (May): g6.

Review Questions
1. Explain the basic principle of operation of a hand loom inserting weft yarns
into the fabric. In whar wavs does the operation of a modern shuttleless ma-
chine differ from the hand loom?
2. ldentify the various methods of transporting the filling yarns through the shed
in auromared wcaving.
3. what are the advantages and disadvantages of shuttleless weaving as compared
with weaving with a shuttle?
4. When would it be necessary ro use a jacquard loom? A dobby loom?
5. what is the difference between a fabric that is on true grain and one that is
bowed or skewed?
6. Define fabric count. How is f-abric count measured? \fhat is meant by a bal-
anced fabric count?

Recommended Readings
Broudl', E. 1979. The book of looms. New York: Van Nostrand Reinhold.
catling, H. 1984. The development of modern weaving machines. lexriles 13
(Spring): 5.
Chadwick, A.1987. Veaving. Tixtiles 16 (3):63.
cherzi, J.' and R. R. Gosai. 1999. \Teaving ro romorrow. Textile Horizons (May:):2r.
D'Harcourt, R. 1962. Ttxtiles of ancient Peru and their techniques. Seattle: University
of Washington Press.
 THr WrnvES
-l-
I
I httt typt' of weave structule form the basis of even the most c.mplex weaves.
Known as basic weaves, these are the prain weaue, trte twir/ weaue,and the
satin weaue.
visual representarion of weaves is often made
on graph paper. Each square of the
Paper represents the yarn that appears on the upper side or
surface of the fabric.
Darkened squares represent the warp yarns
crossing over filling yarns.
Diagraming of weaves on graph paper is
a useful exercise, but readers w'l prob-
ablv {ind that the conceprs rerating ro weaves
are made crearer if they use colored
yarns or strips of colored paper to creare
small samples of each of the basic weaves.
A
small hand loom, or a chilclt loom,
can be used for this pul.pose.
298 UxornsrlNotHo Trxrtles

Blsrc Wrlvrs
Plqin Weqve
The plain weave is the simplest of the weaves and the most common. It consists of
interLcing warp and filling yarns in a pattern of over one and under one. Imagine a
small hand loom with the warp yarns held firmly in place. The filling yarn moves over
the first warp yarn, under the second, over the third, under the fourth, and so on. In
the next ,o* ,h. filling yarn goes under the first warP yarn' over the second' under
the third, and so on. In the third row, the filling moves over the first warp, under the
second, and so on, just as it did in the first row. (See Figure 15'1')
The weave can be made with any rype of yarn. Made with tightly twisted, single
yarns that are placed close together both in the warp and filling, and with the same
number of y.rr-r, in both directions, the resulting fabric will be a durable, simple, ser-
viceable fabric. If, however, the warp were to be made from a single yarn and the fill-
ing from a colorful boucld yarn, a quite different, much more decorative fabric would
result. Both are the product of the same , basic, plain weave'
plain-weave fabrics are consrrucred from many fibers and in weights ranging
from light to heary. \Teaves may be balanced or unbalanced. Decorative effects can
be achieved by using novelry yarns or yarns of different colors. Together with many
of these ,]o,r.lry f"btic., a number of standard fabric rypes are made in the plain
weave. In the past these standard fabrics were always constructed from specific fibers.
At present suitable manufactured fibers are also woven into many of the standard fab-
ric constructions.

Bolonced Ploin-Weove Fobrics

The balanced weaves are the most common. Unbalanced weaves, or rib weaues, and
another variation, basket weaues, will be discussed later. It is helpful to classif' bal-
anced plain weaves by weight as light, medium, or heaw' (See page 299')

Lightweight Plain-weaue Fabrics. Lightweight plain-weave fabrics may be light in

*.ight b.."u.. they have either a low fabric count of are constfucted of fine yarns

,
Freune l5.l r.*ryJ Ia -*
*
(o) Diogrom of the Ploin
weove; (b) close-up
pho'togroph of ploin-weove
fobric,

Irrt
rlfI

b
 Txr Wrlvrs 2gg

and are usually sheer. The foilowing low-fabric-count

balanced plain weaves have
somewhat specialized uses.

1' cheesecloth is open weave soft fabric originally

used in producing cheese,
serving as a wrapper or srrainer for curds. (See
Figure il.rU.l
2' crinoline and buckram are heavirv sized to ,.r',r.
stiffening fabrics.
3. Gauze, with ",
higher count than cheesecloth, is used
a in theatricar cosrumes
and medical dressings, as well as for blouses and
dresses.
The following are high-count balanced plain weaves with
fine yarns.
1' chffin is made from fine, highly twisted filament yarns.
Because of the
tightly twisted crepe yarns, chiffon has excellent drap., and
although it is
delicate in appearance, it is relatively durable. Sheer
evening dr.rr.r, blouses,
lingerie, and other dressy apparel are constructed from
th. Lbri..
2. Mnon, a sheer plain weave of fiiament yarns, is often
used in sheer currains
and draperies.
3' organdy is a sheer cotton fabric that is given a temporarily
or permanently
stiffened finish.
4. Organza is a stiff sheer fabric made of filament yarns.
5. wile' a soft fahric with somewhat lower fabric count and higher
rwist yarns,
has a distinctive rwo-ply warp and good drapabiliry.

Medium-'veight Plain-'w'eaue Fabrics. Medium-weight

balanced plain weaves usually
have fairly high fabric counts, conrain medium-weifhr
yarns (12 to 29 tex), and are
opaque. Distinguishing characteristics may be
design, coior, finish, or fabric count.
1,. Calico is a closely woven fabric with a small printed design.
2. Chambray fabrics have colored warp yarns
r"hi,. filri"ng yarns that pro-
duce a heather appearance. Some contemporary".,d
chambrays may have warp
and filling yarns of different colors.
3' chintzisafabric.prinredrlith]arge designsthatisoftengivenapolishedor
glazed 6nish. Solid coror glazed fabrics aie cailed
porished"cottont.'
4' Gingham is a woven check or plaid design made
with yarns of different col-
oIs.
5' Muslin, generally woven from corron or cotton blends,
is made in both
heavily sized, bleached quarities and in better
grades for sheets and pillow
cases. Muslin sheers are not combed
and have"a lower count (r2g to r40 to-
tal yarns per inch) than do percale sheets.
6' Percab, a closely woven' prain weave of cotton or brended
6bers, is made
from yarns of moderate rwist. percale yard goods
g.rr.."llf .".d.d, b,r,
percale sheers are finer and mo.e iuturio,,s in "r.
feel and are made of combed
yarns' Percale sheets have a counr of1g0 to 200
yarns (warp plus filling) per
inch.

Pkin-iYeaae Fabrics. The following are common

!:.r:f:::!t hear,l,weight plain-
weave tabncs.

l. Butcher linen is a piain, stiff, white fabric

made from heary yarn.
2. Crash is made from thick and thin yarns,
giving th. f"bric n,lbby look.
3. Homespun is a furnishing fabric made with irregurar "
yarns to ..r.-br. h".rd-
spun and hand-woven fabrics.
4' osnaburgis made of low-quality cotton for industriar use and in interior
fabrics for currains and upholstered furniture.
300 UNornsnHorxoTexrtrs

Rib Voriotions

Ribbed fabrics have an unbalanced weave with many small yarns crossing over a fen'er
number of large yarns. Most unbalanced weaves have a iarger number of warp yarns
than filling yarns, forming a crosswise rib. fubs can be relatively smal1 or quite pro-
nounced. (See Figure 15.2.) Cordedfabrin can be created by grouping yarns together
in one direction before they are crossed by yarns in the other direction or by using
large yarns at intervals. (See Figure 15.3.) The following are some standard rib-weave
fabrics.

1. Bengaline and ottoman hearyweight fabrics with large ribs, are used mostly
in upholstery and furnishings.
2. Broadcloth is a medium-weight unbalanced plain weave with fine ribs. The
rib weave makes it crisper than medium-weight baianced weaves. It is often
made from cotton or cotton blends.

Frounr 15.2

Foille fobric with pronounced

crosswise rib.

Frounr 15.3

Dimity fobric with pronounced

lengthwise cord,
 Trr Wravrs 301

3. Faille has a prominent rib and is made with fine filament yarns in the warp
and heavy spun yarns in the filling. It is usually hearyweight, although
lighter-weight tissue failles are also produced.
4. Grosgrain has very prominent ribs and is usually woven in narrow ribbon
widths.
5. Poplin, a bottom-weight rib weave, is usually made from cotton or cotton
blends.
6. Shantunghas a nubby, irregular rib in the filling. Formerly made almost ex-
clusively of silk, shantung is now made from a variety of manufactured
fibers as well.
7. Taffeta is a medium-weight weave made from filament yarns that is often
used for evening wear.
B. Bedford cordis a sturdy fabric constructed with a pronounced lengthwise
cord.
9. Dimi44 a sheer cotton fabric, is often made with a lengthwise cord effect.
Some dimity fabrics use larger yarns in both the warp and filling direction
to achieve a checked, or barred, effecr.

Bosket Wecve
The basket we/1ue, a variation of the plain weave, uses tvvo or more warp and/or two
or more filling yarns side by side as one yarn. (See Figure 15.4a.) The resultant cloth
is fairly loose in weave.
The following are among the more common basket-weave fabrics.

1. Monk's cloth ts a coarse cloth of large yarns. (See Figure 15.4b.) Monkt cloth
uses four or more yarns as one in the weave. Its ma.jor uses are in household
textiles such as curtains, spreads, and the like.
2. Hopsacking is made of many different fibers. This fabric simulates the fabrics
used in bags for gathering hops. It has a 2-2 or 3-3 basket weave and is
commonly used in upholstery.
3. Modifed bashet weaues may use double yarns in one direction but not in the
other Oxford cloth, whtch is made in this way, is a soft fabric, often made of
cotton or cotton blends, that is used for shirts. Frequently, it is made with
narrow colored stripes in the warp, or a colored warp.
4. Duck and canuas are heavy', tightly woven, and very stiff plain-weave fabrics
made of even yarn for industrial use . They usually have an uneven weave

Froune 15.4

(o) The bosket-weove voriotion

of the ploin weove; (b) monk's
cloth, o boskei-weove fobric
qttl
with four worp ond four filling
yorns,
,: fll) i
, 2 5..e,..:.1

.il: {.
aL- ..
..;:;ltffi
ss,;i.
gO2 UnoenstlHotNo frxrtlrs

oF the tight weave' these fabrics

are often used for outdoor
Pattern. Because
PurPoses.

fwill Weqve
Twillfabricsarereadiiyidentifiedbythe<liagonallinesthattheweavecreatesonthe
,r. f.*., i,-rt.rl".ingr, the larls in will fabrics
can
surface of the fabric. o.;;;.;. Therefore' twill
be spaced closely togeth;;;;il ttth.tly' and held firmly in place' Most will-
;'-ti Jt""bltithty are also supple and Jrape well-'
fabrics are usually ,,,o"g fabrics en-
weave fabrics are made;;;;;.- w.ight. The compact strucrure :r.ytll
them to shed r"l';;;irn *he,-,.roil.d they may be difficult to get
ables "rthoighwill fabrics generally show good resistance
clean. Depending on ,f-r.i, -lr,r".tionl those made
to abrasion. T*iil f"bri., ".. or,.,-, used for tailored g"r:m.n,r, particularly

"- worsted wool yarns. is created

of L., ,L. yarn.crosslng over nvo filling
ifl. simplest twill weave -._^^-^r by the warp
o'-tt' and so on' In the next row' the
sequence
yarns, then under one, t;t;;"' ""tlt' ovef sev-
area in which one yarn ctosses
f.gil yarn down. (see Figure 15.5.)The
J;;"t"."". i,-, th. opposite direction is called a foat'wales'when the cloth is held in the
The lines created b; il;;;;tt'-' "rt
tall*
to run either
position in which i, *"1 *ou*, the wales (diagonal lines) wili be seen
lromthelowerleftCofnertotheupperrightco^rnerorfromthelowerrighttotheup- is known
per left. If the diagonaf''""' ft"-
tftt iotit' left to the upper right' the twill
twills
a right_hanrJ twitt.Ai.", ai f.rcent
of all twill-woven fabrics are right-hand
as to the uP-
(American Fabrics 1g8;3;;i.vh.r,.h.
twill runs from the lower right
is known as a lefi-hand.twiLl' $ee
Figure 15'6')
O.r f.n, the twill
Thereare",-',,,'-'u.,ot.ypesoftwiilweaves'Allusethesameprincipleofcross-
of twills may be
even Progression' Descriptions
ing more than one yarn at "'"gt'I"''
madeintermsofthepatternofwarpyarnscrossingfiliingyarnl.Thedescriptionof
o"'1he first digit refers to the num-
twill weaves i, "o,"tti"' i/r'212';l;' t'-td 'o of
the warp and the second digit to the number
ber of filling yarns crossed over by
fillingyarnsthewarpp""t'u.'dt'beforereturningtocrossthefillingagain'When
fabric is called an euen
the crossing i. out' ttnder the same number of yt'n'' the
"nI filling yarns
p"" over a larger or smaller number of
or euen-sicled ,,lA' W'it *^'p'
,h",t ,h.y pass under, tht f'b'ic i' called tn uneuen twiLl'

Even-Sided Twill
Theeven.sidedtwillhasthesamenumberofwarpandfillingyarns'showingonthe
face of the fabric. nig"" iii shows
how *t'ut is achieved \n a2l2 tvvrll'
"tth "

Froupr 15.5

Right-honded, worP-foced twill

weove,
 Txr Wuvrs 303

Frounr 15.6

Left-honded twill weove.

Even-sided rwills are reversible unless printed or finished or one side.

1. Serge is a popular basic will fabric made from any number of different
fibers. \When serge is made from wool, it is often woven from worsted yarns.
Serge wili take a crease well, but wool serge tends to become shiny with
wear. It tailors well.
2. Flannel, if made of wool, is usually a nvill weave with a napped finish.
3. Plaids or tartan patterns are yarn-dyed even-sided rwills.
4. In a herringbone twill the direction of the twill reverses itself to form a bro-
ken diagonal that appears like a series ofVt: herringbone patterns creare a
decorative effect. (See Figure 15.8.) Herringbone twills are common in suit-
ing fabrics.

Worp-Foced Twill
tWarp-faced rwills have a predominance
of warp yarns on the surface of the fabric,
with patterns oF 211, 311, 312, and so on. (See Figure 15.9.)

Frounr I5.7
Right-honded. even-sided twill
(2t2).
304 Ulornsnxotlofrxrtrs

Frcupr 15.8

Heningbone twill fobric,

l. Denim is a durable hearyweight twill with colored warp yarns and white fill-
ing yarns. Since it is a warp-faced twill, the colored warP yarns predominate
on the face and the white filling yarns on the back.
2. Dritt is another heaqweight fabric, usually of a solid color.
3. Jean is a lighter-weight twill, usually with colored warP yarns and white fill-
ing yarns.
4. Gabardine is durable and closely woven. It is made into a variety of weights
from many different fibers such as woo1, rayon, cotton, and manufactured
fibers.

Filling-Foced Twill
Filling-faced twills have a predominance of filling yarns on the surface of the fabric'
Filling yarns are generally weaker than are wafP yarns, so that relatively few filling-
faced twills are made.

Frounr 15.9

Right-honded, worp-foced, twill

weove (2/l).
 Trr Wmves 305

TwillAngles
'When the face of a twiil fabric is examined, the diagonal of the wales will be seen to
move at a more or less steep angle. The steepness of the angle is dependent on two
factors in the construction of the fabric: the number of warp yarns per inch of fabric
and the number of steps berween movement of yarns when they interlace.
The more warp yarns in the construction, the steeper the angle of the wales, pro-
vided that the number of filling yarns per inch remains the same. This is because the
points of interlacing of the yarns will be closer together, thereby the diagonal of the
wales will make a steep climb upward. When the steepness of the angle is the result
ofclose spacing ofwarp yarns, these steeper angles are an indication ofgood strength.
If the angle the wale makes with the filling yarn is about 45 degrees, the fabric is a
regular twill.Fabncs with higher angles are steep rwilk, and those with smaller angles
are reclining twills.
Generally, the interlacing of yarns in a rwill changes with each filling yarn. There
are, however, fabrics in which the interlacing of yarns changes only every two filling
yarns or every three filling yarns. The less often the interlacing changes, the steeper
the angle of the twill will be.

Sqtin Weqve
Satin-weave fabrics are made by allowing yarns to float over a number of yarns from
the opposite direction. lnterlacings are made at intervals such as over four, under one
(using 6ve harnesses); over seven, under one (eight harnesses); or over eleven, under
one (twelve harnesses). Floats in satin fabrics may cross from four to rwelve yarns be-
fore interlacing with another yarn. No pronounced diagonal line is formed on the
surface of the fabric because the points of intersection are spaced in such a way that
no regular progression is formed from one yarn to that lying next to it.
\fhen warp yarns form the floats on the face of the fabric, the fabric is a u,arp-
facedsatin. (See Figure 15.10.) \fhen fillingyarns float on the face, the fabric isafl/-
ing-facecl satin. (See Figure 15.11.) Satin-weave fabrics made from frlament yarns are
called satins, those from spun yarns ate sAteen. Most warp-faced weaves have filament
yarns because filament yarns do not require a tight twist to serve as warp yarns,
whereas cotton, being a staple fiber, must be given a fairly high degree of nvist if it is
to serve as a strong warp yarn. Therefore, sateen fabrics are usually filling faced, al-
though some warp sateens are made.
Satin-weave fabrics are highly decorative. They are usually made from filament
yarns with high luster to produce a shin,v, lustrous surface and tend to have high fab-

Freunr 15.10

Worp-foced sotin weove, Worp

yorns form floots, crossing over
seven fiiling yorns between
every interlocing,
306 UHornsnlotnoTrxrllrs

Frounr l5.l I
Filling-foced sotin weove, Filling
yorns form floots, crossing over
four worP Yorns between every
intersection,

and tend to shed dirt easily' The

ric counrs. They are smooth and slippery in texture
The longer
i;;; f""r, ot ,it. rrrrf".. ",t, of to""t' s'''bjett to abrasion and snagging' as lining
the float, the greater the likeiihood ofsnagsand
pulls. Satins are often used
durabiliry
fabrics for coars and rrrl,, u..",rr. they slfr..".iiy
ou., other fabrics.,The
of satin-weave fabrics is related to tht itn'iry of tht *t"ut' with closely woven' high-
countfabricshavinggooddurabiliry.Satinsmadefromstrongerfibersare,.,fcourse.
more durable than those made from weaker fibers'
The following are some names given to satin fabrics'

|.Antiquesatin,^satinmadetoimitatesilksatinofanearlierperiod,often
.tr., ,l,rbb.d filling yarns for decorative effect'
mellow luster'
2. Peau de soie is ,ofi, tlo"ly woven satin with a flat'
" in It is often used for
3. Stipper satinis",,'ong, to-p"tt satin' heary
weight'
evening shoes.
warP yarns are combined with
4. In crepe-backed satin,loosely rwisted' lustrous
tightlytwisted,.,.ptafillingyarns'Thefloatsonthesurfacearecreatedby
warp yarns
,li. *"rp, so that tit. f".. oithe fabric is chie{ly made up of
withasatinaPPearance'whereasthebackofthefabricismadeuplargelyof
surface texture
tightly twistei fiilittg y""t' that produce a crePe or rougher
with a fat, less shinY aPPearance'

Novelly Fobrics from Bqsic Weqves

Novelry effects in fabrics are in large part a result
of selection of novelry yarns for in-
.orpor"tio.t into fabrics made in one of the basic weaves'

Crepe Fqbrics
Crepefabricsmaybedefinedasfabricscharacterizedbyacrinkled,pebblysurface.
that is'
(S.. ng*r. tS.iz.) Originally, crepe fabrics were made from crepe yarns'
sixty-five turns Per inch' Most
y"rrr, *lth an excePtionily high deiret of wist' up to
standard crepe fabrics *.r. in"the
-i'd. plain *."u., ,o*. with rib effects' and some
howeveq
in satin weave, as in crepe-backed satin.'with the advent of synthetic fibers,
many crepe efects are through the use of textured yarns, bicomponent yafns
".iri.u.d."""'
crepelike surface' or embossing or stamping a
i
in which uneven shrinkage
made from these more re-
crep.like texrure o' th. sirf"c. of the fabric. Most fabrics
if they are made from heat-treated thermoplastic
..ri pro..rr., will be durable only
fibers.Anothermethod,,se'a'ptci"lcrePeweavethatbreaksupthesurfaceofthe
 Txr Wrrvrs 307

Frounr 15.12

Crepe fobric with o pebbly

surfoce creqted by using tightly
twisted crepe yorns ond
irregulor weove,

cloth into a random sequence of interlacings. Careful examination of fabrics having

a crepelike appearance will reveal that relatively few of them are actually woven with
crepe yarns.

Seersucker
Seersucker, another plain-weave fabric, is created by holding some warp yarns at tight
tension, some at slack tension. Those at slack tension puff up to form a sort of "blis-
ter effect." Seersucker surface effects are permanent. Often the slack and tight yarns
are each made from a different colored yarn, to provide a decorative striped effect.
Seersucker should not be confused with fabrics having puffed effects created by
chemical finishes, such as plissi or embossing which are much less durable.

VanranoNs oF THE BAsrc WEAvEs

Dobby Fqbrics
The dobby weave is like a jacquard weave in miniature. The Dobby weaves have
small, repeated patterns, that are usually geometric. (See Figure 15.13.)
The following are some of the fabrics made on the dobby loom.

l. Bird's eye, a cloth made with small diamond-shaped figures, has a weave that
is said to resemble the eye of a bird. Birdt eye is also called diaper cloth.
308 UHotnstll,tottto Trxrtles

Froune 15.I3
Close-up photogroph of fobric
woven on the dobby loom.

2. Piqui is a medium- to hear'yweight fabric' often of cotton' with a pro-

,ro.,rl..d lengthwise cord, often combined with other small figures or Pat-
terns such as honeycomb or waffle effects.
3. \Yhite-on-white has a white dobby 6gure woven on a white background and
is often used for mens shirting.

Jocquord Fqbrics
The operation of the jacquard loom was described in chapter 14. Jacquard patterns,
when carefully analyzed, may be seen to contain combinations of plain, twill, and
satin weaves, even in the same crosswise yarn. ManV decorative fabrics are made by
the jacquard technique. Jacquard-woven tapestry fabrics should not be confused with
tr,re trp.rtri.s (see below) even though some fashion promotions may refer to
jacquard fabrics as "tapestry fabrics."
The following are some of the best-known jacquard Patterns'
7. Brocade features an embossed or embroidered appearance. Elaborate pat-
rerns, often of flowers and figures, stand our fi-om the background. Pattern
and ground are usually different weaves. Brocades are made from a wide
,"ng. of fibers ancl with a wide range of price and quality. Fabrics are used
for upholstery, draperies, and evening and formal clothing'
2. Brocatelle is similar to brocade, but with figures or patterns standing in high
relief. Brocatelle is used mostly for upholstery fabrics and draperies'
3. Damask is a flatter fabric than brocade and often has a fine weave. Damask
figures often use a satin weave to re{lect light from thc parrern, whereas the
background is made in a plain or twill consrrudion. Linen damasks have
long been used for luxurious tablecloths. Damasks are reversible. cotton
and linen damasks are made either with four-yarn float or a seven-yarn float
-I'he
in the satin weave. longer floats are more lustrous, but the shorter floats
are more durable, as rhey are less likely to snag or be subject to abrasion.
(See Figure 15.14.)
4. Titpestry-like Jabrics have an appearance that simulates hand-woven tapes-
tries. Used extensively ir.r fabrics for interiors, these jacquard-woven fabrics
have highly patterned designs on the face. Although the back is also figured,
the colors within the design differ. For example, a leaf that apPears on the
face as green will be some other color on the back. (See Figure 15'15')
 Txr Wrrvrs 309

Fteunr l5-14

Domosk fobric woven on o jocquord loom

Frounr 15.15

Topestry-type fobric woven on o jocquord loom: (o) foce; (b) bock. Note thot design is identicol on foce ond bock,
but thqt the co ors, os indicqted by grodotions of block ond white, ore reversed.
310 UrornsnrornoTrxrtts

Hqnd-Woven Tqpestries
tpestries woven by traditional methods differ from jacquard-woven fabrics having
the appearance of a tapestry in that the traditionally woven tapestries are made using
hand techniques. Jacquard-woven tapestry fabrics generally use repeated patterns of
finite size. Traditional tapestry weaving is used to produce enormous fabrics that can
form one large picture. tpestry weaving may be compated to painting with yarn.
(See Figure 15.16.) Since it is basically a hand technique, tapestry is made on an ele-
mentary loom.
In the weaving of European tapestries, the loom followed the basic form of tl.re
two-bar loom. The loom was set up either vertically or horizontally, and warp yarns
were measured and affixed to the loom. Filling yarns were prepared in the appropriate
colors. The design of the tapestry was first worked out in a dlawing, or cartoon, as it

Froune 15.16

French or Flemish topestry of

the lote fifteenth century woven
from wool qnd silk with metol
threods, Photogroph courtesy
of the Metropoliton Museum of
Art, the Cloisters, Gift of John D,
Rockefeller. Jr.. 1937,
 -- frr Wrrves 3l I

was callecl. The artist who created the drawing may have been one
of great stature, and
designers ofsixteenth- and seventeenth-
painters such as Raphael and Rubens served as
Th. .rr,oon In other in-
was sometimes traced onto the warP yarns'
..n,,rry tapestries.
looked through the
,,"n.., it i". -orr.tt.d behind the loom, and the tapestry weaver
of the drawing. The tapestry was woven
warp yarns to the design, following the plan
*l,h ,h. wrong side f"Jir]g th. *.",r.r. Sometimes a mirror was set up beneath the tap-
estry so th"t weaver could check the progress on the right side'
tt.
that were
The various colors of yarns were wound onto sharp, pointed bobbins
to fill in the area of that partic-
introduced into the warp, and the weaver proceeded
new bobbin was used for
ular color. when the *.r,r., reached the end of one color, a
as the weaver worked back and
the next section. This created a problem, because
not ioin with
forth in a pafricular segment of the design, the yarns of one color did
color. This produced slits in the fabric at the place where
the yarns of th.
"d;".*t shut, but this caused
...h ,].* color began. Sections of the t"p.rt.y could be sewn
Two other
the fabric to be weaker ar the spors ,rher. th. fabric was seamed together.
wl]ere the color of one sec-
methods were also used to pr.u.n, the formation of slits.
new coior could be twisted
tion ended and another b.ga,-r, both the old and the
around rhe same *"rp u".nrlThis system worked well except that
it created a slighdy
were required, the yarns of
indistinct or shadony line. where ciear, well-defined lines
around the other'
adjacent colors were fastened together by looping one yarn
fiIl-
In traditional tapestrv *.ru"ing, all the warp yarns are completely covered by
onlv
ing yarns, so it is the filling yarns ih", t"'y the design' The yarns
warp serve as

the base.

leno-Weqve Fqbrics
The /eno weaueis the modern descendant of a technique called twiningthtt
was used

thousands of years ago for making fabrics. In leno-weave fabrics, the warp yafns are
-doup
or leno a*achment, crosses or laps the paired
paired. A ,p.ii"l rhe
",.J.hmenr,
*"rp yrrnr'o.rer each other, while the {illing Passes through the opening beween the
rwo warp yarns. (See Figure 15.17.)

Froupr I 5.1 7
yorns
(o) Structure of o leno-weove fobric; (b) closeup of o leno-weove fobric with boucle
in the crosswise direction,

:ffi:#,
WM
,
,wr,ww,r
'ffi;#fu"ww.
312 UrornstlNorleTrxnlrs

Leno-weave fabrics are made in open, gauzelike constructions. The rwined (not
rwisted) warp yarns prevent the fillingyarns of these open fabrics from slipping. Cur-
tain fabrics are often made with leno weave. Two of the more popular leno-weave fab-
rics are marquisette and grenadine. Many fruit sacks are leno-woven of slit films.

Woven Pile Fobrics

Pile fabrics have been defined as "fabrics(s) with cut or uncut loops which stand up
densely on the surface" (Klapper 1967 , 54). Pile fabrics may be created by weaving or
through other construction techniques, such as tufting, knitting, or stitch through.
To create the loops that appear on the surface of woven pile fabrics, the weaving
process incorporates an extra set of yarns that form the pile. Construction of woven
pile fabrics, therefore, represents a complex form of weaving in which there are at
least three sets of yarns.
\7oven pile fabrics are divided into two categories depending on whether the ex-
tra set of yarns is in the warp direction or the fiiling directio n. Valp pile fabrics have
two sets of warp yarns and one set of filling yarns. Fillingpilefabrics have nvo sets of
filling yarns.
Pile fabrics are woven by one of several methods, depending on whether they are
warp pile or filling pile fabrics.

Worp Pile Fobrics

\(arp pile can be made by the wire method, the double-cloth method, or by slack
tension weaving.
In the wire method one set of warp yarns and the filiing yarn interlace in the
usual manner and form the "ground" fabric in either a plain or nvill weave. The ex-
tra set of warp yarns forms the pile. When the pile yarns are raised by the heddles,
the machine inserts a wire across the loom in the filling direction. \fhen the warps
are lowered, they loop over the wire to make a raised area. The next several filling
yarns are inserted in the usual manner. The wire is then withdrawn, ieaving the loop,
which is held firmly in place by the other yarns. Frieze, a fabric often used for up-
holstery, is an example of an uncut, looped pile fabric that can be made by the wire
method. If the fabric is to have a cut pile, the wire has a knife blade at the end that
cuts the yarns as the wire is withdrawn. Wluets may be made in this way. (See Figures
15.18 and 15.19.) If the fabric is to have an uncut pile, the wire has no cutting edge.
The double-cloth method is used for cut pile fabrics. Here, two sets of warps and
two sets of fillings are woven simultaneously into a layer of fabric. A third set of warp
yarns moves back and forth benveen the nvo layers of fabric, holding them together

Frcunr 15.18 PILE FORI\4ED

BY CUT LOOP

Construction of pile fobrics by

the pile method.
 Txr Wrrves 3t3

Froun: 15.19

Velvei fobric in which figure is

creoted by olternoting sections
of cut pile (the dorker oreos
which reflect more light) with
uncut sections (the looPs of
which ore visible in the
photogroph,)

and being held by each fabric. The resultant fabric is cur apart by a sharp knife,
thcreby creating two lengths of fabric, each u,ith a cut pile. (See Figure 15.20.)
w/ttets and plushes can be made with the double-cloth method" velvets are usu-
ally made of filament yarns. Other nonpile fabrics can be rnade by the double-cloth
method, and are discussed later.
T?rry cloth is made by the slack tension method. Terry cloth is made with uncut
loops. Usually, two sets of warps and one set of filling yarns are usedl however' mofe
fabrics may use rwo sets of yarns in each direction. The ground of the fab-
"*p.nriue

Froune 15.20

Diogrom showing constructlon

DOUBLE WOVEN VELVET BEFORE SPLITTING of pile fobric by the double-
cloth method. CourtesY of the
Crompton ComPonY, lnc'

PILE TUFTS
314 UHornsrllolHoTrxrtrs

ric is of warp yarns held under tension, the pile of rvarp )'arns that are allorved to re-
lax. Periodically (usually after every three picks), tensior"r is released on the rvarp pile
yarns at the same time as the next three filling yarns are pushed firmly into place. '[he
first nvo of each three picks are only beaten up part way. The loose rvarp yarns loop
up on the surface to form the terry pile. Loops may remain uncur ro form the tradi-
tional terry cioth with ioops on both sides. (See Figure 15.21 .)
Sometimes one side is sheared to make an attractive ue/our face. Such fabrics do
not wear as well as uncut loop fabrics. Pile yarns in vclour torveling tend to become
dislodged more easily, thereby shortening the rvear life of the rnaterial. lerry pile n.ray
appear on one or both sides of the fabric.

Filling Pile Fobrics

Filling pile fabrics are woven by the filling pile method. In this metl-rod there are rwo
sets of filling yarns and one set of warp yarns. The extra set of filling yarns forms floats
that are from four to six yarns in length. The floating yarns are cur ar rhe center ofthe
float, and these ends are brushed up on the surface of the fabric. (See Figure 15.22.)
In some filling pile constructions, the filling yarn that makes the pile is interlaced
with the ground one time before it is cut; in others, the filling pile interlaces rwice.
Those fabrics in which there are two interlacings are more durable than when only
one interlacing has taken place.
Floats for corduroy are placed in lengthwise rows, and lloats for ue/ueteenare spaced
to produce an overall pile effect. Velveteens are characterized by a uniform, overall pile.

Ftoune 15.21

Terry cloth fobric, Ground is visible in the spoces between the uncut loops of the
pile,

&vd
," -)i&t .tffi.1l;'rA+ r,if,t;; ,f);Y@',:,,
 Tnr Wrrvss 315

Frounr 15.22

Construction of corduroy by the filling pile method,

Floats Are Cut

FLOA
J FILLING YARN
FLOATS

WARP YARNS

Cut Floats Form Pile

PILE FILLING YARNS

BASE WARPS BASE FILLING BINDER YARNS

Cross-section of Pile Fabric (Corduroy)

The even spacing ofcorduroy floats produces a strip or wale characteristic ofthis fab-
ric Corduroys are given names according to the numbers of wale s. Feathercord corduroy
has about 20 to 25 lengthwise wales per inch; fne wale or pinwale cordtroy, about 16
to 23 wales; mid, medium, or regular wale corduroy, about 14 wale5 wide wale cor'
duroy, about 6 to 10 waies; and broadwalecorduroy, about 3 to 5 ribs per inch. Nov-
elry wale corduroys are also produced in which thick and thin wales are arranged in
varying patterns. (See Figure 15.23.) Some corduroy fabrics are now made with 100
percent cotton yarns in the pile filling and polyester and cotton blends in the ground

Frounr 15.23

Corduroy fobric mode with

woles of three different widths
ond iypes,
316 UrornsrlrorNoTrxrrlrs

yarns. Other decorative efTects can be achieved by cutting fioats selectively to vary pat-
tern and texture. Most filling pile fabrics are made from spun varns.

Chenille
Chenille fabrics have a pile that is created by the use ofchenille yarns. (See chapter 1 3.)
The loose yarn ends that flufJ- up on the surface of the chenille yarn to form "cater-
pillars" create a soft, cut pile rvhen woven into fabrics. The pile in this case is created
not by the fabric structure but by the characteristics of the yarn which is itself a nar-
row strip of lenowoven fabric. Chenille fabrics may be woven or knitted.

DrconlnvE SURFAcE EFFEcrs

Woven Etfecls
Hand embroidery has been used for many centuries to add decoration to fabrics.
\flith the invention of the automatic loom came the production of looms that would
create ornamental effects similar to that of embroidery.

Clipped or Unclipped Spot Weove

Embroiderylike designs may be achieved through the use of extra warp and extra fill-
ing yarns. In the clipped spot weave, either an extra shuttle or an extra set of warp
yarns interlace to create a simple woven design. The extra yarns are carried along as a
float on the wrong side of the fabric when they do not appear in the design. After the
cloth is completed, the long floats may be cut away (clipped) or left uncut (un-
clipped). If clipped, which is the most common practice, the yarns form a character-
istic "eyelash" effect. Sometimes these fabrics are used inside out for design interest.
(See Figure 15.24.)
The durabiliry of the design depends on the closeness of the weave of the fabric
into which it is woven. Some domestic dotted swiss fabric is constructed by the
clipped spot weave. This sheer cotton fabric uses small clipped spor yarns in con-

Frcum l5-24

Clipped spot design.

 Txr Wrrvrs 317

Frounr 15.25

(o) Close-up of dotted swiss

mode by the clipped spot
method, (b) Close-up of dotted
swiss mode by the swivel
weove. Note thot in (o) the
fibers only interloce under one
wqrp yorn. whereos in this figure
the yorns oppeor to wrop
oround the worp ycrns.

trasting color to create a dotted surface design (Figure 15.25a). Dotted swiss may also
be made with flocking or with plastic dots, much cheaper options.

SwivelWeove
Similar fabrics can be made in the swivel weave, which is sometimes used in decora-
tive fabrics for interiors. The design is made by supplying an extra filling yarn on a
small shuttle or swivel. The filling design yarns are carried several times around a
group of warps by the motion of the swivel to prevent the yarn from pulling out of
the background fabric. The long floats beween designs are knotted and clipped off,
Occasionally, imported dotted swiss fabrics may use a swivel weave rarher than a
clipped spot weave. The swivel weave is more durable than the clipped spot weave be-
cause the design yarns are woven in and cannot pu1l out of the fabric as easily as in
the latter method. (See Figure 15.25b.)

Loppet Weove
Lappet weaueshave an extra warp yarn that may interlace in both the warp and filling
direction with the ground fabric. The exrra set of warps is threaded through needles
set in front of the reed. The yarns are carried tn aztgzagdirection, back and forth to
form an embroiderylike design. The design is created on the right side of the fabric,
the excess yarn being carried along on the wrong side. Extra yarn is not clipped away
from the back ofthe fabric but can be seen as it is carried from one design area to an-
other. Imported Swiss braids often use the lappet weave, which is seldom found on
merchandise sold in the United States.
318 UHornsrllolnofexnms

lnterwoven, or Double-Cloth, Fqbrics

Interwoven fabrics are also called double-cloth fabrics. 'fhey are made with three,

^*';',:;;:;:,;ti;;I:;^,,made with rhree sers or yarns. ;"." either rrom two

setsof warp yarns and one filling yarn or from two sets of filling yarns and one warP
yarn, the effect of the weave is to produce the same appearance on both sides of the
fabric. Some blankets and double-faced satins are examples of fabrics that are woven
in this way.
Fabrics made with four sets of yarns use two sets of warp varns and two sets of
filling yarns. Yarns from both layers move back arrd forth from one layer to another,
as required by the design. In some areas the nvo fabrics are totally separated; in oth-
ers, all four sets of yarns are interwoven. Mate/assl is one fabric made by this process.
(See Figure 15.26.) f'he rwo layers of these fabrics cannot be separated without de-
stroying the fabric. Tl.re cut edge of the fabric will show small "pockets" where fabric
layers are separat€. The pocket boundaries are the point at which yarn \ets inter-
change from one side of the labric to the other.
Fabrics with five sets of yarns are produced in the same way as double-woven pile
fabrics. Two separate fabric layers are constructed. Extra yarns travel back and forth
between the two layers to hold them together. fhese fabrics are often reversible, with
one side being of one color and one side of another color. If the connecting yarn is
cut, the rlvo segments of the fabric can be sep,rrated into two individual pieces of
cloth. (See Figure 15.27.)

Trioxolly Woven Fqbrics

Research and development of ncw fabric constrr"rction is constantly in progress. Sev-
e ral recent methocls of fabric construction that are related to knitting are discussed in

chapter 16. There is, however, another metl.rod of constructing fabrics that is closely
related to traditional weaving, and it is known as triaxia/ weauing. The term is der:ived
from tri- meaning "three" and axia/, meaning "of or pertaining to the axis or center
line." In other words, triaxial fabrics have three axes or center lines. (See Figure
15.28.) Tiaditionallv, woven fabrics have a biaxial form or two axes, the lengthwise
and crosswise axes.
Tiiaxial fabrics are usually woven by interlacing two sets of lengthwise yarns with
one set of crosswise yarns. Special cams in the loom manipulate the yarns so that the
double set of yarns is carried in a diagor.ral direction. All three sets of yarns interlace.

Frounr 15.26

Motelosse fobric produced with

four sets of yorns, ln flot oreos oll
four yorns interloce to form o
single loyer; in roised oreos two
seporote fobrics ore formed,
 Txe Wrrvrs 319

Froune l5-27
Double-woven fobric mqde
wiih five sets of yorns. Eoch side
of ihe fobric is o different color,
ond of the lower right corner
the two fobric loyers hove been
pulled oport ond the yorns thot
hold them together con be
seen,

Frounr 15.28

Trioxiol fobric structure

tiaxial weaves are not entirely new Snowshoes and some forms of baskework
sometimes have been made using a triaxial construction. The major advantage of tri-
a-rial weaving is in its stability against stretching not only in the length and crosswise
directions but also in the bias. Even those bia-rial fabrics with good stability in the
warp and filling will stretch in the bias direction. Tiiaxially woven fabrics have high
bursting strength resistance and strong resistance to tearing and raveling. Strength is
uniform in all directions.

Errrcrs oF WovEN SrRUcruRE

ON FABRIc PERFoRMANcE
Durobility
The contributions to strer.rgth of fibers and yarns have been discussed in chapters 2
and 13. Fabric structure also plays a critical role. Two of the most important fabric
variables affecting strength of woven fabrics are weave and fabric count. The more in-
terlacings in a fabric, the higher the fabric count. Fabric weaves with a high number
ofinterlacings, such as plain weaves, can transfer and thereby share the tensile stresses
at the intersection points. As a result, if fibers and yarns of comparable strength are
used, they tend to have higher breaking strength than fabrics with fewer intersection
points, such as satin weaves. On the other hand, tearing strength of fabrics with many
interlacings may be reduced. In tightly woven plain weaves the yarns are bound in
position and are unable to move to group together to share the stress imposed in tear-
ing. They therefore exhibit a lower tealing strength than twills, oxfords, or satins, all
oF which have Fer're r lacing poinrs.
320 UxornsnlorloTrxrrus

The effect ofweave can be altered by changing the fabric count ofa woven fab-
ric. A plain-weave fabric with an extremely low fabric count, such as cheesecloth, has
a low breaking strength but a high tearing strength. The breaking strength is low be-
cause there are few yarns to share the load applied. The yarns in this structure, how-
ever, can slide around easily and group together to share the load during tearing. Tiy
to tear a piece of cheesecloth and the strength of this type of structure becomes ap-
parent. (See Figure I5.29.)
Yarns and fabric structure work together in determining elongation and recovery
of textile fabrics. Crimp added to yarns, as in textured yarns, and the natural crimp
created in all fabrics when yarns interlace are also related to extensibility. \fhen warp
and filling yarns cross each other, they cannot continue to move in an absolutely
straight line, but each set of yarns must bend over and under yarns in the other set.
Each yarn, therefore, develops a wavy configuration. (See Figure 15.30.) As the fab-
ric is stretched, the crimp in the direction of the stretch is removed, permitting the
fabric structure to reach its maximum extensibility. The greater the yar-n crimp, the
more extensible the fabric. Since warp yarns are under more tension during weaving,
there is usually more crimp, and greater extensibility, in the filling direction. In un-
balanced weaves, however, where there are many warp yarns interlacing with feu,er
filling yarns, the warp yarns will have more crimp.
In woven fabric construction, the aspect of crimp distribution seems to be par-
ticularly important in durabiliry. The crown-the part of the yarn that protrudes
above the surface of the fabric-receives the pressure of abrasion. The more crowns
of the same height there are in a given area of cloth, the more evenly the wear wili be
distributed over the surface of the fabric, as shown in Figule 15.30. Prominently
ribbed fabrics, such as faille or grosgrain, tend to abrade easily because the crowns of
the warp yarns are so exposed. Interrelationships of construction and yarn structure
may be observed in a fabric like shantung, in which uneven, loosely rwisted slubbed
yarns present higher crowns that are unevenly spaced; this is an example of a fabric
rhat has poor abrasion resisrance.
Weave also enters into abrasion resistance. In fabrics with floats, yarns and fibers
are freer to move to absorb energy and are less consistently exposed to abradants. For this
reason, wills and some tightly woven satin fabrics show superior abrasion resisrance.

Frounr 15.29

A cheesecloth under o teoring

locd showing yorns bunching .a&#
e 1tn
together ot the point of lood :. - :,t v:
concentrqtion. Photogroph
courtesy of Robert Merkel,
Reprinied from Texlile Producf
ServiceabiIity, Mocmillon/
Prentice Holl. Robert Merkel,
199t.
?4e

!r"
*1*

&*
$t
,!1? 74
&x
*8&
v*t* && tt
?4 4i
,{*} &e *6
q&t &e ve
*b
 -l

Txr Wravrs 321

Frounr 15.30

As worp ond filling yorns poss

over ond under eoch other,
ihey develop crimp, Smoller
worp yorns (shown in block)
develop greoter crimp os they
poss over lorger filling yorns
(shown in white),

Appeoronce
Drape or the ability of fabric to form pleasing folds is related to bending and shear-
ing behavior, which are in turn affected by yarn and fabric properties. Shearingis the
deformation of a structure in which a lectangle becomes iozenge shaped. In woven
fabrics this results from movemenr of yarns from what one might call a normal posi-
tion in which they run horizontally and vertically and interlace at right angles to
other positions in which the interlacing is deformed away from the 90 degree angle.
(See Figure 15.31.) Yarn and fabric structures that allow movemenr at the yarn inter-
sections increase shearing. Voven fabrics with smooth yarns, low fabric counts, and
higher crimp exhibit lower resistance to shearing.
Fabrics that shear easily are softer and more drapable. To illustrate this principle,
think about cutting a half-circle skirt from a fabric. Parts of the garme nr wili lie along
the straight grain (true warp or filling directions), but orher parts rvill lie aiong other
directions, some at a diagonal called the bias. ln the bias direction, fabric is particu-
larly subjecr to shear deFormarion,
If the fabric is unable to sheat it remains stiff and will not mold or drape softly.
In general, because of the ways in which yarns are combined, woven fabrics have
higher shearabiliry than other fabric srrucrures.
To form the graceful folds desirable in draping, fabrics also must have low resistance
to bending. Lower fabric counts and fine yarns with flexible fibers give fabrics the abiliry
to bend easily and contribute to draping. Fabrics such as satins thar have long floats in
the weave are more flexible, bending more easily and improving draping qualities.
Fabric structure affects the abilirv of yarns and fibers to move. In general, woven
fabrics with few interlacings wrinkle less than do other fabrics. This is because loosely
constructed fabrics generally allow more fiber redistribution and motion. It follows,
then, that plain weaves wrinkle more than rwill or satin weaves, and fabrics with
higher fabric counts also wrinkle more. Cheesecloth, with an extremely low fabric
count, does not wrinkle as much as higher-count plain weaves. (See Figure 15.32.)
Dimensional stabiliry problems are often related to unreleased stresses intro-
duced during fabric manufacturing. Fabrics, and the yarns in rhem, must be kept un-
der tension during weaving. As a result they may be stretched beyond their natural
dimensions. Later when the labric is subjected ro moisture, or heat in the case of
thermoplastic fibers, the srresses within the fibers, yarns, and fabrics are relieved, and
the whole fabric relaxes. Fabrics containing moisture absorbent fibers will shrink
more in laundering because the fibers absorb a significant amount of water and swell.
(See chapter 23, page 458 for a discussion of relaxation shrinkage.)
322 UlornsrlxorrloTrxrrus

Frounr 15.31

Sheor deformotion is the movement of yorns from o normol posiiion (o) where yorns run
horizontolly ond verticolly to other position(s) (b) where inierlocing is deformed to o less
thon 90 degree ongle, Fobrics with low sheorobility (c) ore not os soft ond dropoble os
fobrics with high sheorobility (d)

A. NORMAL STATT B. SHEARED

C. LOW SHEARAB]LITY D. HIGH SHEARABILITY

Shrinkage can also be aflected by fabric count in woven fabrics. Generally, if

there is room in the structure for the yarns to swell without moving closer together,
then the fabric will be more dimensionally stable. lf there is not much room berween
the yarns, they move closer together when the fibers swell. Therefore, fabrics with
higher fabric counts will shrink more until they reach the point where they are forced
together into a "jammed" construction and can no longer move.

Frounr 15.32

Cotion cheesecloth (left) ond

cotton print cloth (right) ofter
wrinkling,
 Txe Wervts t23

An open-construction fab-
Optical covering power is also influenced by weaves'
constructed fabric' Sheer fabrics are
ric wili obviously .oi.r.l.r, well than a densely
desired and can be achieved b,v fine yarns and/or
low fabric counts' Differences
often
.,r-,o,-,g the three woven fabrics in Figure 15.33. Fab-
i"-..r.r,"g po*er can be seen

Froune 15.33

ffi.--',ctionondCoVerfOCtoronoirpermeobility.Fobric(o)hosthehighestpermeqbilityOndloweSt
highest cover focior Microgrophs by Heren
H Epps' reprinted
permeobirity ond
cover foctor, Fobric (c) hcrs the
permission of lnternotionol 'owestond Apporel Associqtion
Textiles
by

" -',-.,;.sli'f: '. .;':".! "W

e-
\ .'!A ;"'

;6p!.r:ffit/l'WW yffi
324 UHornsrlHorNG TExTrrEs

ric crimp is also related to covering power in woven fabrics. As yarns in one d.irection
cross and exert pressure on the yarns in the opposite direction, these yarns may be
flattened somewhat. Flatter yarns provide better cover.

Comforl Foclors
Fabric construction plays an important role in insulation. Pile or napped construc-
tions are especially good for cold weather because the yarns or fibers perpendicular to
the surface provide numerous spaces for dead air. This effect is maximized if such fab-
rics are worn with the napped or pile surface nexr to the bodl', or if they are covered
with another layer.
Moisture vapor transmission and w'ater repellency afTect comfbrt. Most fibers are
not naturally water repellent but must be given special treatr-nents to render them rva-
ter repelient. Dense cotton fabrics, by contrast, may provide water repellency through
both fabric structure and fiber properries. The hydrophilic cotton fibers swell on ex-
posure to water, jamming the construction and forming a barrier to keep out \\'arer.
Air permeabiliry is decreased in fabrics with high fabric counts. To make sar-
ments that are warm enough for sports such as skiing in which moving air mav cool
the athlete, a fabric with low air permeabiliry (such as closely woven nylon) mal be
combined with materials of low thermal conductivity (such as a polyester or acn-lic
fiberfill or a pile fabric) that trap air close to the body.
In these and other products, fiber, yarn, and fabric srrucrure can be seen to s'ork
together to create the desired effect.

Survruanv
\,X4ren fabrics have been constructed by weaving, rhe weave used will have a signifi-
cant inlluence on durabiliry, appearance, and comfort of a product. Three basic
weaves are plain, rwill, and satin. Variations anci modifications of these weaves allows
for a tremendous variety of fabrics constructions, and selection of diflerent fibers and
yarns adds to the possibilities.
Assessing the combined effects of fiber, yarn, and weave on performance is es-
sential not only for professionais who produce and utilize fabrics, but also for con,
sumers. The irnportance of considering these various factors is perhaps best illustrated
by looking carefully at a particular use for texriles. Case Study 15.1 is an examination
of some of the factors relating to fibers, yarns, and weaves that should be evaluated
when selecting upholstery fabrics.

Puffing if all fogefher for , ,

Upholslery Fobrics
Appearance is often the single most influential factor in selecrion of upholsrerv fab-
ric. Consumers often do not realize that an expensive piece of furniture mar. be up,
hoistered with a beautiful fabric that will wear out in a relatively short time. The n.rost
important considerations in evaluating the durability of upholstery fabrics are irs re-
sistance to abrasion, its resistance to soil and stains, and colorfastness to lieht.
 TNr Wrrvrs 325

Abrqsion Resistqnce
Upholstered furniture is constantly subjected to abrasion as people sit on it. Some
fibers have better abrasion resistance than others. In fabric structures where one set of
yarns predominates on the surface, the abrasion resistance of the fibers in that yarn
would be a very important factor in durabiliry. In many upholstery fabrics, howevet
yarn and fabric construction may compensate for lower fiber strength.
Yarns with high rwist and even diameter resist abrasion better than those with
low nvist and/or uneven diameter. Yarns with loops, nubs, or slubs, often used be-
cause of their attractive texture, are especiaily subject to abrasive wear. Heavier yarns
result in thicker fabrics that are more abrasion resistant.
In closely woven fabrics with balanced weaves, wear is evenly distributed across
the surface of the fabric. If fibers are strong and yarns have high twist and uniform
diameter, these fabrics can be very durable. In plain-weave fabrics with large ribs or
cords, the raised rib or cord area has the potential for uneven wear.
Twill woven fabric structures are generally strong, durable, and resist abrasion. In
satin-weave fabrics, the long floats may catch or snag. Furthermore, to capitalize on
the attractive appearance of satin-weave fabrics, manufacturers often use acetate, silk,
or nylon fibers in low-twist yarns that are not very durable.
In pile fabrics such as velvet or velveteen, abrasion resistance depends on fiber
choice and densiry of pile . Nylon velvet, for example, can be quite durable thanks to
its excellent abrasion resistance and good resilience, whereas silk or rayon pile fabrics
are more likely not only to abrade but also to remain flat and wornJooking after the
pile has been flattened by sitting on it. Uncut pile fabrics tend to wear better, espe-
cially if yarns are tighdy wisted and made from abrasion-resistant fibers.
Dobby and jacquard woven fabrics are frequently used in upholstery. Their re-
sistance to abrasion is variable. Factors to assess include fiber content, tightness of
twist of the yarns, presence of long foats or raised areas that may catch or wear un-
evenly, and denseness of the weave.

Soil qnd Stqin Resistqnce

Most stains on upholstered furniture are water- or liquid-borne. Hydrophobic
fibers such as polypropylene, which is almost completely nonabsorbent, resist
staining best. It is important to note, however, that even though the upholstery
fabric may not absorb moisture, the padding materials underneath may. Con-
sumers should ascertain that there is a moisture-proof barrier berween the uphol-
stery fabric and the padding materials. \fhen present, this barrier is often a non-
woven layer of nonabsorbent material such as polypropylene. Upholstery fabrics
made from fibers that do absorb moisture can have stain-resistant finishes applied
to them. (See chapter 23, page 466.)

Colorfqslness to tight
Upholstery on furnishings thar are placed close to windows may undergo color ioss
or color change after long exposure to sunlight. Information about the rypes of dyes
used on fabrics is generally not available at the point of purchase, however consumers
may be able to ask the retailer about guarantees against color loss.
In selecting the right upholstery fabrics, the purchaser must assess the uses to
which the furniture will be put. A sofa for a family room where food and beverages
will be served, where children will drag toys across the surface, and where cats and
326 UNornsrlnorNo Trxrrlrs

dogs will jump up ancl clown musr meer far different demands than a period repro-
duction chair in a frrrnral living room that is rarely used. Careful evaluation of the ex-
pected functions ancl liorv fiLrer, yarn, and fabric construction fulfill those functions
can result in selecting upholster-v fabrics rhat ivill satisly the buyert needs and expec-
tations.

References
American Fabrics and Fashions Magazine, ed. 1980. Encyclopedia of textiles. 3rd edi-
tion. Englewood Cliffs, NJ: Prentice Hall.
Klapper, M. 1967. Fabric almanar. New York Fairchild.

Review Questions
1. Explain the differences berween a plain rveave, basket weave, twill weave, sari_--
weave, jacquard weave, and leno weave. Name ar least two standard fabri;.
made with each of these weaves.
2. Describe the difTerent merhods by which pile fabrics can be made.
3. Explain what is meant by each of the following: clipped spor weave , ss i,, -
weave, lappet weave, double-cloth fabric, tliaxial weave. Give one example -:
some type of product in which fabrics made with these weaves might be us.:.
4. Analyze the probable contributions of fiber, yarn, and weave to the durabilr.
appearance, and comfolt of the following products:
a. A pair of twill weave , denim blue .jeans made of 60 percent cotron and =
percent polyester. Yarns used have a moderately high twist and rhe cor: '
has been combed. The fabric has a high fabric count.
b. A gauze-type fabric blouse for summer made of 6ne 100 percent linen r':::

Recommended Readings
t-.::;lr.tOO6. The primary structure ol'fabriu. Y/ashington, D.C.: The Textiie t.:

Men's dress shirts. 1993. Consumer Report; August, vol. 58(8). 504.
Mueller, C., and O. Bissmann. 1993. Letters, figures, interweaving: An easy task. -.-
tile Worltl 143 (November): 61.
KNTTTED FnsRlcs

tr in has ::
recent years as
| .* segmenrs oF rhe textile industry have grown so rapidly
the knitting industry. Advances in knitting production techniques along with the use '.,;,

of synthetic fabrics, such as acrylics and polyesters, for knit goods have led to the
:,:ri;:1.;:r;i:ir:,,:,:,:
manufactureofknitteditems'includingsuchdiverseproductsasmenttailoredsuits,.;....;.,l;1..;...
shipping
table linens, blankets, bedspreads, carpeting, wall coverings' upholstery'
sacks,paint rollers, and vacuum cleaner bags'
The apparel knitting industry may be divided into four branches: knitted outer-
wear, knitted vard goods, knitted hosiery, and knitted underwear. Knitted
yard goods
cut
mills produce a wide variery of fabrics in either flat or circular fbrm that can be
hosiery,
and sewn into apparel and other items. Those mills that produce outefwear'
(such as
or underwear may knit the item directly or may knit sections of a garment
sleeves, body sections, and the like) that afe sewn, or cut and sewn,
together. These

mills complete the garment from knitting right through to assembly in the same mill.

:.', :1,,: :.:t:.i.'

":'.."j'
.:il:' i r:.! ;., ; :,, :,:

327
328 UlorpsrlnorloTrxrtes

HrsronrcAr DEVEToPMENT oF KNlrs

Although fragments of knitted cloth have been found at the site of Dura Europos, an
ancient Syrian ciry founded in 280 e.c., and other examples from the Middle East
date from the middle of the third century ,q,.o., hand knitting seems to have come to
Europe only during the Middle Ages. Apparently, the Arab conquerors of Spain im-
ported the technique of knitting from their homeland sometime after e.n. 1000.
Knitting spread gradually to the rest of Europe. Because knits were more elastic than
woven goods, they gained populariry especially for making stockings and gloves.
Today one thinks of hand knitting as a process that uses rwo or more knitting
needles, but the earliest hand knitting was done not on needles but on a frame into
which a series of pegs had been set. Yarn was iooped around each peg. To make the
stitches, the knitter pulied a new loop ofvarn through the old loop encircling the peg
and piaced the new loop around the peg while slipping the old loop off the peg with
a hooked needle. The gradually increasing rows of loops formed the fabric. Eventu-
ally, a long, pointed knitting needle, such as those used today, replaced the pegs for
holding the loops, and a second needle replaced the hook for adding and subtracting
loops.
The use of rwo needles or the knitting frame made a flat fabric. A round tube of
fabric could be made by using a circular needle, a round frame, or a set of four needles.
Since the knitting process was relatively simple, it lent itself to mechanization
somewhat more easily than did weaving. By the late 1500s a knitting frame machine
had been invented by William Lee . This machine made mechanically all of the kinds
of knits that had previously been made by hand. Leet machine continued in use un-
til further refinements of machine knitting were made during the Industrial Revolu-
tion. (See Figure 16. 1.)

Froune l6.l
Knitted cop mode in ltoly in ihe
seventeenfh century,
Photogroph courtesy of the
Metropoliton Museum of Art.
Rogers Fund, )927 .
 Kunro Frgnlcs 329

Blsrc Concrprs
"Knitting is the process of making cloth with a single yarn or set of yarns moving in
only orlJdir.ction. Instead of rwo sets of yarns crossing each other as in weaving, the
single knitting yarn is looped through itself to make a chain of stitches. These chains
o, io*, .onr..t.d side by side to produce the knit cloth" (American Fabrics and
"r.
Fashions Magazine 1980,370). The interlocking of these loops in knitting can be
\When the yafns are introduced in a
done by either vertical or horizontal movement.
crosswise direction, at right angles to the direction of growth of the fabric, and run
or interlock acfoss the fabric, the knit is known as a wefi knit' (Some sources may fe-
fer to these knits as fttingknits, but the rcrm weft knitisused in the knitting indus-
try.) \rhen the yarns run lengthwise of up and dou'n, the knit is known as a udrp
knit.
In knittingterminology, the rows of stitches that run in columns along the
lengthwise direction of rhe fabric are known as wales. This corresponds to the warp
dirJction of woven fabrics. Crosswise rows of stitches or loops are called courses'The
direction of the courses corresponds to the filling of woven goods. (See Figure 16'2')
Both warp and weft knits are made by machine. Knitting machines may be ei-
ther flat or ciicular. The flat-type knitting machine has needles arranged in one or
two straight lines anci held on a flat needlebed. f'he cloth is made by forming stitches
on these needles. The resulting fabric is flat. Machines with flatbeds are used to make
both warp and weft knits.
The circular knitting machine has needles arranged in a circle on a rotating
cylinder. (See Figure 16.3.) The resulting fabric is formed into a tube. Circular knit-
ting machines produce weft knits almost exclusively'
For neariy rwo hundred vears after its invention in 1589, Lee's machine was used
without further improvement. Using a spring beard needle' Lee's machine produced
flat knitted laBrics by mechanically passing one loop of yarn through another.

Loop Formqlion
The spring beard needle is formed from one piece of thin wire . One end of the nee-
,lle i. dra*n into thinner dimensions and is curved to form a hook. The flexible outer
side of the hook can be pressed against the stem of the needle to close the hook for
sliding a formed loop off and beginning a new loop. (See Figure 16'4')

Freunr 15,2

Rows of stitches thot run in o

verticol column olong the
lengthwise direciion of the
fqbric ore colled wolesi
crosswise rows of stiiches or
loops ore cqlled courses,
330 UHo:psralotHcTrxrtrrs

Frounr 16.3

(o) ElectronicollY controlled

circulor weft knitting mochine
This model. Monqrch F-LPJ/3A. is

ol2 feed,37-sieP double knit

mochine, The Yorn is held on the
spools on o frome of the left of
the mochine, The comPleted
fobric emerges in tubulor form ,:;it: :.
of the bottom of the mochine ;;1

PhotogroPh couriesY of 4..a4 .

Monorch Knitiing MochinerY ** t:)

Compony. PhotogroPhed ot
Alondole Knitting Co , lnc , TroY,
N C (b) ElectronicollY
conirolled flqt weft knitting
mochine, PhotogroPh courtesY
of H. Stoll GmbH & Co

t
j|' ;.4,14. e-:,;..;l::::r-..-.4,:a-..
't,,'t2ta1':\..tt

'Ibwnshend invented a different type of l.rook known as the

ln 1847 Matthew
. lts operation
latch needle, which has come ro be the most widely used type of needle
is similar to that of the spring beard needle, except that instead _of
having to me-
forming yarn loop
chanically press the flexible *i. of the needle closed so that the
16.5 iilustrates the
will not stide ofi a latch closes ro holcl the yarn in place. Figure
steps in the cycle of the latch needle:
l.Theoldloopisheldonthestemoftheneedle.Thelatchisopen(a).
(b)'
2. The hook gr".p. the yarn to begin forming a new loop
closing the latch of the needle (c).
3. The ,r..dl. f"lir, the old loop rises,
 Ktrrrro Fasnrcs 33r

Frounr I6.4
Spring beord needle showing
costing off of old loop ond
beginning of new loop,

Froun:16.5

Formotion of o loop by o lotch needle

(a) (b)

4. The old loop is cast off (d and e).

5. The needle rises, and the new loop srides down to the stem of the needle,
pushing the latch open again, and the needle is ready to repeat the
cycle (f).
Yet a third rype of needle, the compouncr needle, is used almost
exclusively for
rvarp knitting. The compound needle has two componenrs,
a rongue and a hook
(Figure 16.6). Its motion is as follows:

1. The old loop encircles the hook; the tongue is in such a position
as ro reave
the hook open.
332 UHornsrlt,torlo Trxrrlrs

Frounr 16.6

Tongue (o) of o compound

needle moves inio position
ogoinst the hook (b) in order to
close the needle,

l..
tJ

N
t::i
I

N.l
l\.rl
t\ \t
i\ \r
l:'.1
l(i.i

2. Both tongue and hook rise; a new yarn is fed to the hook.
3. Both tongue and hook descend, but the tongue descends more slowly,
thereby closing the hook.
4. As the needle descends, the held loop slides off, forming a new loop.
5. The needle returns to its initial position, the hook ascending more rapidly,
thereby opening the hook again.
For weft knitting with either needle rype, a cam system provides the action for
lifting the needies as the yarn is fed in. A small projection called a butt is located at
the bottom of the r.reedle. The butt is held in a groove formed by a system of cams or
shaped pieces. The movemenr of the butt in the grooves between the cams causes rhe
needle to rise and fall. (See Figure 16.7.)
The engaging by the needle of a new piece of yarn is called feeding. Devices
called feeders are located to introduce the yarn to the needles. The number of feed-
ers can vary, but obviously the more feeders a machine has, the higher will be the
speed of fabric forming on the machine, since each needle produces a loop each time
it is activated and if many needles are activated more frequently, many courses can be
formed at the same time.
Another important element of some knitting machines is the sinker. The alreadv
formed fabric may need to be controlled as the subsequent knirring action rak.s
place. A thin steel device called the sinker may be used to hold the fabric as rhe n:e-
d1e rises, support the fabric as the needle descends, and push the fabric away from ri.re
needle after the new loop has been formed. Sinkers are generally mounted benr e en
the needles. (See Figure 16.8.) Some machines, however, do not use sinkers but in-
stead use the tensions placed on the completed fabrics for control.

Gouge ond Quolity

The size of the needle and the spacing of the needles on knitting machines der.:rine
the number and size of the knit stitches and their closeness. Each wale is forr:.i on
 Knrrrro Flanrcs 333

Froun:16.7

Com system for control of

needle oction in weft knits,
Reprinied from D, J, Spencer,
New yarn
Kniffing Technology, 2nd ed,
(Oxford: Pergomon Press, l989),
20. Copyright 1989 by
Butterworth-Heinemonn, Ltd.

ord
loop

Stitch
cam

Clearing cam

one needle. The number of needles is equal to the number of wales. The closeness of
the stitches determines whether a knit fabric wiil be lighrweight and open or heavier
and more dense. The rcrm gauge is used to describe the closeness of knit stitches.
Gauge is the number of needles in a measured space on the knitting machine.
Higher-gauge fabrics (those with more stitches) are made with finer needles; lower-
gauge fabrics are made with coarser or larger needles.
The term cut is al.so used to designate the number of needles per inch in the
needlebed of a circular weft knitting machine. To describe the stitch density of a
334 UlornsnHorHoTrxrtrs

Froune 16.8

Sinkers used for weft knits, with

lotch needles in position reody
for formotion of new loop,

single or double knit fabric, the fabric may be designated as an 18-, 20-,22-, or 24'
cut fabric. The higher the cut, the closer the stitches; the lower the cut, the coarser
the fabric.
Varying rypes of knitting machines measure gauge over different distances on the
machine. For example, circular knit hosiery measures the number of needles in 1.0
inch, fuli-fashioned knitting in 1.5 inches, and Raschel knits in 2.0 inches. Because
of these differences, it is best to keep in mind the generalized principle that the higher
the gauge, the closer the stitches.
The quality of needles used in manufacturing knit goods is related directly to the
quality of the fabric produced. Needles of uneven size and qualiry will produce knit
fabricswith uneven-sized stitches and imperfect surface appearance.
In warp knits, those knits in which the yarns interlace in the long direction,
one or more yarns are allotted to each needle on the machine, and those yarns fol-
low the long direction of the fabric. For weft knits, those in which the yarns inte r-
lace crosswise or horizontally, one or more yarns are used for each course, and these
yarns move across the fabric. ln weft knits, one yarn may have from twenty to sev-
eral hundred needles associated with it. To summarize, weft knits can be made with
one yarn, but warp knits must have a whole set of warp yarns, that is, one or more
for each needle.
Once the basic distinction between warp and weft knits has been made, further
subdivisions of knit classifications are usually based on the types of machines used in
their production. The majoriry of knit fabrics are named after the machines on which
tirey are constructed. For this reason, the discussion of knitted fabrics that follows is
organized around the rypes of machines used in manufacturing knit fabrics and the
types of knit fabrics made on these machines.
 KNrrrro Frsnrcs 335

Wrrr Krurrs
The most important difference among weft knitting machines is in the number of
needlebeds and the number of sets of needles used. On these bases, weft knits are di-
vided among those made on each of these machines:

1. Flat or circular jersey, or single knit, machine: one needlebed and one set of
needles.
2. Flat or circular rib machine: rwo needlebeds and two sets of needles.
3. Flat or circular purl, or links-links, machine: t,"o needlebecis and one set of
needles.

Jersey, or Single, Knils

Machines with or.re needlebed and one set of needles are called jerscy machines or
single-knit machines. with one set of needles and one needlebed, all needles face
the same direction; all stitches are pulled to rhe same side of the fabric. As a result,
jersey fabrics have a smoorh face rvith a vertical grain on the right side of the fab-
ric and a widthrvise grain on the back side. Tl-re loops formed by the jersey machine
are formed in one direction or.rly, which gives a different appearance to each side of
the fabric. (See Figure 16.9.) rhe basic fabric produced by this machine is known
alternately as a plain, sing/e knit, or jersey. rhe terms are interchangeable.
Jersey stretches slightlv more in the crosswise than the lengthwise direction. If one
stitch bleaks, the fabric mavladder, or run.Jersey fabrics tend ro curl at the edges and
are less stable than are some other types of knits. f'his is the lesult of the pressures ex,
erted during knitting. In addition jersey knits may rwisr or skew alrer launjering, as the
rwisting tensions imposed during the knitting process a'.e rel:xed. Special fitrishing
techniques are used to overcome these tendencies and maintain fabric stability; thI
principal ones use srarches, gum mixtures, pol1.vinyl acetate emulsions, and resins.
A great many items of hosiery, sweaters, and other wearing apparel are macle
from plain jersey knits. consumer Brief 16.1 highlights one of ,f,..o-,''o' uses of
.jersey knit fabrics: T-shirts. Plain knit fabrics can also be made into designs of rwo or
m-ore colors by use of a patterning mechanism that controls the selection and feeding
ofyarns and rypes ofstitches to create jacquard knits. (See Figure 16.10.)

High-Pile Fobrics
High-pile fabrics, such as imitation furs and plushes, are usually knitted by a jersey
machine. while the knitting is taking place, a sliver of staple fiber is fed into the ma-
chine. These fibers are caught in the tight knit and are held firmly in place. Although
any staple fiber can be used for the pile, the greatest quanriry of these Abri..
are m"de
with acrylic and modacrylic fibers in the pi1e. (See Figure 16.i1.)
By using staple fibers of varying lengths, adding color through 6ber cryeing or
printing on the surface of the pile, and by shearing or brushing th. pil., an enormous
variety ofeffects can be achieved. The use ofknitted pile fabric rrrrg., from
excellent
imitations of furs, such as leopard, tiger, mink, or mouron, to coloriul pile outerwear,
coat linings, or pile carpet fabrics.

Knitted Terry, Velour, ond Fleece

knits can also be made in the form of knitted terry fabrics and knitted velours.
Jersey
Two yarns are fed into the machine simultaneously, picked up by the same needle,
336 UHosnsuHorlloTrxrtlrs

Froun:16.9

Ploin or jersey knit stitch, Diogroms courtesy of the Notionql Knitweor Monufocturers Associqtion

TECHNICAL FACE

TECHNICAL BACK
 Klrrrro Flsnrcs 337

T-shirts begon life os white knitted cotton undergor- moy be corded. which will leove more fuzzy fiber
ments for men during World Wor ll. By the 1990s they ends on the surfoce of the fobric, or combed for o
were being worn os undergorments ond outergor- smoother surfoce,
ments by men, women, ond children; printed with lo- Jersey knits con be mode in vorious weights,Those
gos ond messoges; dyed to o wide ronge of colors; with more stiiches per inch ond hecvier yorns will feel
decoroted with embroidery. sequins, ond beoding; heovier ond will be more duroble, olthough in hot
ond cut to fit loosely or tightly, Between April 1990 weother they will olso feel wormer becouse they ol-
ond April 1991, more thon one billion T-shirts were low less oir penetrotion, Less densely constructed
sold in the United Stotes (Lonsinger 1993 ) knits ore likely to snog ond pull more reodily. lf o knit
The clossic T-shirt is constructed of tubulor jersey stilch breoks, o run con form. but unlike sheer nylon
fobric, li hos short sleeves set into the body of the stockings where the slippery noture of the fiber ollows
gorment, Sleeve ond bottom hems ore usuolly sewn runs to form quickly, the friction of cotton yorns mokes
flot, The neckline consists of o I x I rib knit strip sewn runs trovel less reodily ond for less distonce,
onto the body of the shirt, Some shirts hove pockets The mojor performonce problem consumers expe-
sewn onto one or both sides of the front, T-shirts ore rience with T-shirts is shrinkoge, which occurs during
sometimes mode of fine rib kniis thot. even on close the first severol lounderings, Jersey knits undergo re-
exominqtion, ore hord to distinguish from jersey knits, loxotion shrinkoge qs q result of the reloxotion of ten-
Long-sleeved T-shirts ore olso mode, ond these usu- sions ploced on fobrics during processing, Shrinkoge is
olly hove on ottoched I x I rib knit cuff, usuolly more pronounced in ihe lengthwise direction
The chcrocteristics of jersey ond rib knits mqke qnd is often occomponled by growth in the crosswise
them the fobric of choice for T-shirts. Jersey knits direction os the knitted loops brooden. Retoilers gen-
stretch, moving comfortobly with the body, They ore erolly onticipote shrinkoge of 8 to 10 percent in both
resilieni, returning to their originol shope ofter stretch- width ond length, olthough high-quolity knit goods
ing.lf Ioundered ond tumble dried, they generolly re- monufocturers try to limit product shrinkoge to 5 per-
quire no ironing,The widthwise elosticity of rib knits ol- cent, To ensure sotisfoctory performonce, consumers
lows the T-shirt to stretch os it is pulled over the heod should look for lobels thot indicote fobrics hove been
or wrists but then return to o close fit. treoted to prevent shrinkoge,
Although mony fibers con ond hove been used ln sotisfoctory construction seoms ore sewn flot
to moke T-shiri-like gorments, the clossic T-shirt is usu- ond not puckered, ond stiiches ore close ond even,
.100
olly mode from percent cotton or from blends of Seoms of the bqck of the neck ond olso of the
cotton ond polyester, The most common blend is shoulder moy be covered with o strip of knitted
50/50, Some monufocturers ore olso moking T-shirts tope, which is more comfortoble ogoinst the skin
of 90 percent cotton ond l0 percent spondex for in- thon o seom, The tope olso prevents the shoulder
creosed stretch ond recovery. seom from stretching excessively,
The quoliiy of T-shirts depends on the quolity of T-shirts con generolly be mochine woshed ond
ihe fibers, yorns, fobric, qnd construction, Long-sto- tumble dried; however, printing of logos ond slo-
ple pimo or seo islond cottons moy be used for high- gons, ond novelty trimmings such os sequins, beods,
quolity products, Cotton yorns moy be mercerized or embroidery, moy require speciol hondling, Consult
for increcsed strength. luster, ond durobility. yorns core lobels for recommended procedures,

and knitted in such a way that one of the rarns appears on the face of the fabric, the
other on the back. The yarn that forms the pile is pulled up to the surface of the fab-
ric. If the pile remains uncut, rhe resulting cloth is like a one-sidecl terry cloth. If the
pile is cut, the fabric is called uelour. (See Figure 16.12.)
Terry fabrics made by this process are not as durable as are woven terry cloths,
nor do they hold their shape as well. on the other hand, they have softer drapir.rg
338 Ut.lo:nsrlHorr.re Trxrus

Frounr 16.10

Sides of o jocquord potierned ploin knit fobric (o) foce; (b) reverse

qualities. The knitted velours are softer and more flexible than are woven pile fabrics,
such as velveteen. Major uses for both fabrics are for sports and loungewear-, for in-
fants' and children's clothing, and For household items such as towels and slipcovers.
The soft, fleecv efTect produced or.r the inside of sweatshirts is achieved bv much
the same techniques as in making velours.'I'he fleccc is createcl b1'cutting and brush-
ing the loops that are forrned on rhe r.rndcrside of the fabric.

Ploted Fcbrics
knitting machine fieds tu'o separatc \';llns at the same
lr-r creating plated fabrics. the
tirne. fhe two varns are in rl're same lool-r, one bchind the othcr. Bv varving the
color, texture, or tlpe of varn, interesting decoratir.c r:l'fects can be achievetl. It is also
possiblc to use one yarn as the ficc yarn and another as a backing yarn. fJsing an ex-
pensive face yarn r'vith an inc'xpcnsive backing )rarn can help to keep the cost of the
 Kurrso Flsnrcs 339

Frounr l6.l I
A jersey knit, high-pile fobric: (o) bock; (b) foce

Frounr 16.12

A jersey knit.velour fobric; (o)

bock; (b) fctce,

fabric lower. Plating varies From relativelv sinrple constmcrion to intrjcate parrern
designs.

Two-Bed Knits
The Knitting Encyclopedia (Reichman 1972) states, "From a purelv tecl'rnical point of
view, a double knit fabric is any kr.rittecl cloth or garmenr section that has been pro-
duced on any rype of opposed bed knitting machine with rwo sets of r.reedles of any
-
I

340 UHorpsraHotHo Ttxrt:s

range of fineness or coarseness" (p. 96). Those which have tl-re greatest commercial in-
terest can be classified as:

1. narrow and broad rib knits

2. nonjacquard and jacquard double jersey (commonly called double knits)
3. interlock knits
The machines used to produce rib knits, double jerseys, and interlock knits dif-
fer lrom the machines used lor plain knits in that they have wo needle-holding beds
and rwo sets of needles. For circular machines one set of needles is located on the nee-
dle cylinder in the same way as in plain knit machines, and the second set is placed
in a dial positioned over the cylinder much as a lid would be placed over a cylindri-
cal jar. The dial is grooved, as is the cylinder, and needles lie within the grooves, called
nicks,in such a way that the hooks ofthe horizontal dial needles and those ofthe ver-
tical cylinder needles are perpendicular to each other. (See Figure 16.13.) The fabric
creared between the nvo sets of needles will have the appearance of the face fabric on
both sides.
In {lat-bed machines the neecllebeds are Placed so the two rows of needles form
an inverted v. These machines are known as uee bed mttchines. (See Figure 16.14.)

Frounr 16.13 SEE PART (b)

FOR CLOSE.U P VI EW.
(o) Diogrom of o cyclinder ond
diol orrongement for o circulor T RICKS
knitting mochine; (b) needles
ore ploced inside the tricks in DIAL
close-up; (c) diogrom of the
relotive positions of diol ond
cylinder needles, Diogroms from
P Schwortz, T. Rhodes, ond M.
Mohomed, Fabric Forming R
Sys/erns. Reproduced courtesy
of Noyes Publicotions,
-CYL|NDE
T RICKS

(a)

CYLINDER
NEEDLE
 . Kl.trrr:o Flgnrcs 341

Frcunr 16.14

(o) Diogrom of o vee bed; (b)

diogrom showing relotive
positions of needles from front
ond bock beds. Diogroms from
PSchwortz, T, Rhodes, ond M,
Mohomed, Fabric Forming
Sysfems, Reproduced courtesy
of Noyes Publicotions.

BACK
NEEDLE
NEEDLE
-FRONT

(b)

Rib Knits
'A rib knit fabric is characterized by lengthwise ribs formed by wales alternating on
the face and back of the cloth. If every other stitch alternates from front to back, it is
called a 1 x I rib. If every two stitches alternate, it is called a2 x 2 rib." (Reichman
1972, 354) The larger the number of stitches that alternate, the more pronounced
the rib. A 1 x 1 rib made in a fine gauge may hardly be visible ro the eye. Fabrics
may appear to be a jersey on both sides. (See Figure 16. 15.) Rib knits are made on a
two-bed machine with one set of needles forming the loops for one wale and the
other set of needies forming the alternating wale.
Rib knits have greater elasticiry in the width than in the length. They are stable and
do not curl or stretch out ofshape as do the jersey knits. For this reason, they are often
used to make cuffs and necklines on weft knitted garmenrs. Rib knits are reversible
unless the number of stitches in the alternating wales is uneven, as in a 2 X 3 rib.

Double Jersey Fobrics

The term double knitis generally applied by consumers to fabrics that are, technically,
double jersey fabrics. Double.jersey fabrics are also made on rwo-bed knitting machines,
but the arrangement of the needles is different from that for knitting rib fabrics. The lay,
ers of loops alternate from one side to the other, locking the wo layers together. (See Fig-
ure 16. 16.) Double knit fabrics have the same appearance on both sides of the fabric, that
is, exhibiting the appearance of the face or outer side of a single knit on both sides. Twice
as much yarn is incorporated into double knit fabrics as into comparable single knits.
342 Ullo:nsnruorNo Texrrrrs

Frounr 16.15

(o) I x I rib fobric struclure, Diogrom courtesy of Notionol Knitweor Monufocturers Associotion (b) 2 x 2 rib fobric

*',r&,,'rr',
, ..4.. ' t. '&,'
*."t*t i t
,q&. '
....&
Yt:t '
,

4 .):t. ' :
.,,4;

Frounr 16.16

(o) Diogrommotic representotion of o double knit; (b) close-up photogroph of front ond bock sides of o double knil

f,,
,. _lr-. -
#ftffi',
il
. .8 r,&

Double knit fabrics are more stable than plain knits. \fhen made from syr.rthetic
yarns, double knits should be heat-set for better dimensional stability. They do r.rot
run and are easier for the home sewer to handle. During periods when double knits
have been fashionable, textured synthetic yarns and wool have been favored for dou-
ble knit apparel. The home furnishings industry also has utilized double knit fabrics
for upholstery.
 KHrrrro Flanrcs 343

A wide variety of decorative effbcts are possible in double jersey fabrics. These in-
clude "blister" fabrics with sculptured or raised surface eflects and elaborate patrerns
called "jacquard" patterns because of the ir similariry to jacquard-woven parrerns.

lnterlock Knits
Interlock knits are produced on a special rnachine that has alternating long and short
needles or.r both beds. Long and short needles are placed opposite each other'. Long
needles knit the first feeder yarn; short needles knit the second feeder yarn. The fab-
ric created is an inter'locking of two I X 1 rib srrucrures. (See Figure 16.\7.)
The resulting fabric, like double knit fabrics, is thicker than single knit fabric,
and more stable in the rvidthwise direction. Interlock fabrics har.e been traditionally
used for underwear. Tl-rey are produced rnore slowly than are other lib knit-. ar-rd are
generally made in plain colors or simple pamerns because the addition of pattern
slows dorvn the manufacture even further. (See Figure 16.18.)

Purl Knits
Purl machines have rwo needlebeds and one set of needles. Because the machine moves
only to the left, it is also called a links-links machine. Linksis the (lelman worcl for "left."
The links-links machine operates somervhat more slorvlv than do other knitting
machines, causing the price of purl fabrics to be highe r than that of othe r knits. 'l'he
machine has a latch-type knitting neeclle i.vith a hook on either enci that allolvs the
needle to pull stitches to either rhe back or rhe face ol the fabric. This rnakes possi-
ble the construction of stitches on alternate sides of the fibric. The double needle
arrangement makes this the most versatile of the weft knitting machir-res, es ir can
make plain. purl. ol rib knirs.

Frcunr 16.I7

Diogrom of interlock knitting.

Short needles ore lobeled "S"
ond long needles, "L",The firsl
feeder yorn is white. the second
is dork, Reprinted from D, J,
Spence, Kniffing Technology,
Courtesy of Butterworth-
Heinemonn Ltd,
lM Urornsllxotlo Trxrtrrs

Frounr 15.18 Dial loops

(o) Diogrommotic
representotion of on interlock
knit; (b) photogroph showing
both sides of on interlock knit 1.
fobric. (Left is underside of
2.
fobric, right is topside.) Diogrom
reprinted by permission from Course
D. J,Spencer, Kniffing Cylinder loops
Technology, 2nd ed, (Oxford:
Pergomon, 1 989), 20, Copyright
O 'l989 by Butterworth-
Heinemonn Ltd,

The simplest purl fabric is made by alternating courses so that every other course
is drawn to the opposite side of the fabric, thereby producing a fabric with the same
appearance on both sides. (See Figure 16. 19.) The raised courses produce a somewhat
uneven texture.
Purl knit fabrics have high crosswise and lengthwise stretch. They are often made
into a variety of decorative sweaters. Interesting textures can be achieved by the use
of fluffy, soft yarns. The versatiliry of the machine makes possible the creation of a va-
riery of patterns in these knits; however, relatively small quantities of fabrics are made
in the purl stitch.

Wefl Knit Stitch Vqriotion

The basic loop formed in the plain knit serves as the starting point for a wide range
of weft knit stitches that can be used to vary the surface texture of weft knits. These

Frounr 16.19

(o) Purl knit structure. Courtesy

of Notionol Knitweor
Monufocturers Associotion, (b)
Close-up view of stitches in o
purl knit fobric.
 Krurrrro Flentcs 345

include miss or float stitches, tuck stitches, and open stitches variously known as
transfer or spread stitches. (See Figure 16.20.)
In miss or float stitches, some needles are immobilized, and instead of catching
the stitch, they alloiv the yarn to be carried across the back of the fabric. The float
stitch can be Lrsed to hide colored yarns at the back of the fabric rvhen they do not
appear in the design on the face. \When long, straight floats are used, the elasticiry of
the fabric is reduced, and long floats are likely to be caught or snagged in use.
The tuck stitch is rnade bv plogratnming certain needles to l.rold both an old
loop and a new yarn without casting off the old stitch. This creates an elongated
stitch that appears in thc fabric as an opening or variation in the surface Pattern.
Loops can be transferred sideways to create clecorative effects or open spaces.
Tiansfer of loops can also be used in shaping of knits, as in fill-fashioning tvhich is
accomplished on specialized machines. Combinations of the tuck, miss, and other
stitches rvith basic rib, plain, or purl knit stitches can create such varied effects as
raised cables, open work alte rnating rvith plain knit, and a rvide range of other deco-

Frounr I6.20
Bosic weft-knitted stitches viewed from the front of the fobric, (Note thot only o single purl stitch is shown here' This
should not be confused with o purl fobric, shown in Figure I6,20. which is mode from mony purl stitches,) From J A
Smirfitt, An lnfroduction fo Worp Knitfing, Copyright @ Wotford, Herts, U,K,, I975 Merrow Publishing Compony, Ltd
Repte6r""6 by permission

PLAIN PURL TRANSFER SPREAD

MISS OR F LOAT
 UruornsnNorHo Trxrtes

Fleune 16.21

Close-up photogroph of foshion

morks in sweoter,

rative fabrics. An almost infinite varietr,- of patterns can be created by combining dif-
lerent colored or textured yarns :rnd various stitches.
\feft knits are usualh' circular unless thev are made on full-fashior.ring machir.res.
In hosiery and srveaters the item itself or scctiorls of the item are made on the spe-
cialized knitting macl.rines. Whe n sweaters or stockirrg-s are l<nitted, the desired shape
oFthe fabric piece may be createcl bv ir.rcreasing or decreasing thc nun-rber of stitches.
\fhe re stitches have been dlopl'tcd or added,.fnsl,ionmarhsappear. Fashion marks-
small alterations in the surface caused bv the shifting of the r.reedles and the change in po-
sition of the yarns-are an indication of better quality in that the consunler can be sure
that the shaping of the garment is permanent. items made in this r.var-:rre referred to as
full-fashioned. (See Figure 16.2f .) Some manulactlrrcrs .reatc mock fashion marks at
seamed areas to give the appearance of better qualitl'. A carcfirl examination of the area
rvill shou.that in a true full-fashioned item, the number and dircction of stitches change .
In mock fashion marks, this does not occur. Mock fashion marks are usual[r' producerJ
by embroidery and have a long yarn float on the wrong side bem'een marl<s.

Three-Dimensionol Knilling
The techniques employed for full-fashioned garments are also being used to produce
three-dimensional knitted structures. Conrplex shapes can be l<nitted that serr.e as re-
inforcement in molded parts for industrial applications. Covers for chairs and seats
can be knitted as one piece, eliminating the cutting and sewing of fabric pieces to fit
the forms. (See Figure 16.22.)

'| ) ..1, . ..". !,rr".-tt:t;":"::.t:'.,ar:ta. ...,:. -.,,- .1. "'

:rtr tj, ,, . I i. .;:.;\j.:t: ri:.1:.t:r,t:a:r..)::.:.;.:,.,:'::.'. .t,::::

::t::;t .:.::: ,:.:. ':.' :.,,il Wlnp Kruns

,, .:.:.:, ,:. ..:',:.:,:.1:...::.t.:tL:tltt;'".:i;,::,1t
.::.

':-
In warp knitting, each yarn is looped around one needle at a time. The guide bar that
carries the yarns moves sideways as well as forward and back so that the yarr-rs are car-
ried both lengthwise and, to a limited extent, diagonally. This diagonal motion is
 Krurnro Flsnrcs 347

Frcunr 16.22

Computer-oided three-
dimensionolly knitted upholstery
fobric in which o two-tone
effect is ochieved by using both
lower-luster ond bright yorn of
the some color ond different
stitch structures, Photogroph
courtesy of Teknii, producers of
three-dimensionol knitted
covers for the office furnishing
industry in Europe ond Americo,

needed to ensure that the yarns interlace not only with the loop directly below in the
same wale but also with loops to the side in adjacent wales. If the yarn interlaced only
vertically, there would be no point at which each individual chain of stitches was at-
tached to its neighboring chain.
This construction provides resistance to laddering (running), since each stitch is
most directly connected not only with the stitch beneath but also with a stitch placed
diagonally and lower. In forming the stitch, diagonal underlay moves the yarn from
loop to loop.
Several types of warp knits are made on a number of different warp knirring ma-
chines.

Tricot
Tiicot machines account for the largest quantity of warp knits. Tiicot fabric is knit
Ilat. On the face side the wales creare the appearance of a fine, lengthwise line. On
the back side crosswise ribs appear in a horizontal position.
In the manufacture of tricot, guide bars move the yarns from side to side. The
tricot machines may have from one ro four guide bars. The greater the number of
bars, the greater the distance the yarn moves between stitches. In moving from one
placement to the next, underlay yarns are carried across the back of the fabric. (See
Figure 16.23.) 'fhis extra yarn creates heavier-weight fabrics.
Tiicot fabrics are identified as one-bar, nvo-bar, three-bar, or four-bar, depending
on the number of guide bars used in their manufacture. One-bar, or singie-bar, tricot
is relatively unstable and is seldom used For.garmenrs. It is, however, used as backing
for some bonded fabrics. It will run, because the loops interlace close together. Two-
bar tricot is stable and fairly light in weight and is used extensively in iingerie,
blouses, and the like. Three- and four-bar tricots are used for dresses and men's wear
and are heavier than rwo-bar tricot. (See Figures 16.24 and 15.25.)
tAS Urornsraxorxo Trxrrlrs

Frounr I6.23 GUIDE BARS

Guide bors on worp knitting

mochine move from side to side
while needles move up ond
down. Follow the poth of eoch
yorn os it chonges its positlon in
the fobric structure.

Frounr 16.24

(o) The simplest single guide bor

tricot construction; (b) Diogrom
of three-bor tricot, Dorker oreos
show how one yorn is carried
throughout the fobric, Diogroms
courtesy of Notionol Knitweqr
ond Sportsweor Associqiion,

In addition to the basic tricot fabric, a number of variations can be made. A tricot
satin is produced by allowing yarns to float further across the back surface of the fabric
before they interlace. Other textured tricots known as brushed tricots are made with
raised, napped surfaces or with small loops. The fabric as knitted is smooth on both sides.
The surface effects are achieved during finishing when the fabric is passed through a spe-
cial machine equipped with wire rollers that either pull loops to the surface of the fabric
or break some of the filaments to give a "brushed," soFt, napped surface. Blushed and
looped tricot fabrics are made with long underlaps that form the pile or loops.
Three- and four-bar tricot constructions permit the calrying of hidden yarns
through the fabric. Monofilaments that stabilize the fabric or spandex filaments for
stretch may be concealed in the complex stnlctr.lre of the tricot ltabric.
Tiicot fabrics can be made with a variety of open effects to create interesting
lacelike patterns, as well. Figure 16.26 depicts a tricot knitting machine.
 KHrnro Flsnrcs 349

Freunr 16.25

Tricot knitting cycle: (o) the needle is in the up position, old loops ore on the needle stems, ond guides (bors) ore reody
to swing through the needles to the bock; (b) shows the guides of the bock ond sidewoys one spocej (c) the yorns ore
loid ocross the needles; (d) the needle hos risen to get the yorns oround the stem; (e) the needle folls, moving'the yorn
into the hook of the needle while the presser bor presses the needle closes so thot the new loops ore held inside the
hook; (D o bockword motion of the sinker moves the old loops over the closed needle; (g) the old loops hove been
cost off, ond the needle is reody to rise into position os in (o). Diogroms from D. G. B,Thomos, An lnfroduction loWorp
Kniffhg. Copyright O Merrow Publishing Co , Ltd. Reproduced by permission Wotford, Herts, U, K.. I97 L

Frounr 16.26

Tricot worp knitting mochine,

Exomple shown is Type HKS-2/3
Photogrcph courtesy of Korl
Moyer Textilmoschinenfobrik
GmbH,
350 UlornsrlHolHoTrxrrlrs

Simplex Knits
Simplex knitting machines create warp knits similar to tricot but with a denser,
thicker texture-a sort of double knit tricot. Simplex knits are used in products re-
quiring heavier fabrics, such as women's gloves, handbags, and simulated suede-tex-
tured apparel fabrics.

Roschel Knits
Raschel knits can range from finely knitted laces to heary-duty fabrics. Elaborately
patterned surface effects car.r also be achieved with the Raschel machine. The fabrics
have lengthwise rows of loops held together by laid-in yarns and mayJ to the eye, have
the appearance of woven goods or lace.
Raschel knitting machines are flat beds with n'vo to forty-eight guide bars. A
mechanism called a fall plate controls the placement of the laid-in yarns. In thc nor-
mal knit stitch formation, the needle moves up and down, looping yarns on and off
the needle to form a continuous chain. In Raschel machines the fall plate is lowered
to prevent the laid-in yarn behind it from formir.rg a normal loop. Instead, the yarn
is carried along in the fabric in a horizontal or diagonal direction, according to the
pattern desired. In some fabrics this technique is used to simulate the effect of em-
broidery; in others, it gives a woven appearance. (See Figure 16.27.)
Among the most popular rypes of Raschel labrics are power net of elastomeric
yarns for foundation garments and swimsuits, thermal cloth for cold-weather under-
wear, lace, and tailored menswear fabrics. Pile warp knits for fake fur fabrics are made
by incorporating an extra yarn in the structure that is then brushed. In power nets for
foundation garments, the laid-in yarns are spandex core yarns.

Crochet Knits
An especially versatile variation of the Raschel knitting machine is used to make fab-
rics that simulate hand-crocheted fabrics. Although the mechanism of the machine
varies slightly from that of an ordinary Raschel knitting machine, the principle of
{:orming lengthwise loops held together by laid-in yarns is the same in both machines.
The resulting textiles range From narrow trimmings, including those with fancy
fringes, to widel fabrics (25 to 75 inches) r-rsed for apparel or hor-rsehold textiles.

Frounr 16.27

Close-up views of two open-

structured Roschel knit fobrics

, ffi',;i:' ;ji; ;: ;, ;i.$p6rys*',;

4iiiijjii;iiii;ir;iil;iiil,;,i, ?,

@"":" #itu
l;liiil
ffi rJ: il$i:t
,llfi,ili: ry Y,,"tlffi ;

''lij *fi', ;f*;'{#4i

#li',;';i*u,m
 Kurrro Flanrcs 351

Cnrarrruo Parrrnn AND DTSIOH IN KNITTED

Gooos
Finished knit goods can be dyed. patterns
can be created by pr-i'ting on the fabric or
throu_gh manipulation ol differently colored yarns.
^the
wefr knits are easily knittecr into stripes. fhese
.
ric, since the patrern is achieved througlr varying
stripes arways run across the fab_
the corors .r,n. f"r", in the dif_
ferent courses. Since the yarns interrac.loriro.rtilry,
it is not por.ibl'. ,. i";, a verri_
cal stripe in weft single knits.
A jacqua'd attachment for weft knit machines
make it possible to knit a wide va_
riery of patterned fabrics. Like woven jacquard
parterns, jacquard knit designs are
plotted on paper and then t."nrf.rr.i to the ja.q.,ard mechanisms where the ma_
chine automatically activates "r.
the appropri"r. ,-r..ir., and colored yarns.
Electronicaily
controlled machines are widely ur.a n the
knitting inrJustry. 1s.. rig,'rr. 16. 10.)
, Jlr structure of patterns in warp knitting is determined by a system known as
the link-chain system. Chains with linis of uari"bl.
the guide bars. The height of the link transfers
r,.lJ;;.;r;ioi,i.'-o".-.,r, ot
a motion to the guide bars. The guide
bars set the yarn in position over a grolrp
of need.res to form the pattern, but pattern
variations are limited.

Wlnp AND Wrrr lrusrnrroN

Processes have been developed that
allow the insertion of warp or weft yarns into
knitted srructures' Some orthese variations of
knitting have been purely experimen_
tal; others have been commerciarized for
a time. Their'purpor. ir,Jf-.-JJde increased
stability to knitted srrucrures. Th,, is accomprished
by integrating warp or filiing
yarns part or all of the,u'ay into. the
l.ngth*is. or crosswise direction of a knitted
strucrure, which holds them in place.

. Presently, only weft inserti.n sysrems have any substantial commercial distribu_
tion' A separare magazine f..d, *.fi yarns
ro a cricot or Raschel warp knitting ma-
chine.The weft yarn crosses rhe entire rvidth of
the fabric. when the fabric is viewed
from the back side, it can be seen that the weft always passes
urra*,t,.-r"aerrap of
the knit stitch and over the loops, as rho*n
in figure 16.2g.
Manufacturers of magazine weft insertion
machines recommencr the fabrics for
a wide variety of apparel' household
textile, and industrial applications. The textile
literature describes their potential for
use in pro.erring high-tenacity yarns that
are

Frounr 16.28

Structure of weft inseriion knit

fobric, Diogrom reprinted by
permission of the Notionol
Knitweor ond Sportweor
Associotion.
352 UxornsrlNornoTExTtrEs

difficult to handle in ordinary weaving. High-tenacity yarns will lose some srrengrh
as a result of stresses imposed by the interlacing of yarns required in weaving. In
weft insertion, the knitting yarns serve to hold the weft yarn in place, and full ad-
vantage can be taken of the strength of the inserted yarn.

Clnr oF KNtrrED FABRtcs

Although there is a great variery in the qualiry ofknitted goods sold, and the perfor-
mance of any individual knit may differ markedly from that of other knits, some gen-
eral guidelines for the care of knitted goods can be observed. The problems rhat con-
sumers seem to encounter most often in the performance of knitted fabrics are in the
areas of dimensional stabiliry snagging, and pilling.

Dimensionol Stobility
One reason for the populariry of knits for wearing apparel is their comfort. The
looped construction of knit fabrics permits the fabric to give with the body as it
moves. But the stretchiness of knits also results in lessened dimensional stability.
Consumers have complained about shrinkage, stretching, and distortion of knits, al-
though interlock and double knit fabrics are usuaiiy more stable and display little or
no shrinkage. Similarly, fabrics with weft or warp inserted yarns are more stable.
Shrinkage control treatments, heat setting ofsynthetics, and special resin finishes
can provide good dimensional stabiliry for knits. Unfortunately, not all manufacturers
provide such treatment for their products. Consumers should check labels for percenr-
age of shrinkage or for other special treatments to judge potential dimensional stability.
(About 3 percent shrinkage is one garment size.) If products fail to live up to specified
performance standards, items should be returned to the retailer or the manufacturer.
Knits are considered to be easy-care fabrics, and many care labels recommend
machine washing. Some labels will also specify that the fabric can be dried in an au-
tomatic dryer. In general, hon'ever, knits will shrink more in the dryer than if air
dried. Knits maintain their shape best if they are dried flat. The weight of a wet knit,
hung on a line, may cause rhe fabric to strerch out of shape. The dimensions of knits
usually will be retained best by professional dry cleaning.
Hand knits, sweaters of wool or animal hair fiber, and other knits with an open
construction may require special hand laundering and blocking (stretching back into
shape). Such items should be laid on a sheet of wrapping paper before washing, and
the outlines traced. After washing, the garment should be stretched our on rhe paper
to dry. while still damp, the garment should be gently stretched to fit the outline of
the original dimensions.
Aside from stretching or shrinking, an additional probiem with knitted items is
skewing or rwisting as the fabric is relaxed during laundering. Side seams of garmenrs
may pull to the front or back and hems may hang unevenly. In general, knits made
of synthetics will have better resistance to stretching out of shape than will corton, ac-
etates, and rayons. Blending of synthetics with cottons, acerares, and rayons will im-
prove the resiliency and dimensional stabiliry of knitted fabrics made from these
fibers. Price is a good guide-especially for childrent knits.
Knit fabrics have better wrinkle recovery than woven fabrics because the yarns
can move more freely. Heavier knits resist wrinkling more than lighter weight sin-
gle knits.
 Kt.trrro Flsnrcs 353

Mechqnicql Dqmqge
The loop structure of knitted fabrics makes them especially susceptible to snagging.
lf a loop catches on another object, it may be pulled up from the fabric surface and
a long snag, or pull, of yarn may be formed. If the yarn that has been snagged is not
broken, it can be pulled to the back of the fabric. It may be possible to gently stretch
the fabric and work the pulled yarn back into place. This is difficult to do with tightly
kn itted fabric structures.
If the yarn has been broken, the snag may produce a hole in the fabric. A few
hand stitches with needle and matching thread should be made to secure the yarns so
that the hole does not become enlarged during wearing or laundering.
Synthetic double knits or knits made from loosely rwisted yarns may be subject
to pilling. \Teaker fibers, such as cotton, rayon, acetate, and wool, generally break off
the fabric, but the stronger svnthetic 6bers cling to the fabric, making an unsightly
area on the fabric surface. The use of textured varns for knitting synthetics decreases
the likelihood of pilling.
Knits may be damaged by sharp objects puncturing the fabric. If yarns are cut' a
hole will result, and further pressure and strain on the fabric may enlarge the open
area, as loops are dropped in the interlocking structure.

Errecrs oF KNIT SrnucruRE oN Flenrc

PrnronuANcE
Durobilily Foclors
Strength of knitted fabrics is considered to be less important for durabiliry than it
is in woven goods. Knitted fabrics are easily stretched to accommodate changes of
shape as a result of stresses imposed in wear and care. When knits are made from
resilient fibers and yarns, the ability to stretch and recover from stretching will be
enhanced. In comparison to knitted fabrics, woven fabrics are generally firmer and
have less elongation. In knits the loops in the structure can be deformed horizon-
tally or vertically, increasing the stretch in both directions. But, as noted earlier,
variations in knitting techniques can increase or decrease extensibiliry of knitted
fabrics. Double knit labrics and warp knit fabrics are usually less extensible than
single knit fabrics.
A major problem in the durabiliry of knits is the runs that can develop in weft
knits when one of the loops is broken. If stronger fibers and yarns are used in these
knits, they will be less likely to run.

Appeoronce
Shearability, discussed in chapter 15, is an important factor in the appearance of tex-
tiles. In general, because of the ways in which yarns are combined, woven fabrics have
higher shearability than do knitted fabrics. Knitted fabrics have good flexibility and
are easily extended. $i/arp knits do not shear as easily as weft knits.
These qualities must be taken into account by designers, although they may not
be aware of the technical terminology used to describe the fabric properties. For ex-
ample, a warp knit tricot fabric with low shearabiliry would not be used to make a
bias-cut garment in which the intention is to take advantage of high shearabiliry. In-
354 UlornsnllotloTrxrtlrs

stead, the designer would be likely to use asoft, gathe red construction where the high
where most of the drap-
flexibiliry of tf,e fabric *o,rld *ork to good advantage, but
irrg *orrld fall in the vertical direction of the fabric'
- loosely con-
In g.rr.r"l, knits wrinkle less than do other fabrics. This is because
However' knit-
.,r.r.,.if"brics generaliy allow more fiber redistribution and motion'
more likely to lose their shape in
ted fabrics, b..""rrr. of their greater extensibiliry are
laundering. The stresses in knitting distort the shapes of the loops rather than
"ppii.d*t"t'ing' O"n relaxation' the loops broaden' shrinking
l,rrt ,t..tii.tg the yarns as' in
'th. f"bri. Ierigth increasing ,h.'*id,h. As with woven fabrics, the
tighter the
"nd shrink"age until the srrucrlrre becomes so dght that further
,,ruorr..,,h.iigh., the
buckle'
shrinkage is not"possible. Such fabrics mav' however'
cover than do woven fabrics, with weft knits
Knitted fabrics tend to have lower
having substantially more Porous structures than
warp knits' unless.the,fabric is de-
liberatelymadetoh"u."'op.',lacyconstru.tion"sinsomeRaschelknits.Useof
thinner or thicker yarns can int""" the cover of knitted fabrics'

Gomlort Foctors
KnitsusuallyentraPmoreairthanwovenFabrics'althoughthetightnessoftheknit
isafactoraswell,Pileornappedknitconstructionsareespeciallygoodforcold
weather because the yarns o' htttt perpendicular to the surface provide numerous
worn with the napped
,p".o ro, dead air. Tiri, eff".t i. ,rroi-ir.d if such fabrics afe
layer'
o, pile s,.rrf"ce next to the body, or if they are c'overed u'ith
another
Fibers and yarns
The flexibiliry of knits cont.ibutes to a feeling of fabric softness'
used can enhance or detract frorn the smoothness
of knirted fabrics'

Puffing lt All Toge fher for

Swimweor
the fabrics chosen must sat-
Bathing suirs are a fairly specialized end use for fabrics;
today, important
i.fy L.if, fashion and function. For most of the bathing suits worn
absorbency' and en-
functional characteristics are stretch and recovery, coiorfastness,
vironmental resistance'

Elongotion qnd RecoverY

are.tight fitting' with
The majoriry of bathing suits for women' and many for men'
on and off' Since knits have much higher
,,r.,.h ,.q,rir.d for getiing the garments
fabrics, they are the preferred fabric construc-
.lorrgation than woven or"r-ror-r*or,..r
tion-for bathing suits that fit tightly to the body'
Fibers too"play i-port"irrt role in achieving tightness of fit. Those with lower
"r, will enhance the stretch and recovery Propefties of knits'
modulus high'resilience
"nd good recovery' Ny-
Not only .l"stoir.ri. fibers but also nylon have low modulus and
Polyester
ior, are often chosen for s*i-*.a, because of these ProPerties.
",rd'rp"rrdex modulus and therefore does not stretch as
is not usually used because it has a higher
with elastomeric fibers, such as spandex or
easily. Knitted fabrics of nylon blendld
fibers also have high
,,rbb.r, will provide th. high.rt amount of stretch. The elastic
recovery from stretch.
 Knrrrro FlEnrcs 355

Colorfqslness
Bathing suits are exposed ro sunshi'e, chiorine and other- chemicals in swimming
pools, and salt u.ater in oceans. Fibers and yarns are both important in maintaining
the c.lorfastness of swirnming suits that are often made of bright-colored fabrics.
Lighrfast'ess of dved spandex is fair to good, while that of nylon dyed with acid
dves is good. Spandex normallv makes up only a small percenrage of the fiber con-
tent of srvimwear fabrics and is often used in core-spun yarns wrapped with nylon.
-fhis
helps ro prorecr it from sunlight. Colorfastness of nylon and spandex exposed to
pool and salt warer is fairly good but these fabrics will show some loss over time.

Absorbency
since bathing suits are worn wl.rile swimming in warer, the absorbency of the fabric
is a consideration. lf a material absorbs and retains a significant amounr of water, the
weight of the suit wili increase, affecting its comfort and function. Syntheric fibers
have low water regain and are more appropriate for bathing suits than the natural
fibers that were used many years ago.

Environmenlql Resistqnce
l-ight, chlorine, and salt ware.r ca' also degrade textile fibers. when this occurs,
bathing suit fabrics may lose son.re of their recovery from stretch. Nylon and pol1,gr,.t
are more resistant to ultraviolct light and chlorinethan spandex. Tirat i, anorher rea-
son why spandex is usuallv used in small percentages blended with nylon. The use of
rubbe l as an elastomeric fiber in srvimwear has decreased because of its susceptibility
to degradation by light and other environmental conditions. Because resistance of ny-
lon to degradation by light is higher for fibers that have not been deiustered, brighter
nvlons are rrsually used in swimwear.

Suvtrulnv
Knit fabrics are made by interlocking loops of yarn. Two rypes are knits are pro-
duced: rveft knits, which are the mosr common
rype of knitted fabric; and warp
knits. Beca*se the loops in knits can be distorted, they are more srretchable than
woven fabrics. Careful examination of a product in which knits are frequently
used can show how fiber, yarn, and fabric consrruction are utilized to achieve
maximum durabilitv, appearance, and comfort. The case stucly on swimwear in-
cluded in this chapter is an example of selected fiber, yarn, and knitted srructures
for a specific end use.

References r',.:',.
:;., .
.. .l:a:i::::l:i:!i:/;?...!:;:itiri.la:;1:
:. . .,,..:Ll:::l:ll4ti:i?:ii;:.::.ti.:...1
;';::
:..
. . : .'. ''.:r:-":-:
;'1""J ]
American Fabrics and Fashions Magazine, i980 ed. Enqtclopedia of teniles,3r:d ed.
Englewood Cliffs, N.J.: Prentice Hall.
Lonsinger, K. 1993. lshirts and underwear: The building blocks of fashion. Knitring
Times 62 (August): 21.
Reichman, c., ed. 1972. Knitting encyclopedia. New york: Natio'al Knitted outer-
wear Association.
356 UnotnsrlHortloTrxrtrs

Review Questions
1. \flhat is the difference benveen a weft knit and a warp knit?
t{4-rat
2. \fhat determines the number, size, and closeness of knitting stitches?
terms are used to describe the closeness of knit sritches?
3. Describe the various ways that differences in pattern and surface texture can be
achieved in weft knits.
4. Which of the following weft knits are made with one needlebed and one set of
needles, which are made with two needlebeds and two sets of needles, and
which are made with two needlebeds and one set of needles?
jersey knits velour knits
purl knits high-pile knits
interlock knits double knits
rib knits
5. Explain the differences in weft knit and warp knit structufes that make warp
knits less subject to developing runs.
6. Identify some common end uses of Raschel knit fabrics, and explain why
Raschel knits are often used for these products.
7. Assuming comparable quality and fiber content, compare knitted and woven
fabrics in terms of their performance in regard to comfort during physical ac-
tiviry dimensional stabilio', snagging, wrinkle recoverl" and pilling' Explain
what accounts for these differences.

Recommended Readings
Candan, C. 1999. The changing face of knirlvear. Textile Month (June): 14.
Ghosh, S., and P K. Banerjee. i990. Mechanics of single jersey weft knitting process.
Textile Resurch Journal 60 (April): 203.
How to buy a sweater.1994. Consnmer Reports (December): 791.
King, M. W., R. Guidoin, and B. Soares. 1993. Designing fabrics for hernia repair'
Canadian Tbxtile Journal 110 (October): 18.
Knitting in the third dimension. 1994. Tlxtile Horizons (December); 22.
O'Brien, M. 1997 . FIat knitting: Past, prese nt, and future-2 . Tixtiles Magazine 3: 5.
Schwartz, P., T. Rhodes, and M" Mohamed. 1982. Knitting and knit fabrics. ln Fab'
ric forming l/stems,76-151. Park Ridge, N.J.: Noyes.
Smith, S. 1994.The history of hosiery in America. Southern Ttxtile Netus (August 8): 2.
Spencer, D. J. 1989. Knitting technologt,2d ed. Oxford: Pergamon.
The basic principles of knitting. \989. Tixtiles 18 (1): 15.
\(eft-insertion warp-knits for industrial fabrics. 1983. T?xtile Industries (March): 56.
\Willis, D. 1993. More than just T-shirts. Canadian Tbxtile Journal 1 10 (October): 15'
OIHER FnsRtc
CoNSTRUCloN
METHODS

lthough woven and knitted goods make up the largest quantiry of fabrics pro-
duced, various other construction methods are also used for the fabrication oftextiles.
Many of these techniques derive from processes used since prehistoric times, others
have been developed more recentiy, and some are the resuit of new technologywithin
the textile industry. Many of these fabrics are referred to as nonwouens even though
this term technically applies oniy to fibers held together in a flexible web.
The fabrication methods discussed in this chapter may be divided into several

broad classifications: fabrics made by knotting, by looping, by stitching yarns or

fibers togethea and by bonding together a web of fibers. Netting, macramd, and lace
are created by knotting, either by hand or by machine. Crochet, essentially a hand
technique, is made from a series of loops in a process that is similar to knitting. A fab-
ric construction technique, known either as stitch bonding or stitch knitting, com-
bines yarns and/or fibers by sewing them together. Ancient techniques such as felt
making or bark cioth construction are similar in principle to the manufacture of
modern nonwovens.
358 UxornsrlHol,rcTExnrEs

Fru
Although evidence is scanry it is believed that the first means of making 6bers into
cloth was through felting. Prehistoric remains of felt materials have been found in
such diverse parts of the world as Anatolia, Siberia, Europe, Southeast Asia, and
South America. To understand the process by which felt is formed, it is necessary to
review the structure of the wool fiber from which it is made.
The surface of the wool fiber is covered with a fine network of small scales. (See
Figure 4.4.) This scaly structure causes wool fibers to cling closely togerher, as rhe
scales from one fiber interlock with the scales of another. Furthermore, the natural
crimp of wool assists in felting. When masses of wool fiber are placed together, the
crimped fibers become entangled. Friction increases this tangling. lf the wool is sub-
jected to conditions of heat and moisture, the scales open wider, interlocking u.ith
still more scales lrom neighboring fibers. Wool scales are so oriented that each fiber
moves in its root direction, causing the mass to hold together more tightly. Vhen
pressure is added, the mass is {lattened, producing a web of tightly joined fibers, or
felt. The factors essential for- producir.rg natural felt from wool are pressure, which in-
creases rhe tangling, heat, and moisture.
It is not too difEcult to imagine a situation in which felt might have been pro-
duced acciclentally. Suppose a horse rider placed a sheep fleece on the back ofa horse
as cushioning material. The body of the horse is both warm and moist; the rider pro-
vides the pressure and the friction. Over time, the fleece becomes matted, producing
a primitive form of felt. Frequent repetition of the procedure could lead to the recog-
nition that this material had potential for some of the same uses as the fleece from
which it was made.
Eventually, the natural process was reduced ro a series ofsteps that included ap-
plying heat and moisture ro a mass of wool {iber, placing the batt (or mass) of fibers
on flat stones, and pounding the fibers with hammers or beaters. To valy the texture
and quality of the material, fur fibers might have been added, but it was the wool that
served to hold the substance rogerher.
ln the commercial prodr-rction of felt, a batt of cleaned wool fiber is fed into a
carding machine that lays down a web of fairly even thickness. -lo improve strength
and dimensional stabiliry nvo webs of carded fiber are laid across each othelwith the
fibers of one web at right angles to rhe fibers of the other web. Steam is forced
through the mass of {iber, after which a heavy, heated plate or rollers are lowered onto
the fibers. The plate or rollers are moved about to produce rnechanical motion. The
moisture, heat, and friction effectively interlock the fibers.
Following this operation, the fabric is passed through a solution of soap or acid
that causes the fabric to compacr further. From this srage rhe fabric goes to a finish-
ing mill in which the fabric is subjected to further agitation, pounding, and shrink-
age. This is similar to the fulling finish given to woolen fabrics. (See chapter 19.) Af-
ter felting is complete , the fabric can be dved or give n any of the traditional finishes
used on wool.
'Io decrease costs, manufacrurers may blend other fibers with wool. A woven
scrim (a plain, open, woven fabric) may sometimes be added as a framework to sup-
port felt to increase its stlength.
Felt has the advantage ofbeing easily cut, and because it has no yarns, itwill not
fray at the edges. Felt can be molded into shape and so has wide use in making hats.
Because of its densely packed fibers, f'elt provides a good deal of warmth, and it is not
easily penetrated by wate r. On the othe r hand, felt is a relatively weak fabric, may rear
under pressure, and is subject to pilling. Being rather stifl, felt does not fall into
 Orx:n Flenrc CoHsrnucrroru Merxoos 359

graceful folds. Its use, therefore, is somewhat limited. Modern manufacturers of wool
felt supply material not only for hats and fashion accessories but also for a wide range
of industrial uses.

Bmr Clorx
A process similar to that used for felt produces bark cloth or, as it is called in the
Polynesian Islands, tapa. This nonwoven fabric was also known during prehistoric
times in areas as widespread as Asia, Africa, Europe, South and Central America, and
the South Pacific.
Made from certain rrees, among them the paper mulberry, breadfruit, fig, or re-
lated species, bark cloth is produced by first removing strips of the inner layer of bark
from the tree. This substance is softened by soaking it in water. The softened bark is
placed on an anvil or other flat surface, and special beaters are then used to pound
the bark strips to interlace the fibers. When the mass is sufficiently integrated, the
material is dried, producing a sheet of fabric. Special rexrure or surface markings are
achieved by pounding the material with incised hammers or embossing the flat sur-
face on which the fibrous materials are spread to be beaten and to dry.
The resulting fabric is somewhat like a soft, supple paper. Pieces of tapa can be
joined without sewing. Simply by wetting the edge of two pieces and pounding them
together, large pieces of fabric can be made without seams.
Thpa does not drape or sew particularly well and was used chiefly for simple un-
sewn garments such as ponchos, sarongs, loincloths, or turbans. Small quantities are
still made for native religious garb and as an example of native handicrafts.

NotrwovEN FABRrcs
Techniques by which fabrics are made directly from fibers, bypassing both spinning
and weaving, have been used for centuries in the production of felt and bark cloth.
\flith the development of manufactured fibers, and, in particular, the synthesis of
thermoplastic fibers, technologies have evolved that have made possible the large-scale
production of nonwoven fabrics. The first nonwoven consumer product, an interlin-
ing fabric for the apparel industry, was introducedin 1952 (INDA r992). Marketed
extensively for both durable and disposable items, nonwoven fiber webs range from
disposable diapers to blankets, from industrial filters to tea-bag covers.
Nonwoven fabrics are textile structures "produced by bonding or interlocking of
fibers, or both, accomplished by mechanical, chemical, thermal or solvent means and
combinations thereof" (ASTM 1998). This excludes fabrics that have been woven,
knitted, or tufted. The Association of the Nonwovens Fabrics Industry (INDA) in the
United States and the European Disposables and Nonwovens Associarion (EDANA)
help to further define what may be called a nonwoven fabric (Jirsdk and wadsworth
1999). over 50 percent of the weight of a nonwoven must be comprised of fibers with
an aspect ratio (length to diameter ratio) of 300. This excludes paper products that are
normally made of extremely short fibers. In addition nonwovens must have a densiry
less than 0.4 grams per cubic cenrimerer, and felted fabrics are usually much heavier.
American Fabrics (1974) magazine recommended that nonwoven fabrics be
classified as durable products or disposable products. They defined a durable prod-
uct as "one which is multi-use. It is not manufactured to be thrown away after a
350 UroenstllotHoTrxrlles

single application" (p. 40). Examples of this type of product are blankets, carpet
backings, and furniture padding.
Disposable products were defined as "made to be disposed of after a single or
limited number of uses" (p.40). These are exemplified in disposable diapers, towels,
or tea-bag covers. American Fabrics pointed out that some items are disposable not
because of their durabiliry but because of their PurPose. Medical gowns' for example,
or airplane and train headrests, might withstand multiple use, but for sanitary feasons
they have limited use periods.

Mqnufqclure
There are rlvo steps involved in manufacturing nonwoven fabrics: (1) preparation of
the fiber web and (2) bonding of the fibers in the web. A number of possibilities ex-
ist for each step, and in addition, the nvo stages may be distinct or can be carried out
as a more or less continuous process. The various combinations are described below
and summarized in Thble 17.1.

Fiber Web Formotion

Staple fiber webs are produced by either dry forming or wet forming. Dry-forming
pro..rr", are carding, also called dry laying, and air laying. carded webs are made in
similar to the process for felt webs and slivers for yarn spinning. Thicker
" -"r,l.,
webs can be built up by layering the carded webs. In air laying, the fibers are opened,
suspended by air, and then collected on a moving screen. The wet laid process is sim-
ilar to paper making in that a mixture of fibers in water is collected on a screen'
drained, and then dried. (See Figure 17.1')
\(ebs can also be made by the direct extrusion plocesses of spunbondingand meh
blowing. Spunbonded fabrics are manufactured from synthetic filament fibers. Con-
tinuous filaments are formed by extrusion through spinnerets, and the filaments are
blown onto a moving belt where they form a web. As the still hot and partially
molten filaments touch, they bond. (See Figtre 17.2.) Polymers most often used are
polypropylene and polyester.

hau l7.l
Nonwoven Fobtic Production Melhods

Web Formolion

Dry loid Wet lqid Spun Loid

Corded Wet loid Spunbonded

Air loid Melt blown

Web Bonding

Chemicql Mechonicql Thermol

Adhesive bonded Needlepunched Colendor bonded

Solution bonded Spunloced Air bonded
Stitchbonded lnfrored bonded
Ultrosound bonded
 Orxrn Flgnrc Consrnucrrolt Mrrxoos 361

CARDING Frounr l7,l

BALE OF TO MAKE
FIBER CARDED WEB Schemqtic representotion of
methods of web forming siople
FIBER fiber webs. (o) Web forming by
SEPARATING BONDING cording method, (b) Web
FIBER FEEDING CARDED WEB
AND TRANSFER
forming by the oir loying
(a)
WEB LAYDOWN method. (c) Web forming by the
wet loying method, Diogrom
reproduced courtesy of INDA,
FIBER Associotion of the Nonwovens
SEPARATING Fobrics lndustry,
WEB
BALE OF TRANSFER
FIBER

WEB FORMING TO WEB

BONDING
FROM
STAPLE FIBERS
FIBER FEEDING IN AIR STREAM
AND
(b) WEB LAYDOWN

BALE OF
FIBER
FIBER gUSPENSION
V FEEDING

TO WEB
BONDING

FIBER WEB FORMING

SUSPENSION AND DRYINC
(c) DEWATERING

spunbonded fabrics are strong because of the Glament fibers and are not easily
torn. They are used for a wide variery of products ranging from apparel interlinings,
carpet backing, furniture and bedding to bagging and packing material. Spunbonded
fabrics may be used in geotextiles to control erosion o, in .*.rr.rcting roads. Some
spunbonds made fiom olefins are used as a tough, especiallv durable substitute for pa-
per in wall coverings, charts, maps, tags, and the 1ike.

_ Melt blowing also forms fabrics directly from fibers, but ir differs from spun-
bonding in that molten 6ber filaments are amenuare<i and broken into short lengths
as they exit from the spinnerets. Cool air distributes the fibers onto a moving .....n.
As the fibers cool they bond, forming a white, opaque web of fine 6bers. (See Figure
17.3.) Because the 6bers in meltblown nonwovens are 6ne, the fabrics
-ak. gooJ fil-
ter materials.
Specialty products can also be made by layering spunbonded and meltbiown
-
fabrics or by entrapping absorbent fibers or other materials within the meltblown
structure.

Fiber Bonding
once a web has been formed, some rrearment must be given to bind the fibers to-
gether. This can be done by chemical, mechanical, or thermal means.
362 Uuornsnlollto frxrllss

Floune 17.2
Phoio-
pnotogroprr of o spunbonded fobric'
(o)Webformingondbondingbyihespunbondingprocess.PhotogrophreproducedcourtesyoflNDA,
lndusiry. iOiCatt
Associotion of the Nonwou.ni Fob,i", 'p
groph courtesY of Dr' Dong Zhong

Polymer
ChiPs

SPINNING
DIE

TO
WNDUP
WEB TRANSFER

FIBER CALENDER
SPINNING BONDING
FIBER
DRAWING

an' adhesive material to

may be achieved by appiying
Chemical Bond'ing' Bonding together' La-
This, in .*.n.., 'gl".s" the fibers
rhe web and then ,.*irrg ,h;'"dhesive. water' are most often
substance is suspended in
tex adhesives, in which tft "ant'iut with the la-
a bath it' *hiti' it is impregnated
used. The fabric web i' P;;;;"ugh
,.",""a then dried.l (See Figure 17'4') . of. the fiber web' it tends to make the
\7hen adhesivt i' "ppfiSa to the surface
"f"Urlr adhesive ma-
.,.fribit rhe characteristics of the
fabric stiff and -or. ,igi[f;*, overcome this disad-
on the surface those of the original fiber' To
terial '"il;;;;; The printing
onto ,h. ruifr.. in selected areas'
vanrage. adhesives n-,* i.',n-,Ortnted among
that adequare bonding takes place
patterns are developed;;i"fi;t" ensure. bttttt drapabil-
Fabrics ,r. tJ$ rigid and h"u.
hb.r, ,o maintain Fabric strength. Such
th"t' do those" that have been completely
iry and a more pft"'"nt '*'flce texture
coated by an adhesive' 1 -t..-:^"^ bondedby
L^-)")l\t.nrAvi(
spraying a mxture
may be^solution
Instead of adhesive bonding, fibers to heat' the wa-
of th. fibers. \rhen sub.iected
of chemicals and water ;;I"rfo..
di"olt'i"g a small amount of fiber' usually
ter evaporates and the ;il;]
""rroth...'v4r.o
""-p.)'i"" the dissolved fibers resolidifr, bonds are
where one gu., .rorr.,
formed that hold the fibers together'
may be ioined by
produced by dry laying methods
Mechanical Bond.ing. Fiber webs are needle
entangling or stitching the fibers
i".'ornt *"y'1-"-n"L "ith rntthodt used
ponriirg" rpunlacing and stitch bonding'

in chapter 19 can be used'

;;-.n"a-*o-o*"p, impregnation methods' described
I
t

i
,
$
 Orxrn Flgnlc ColsrnucnoN Mrrxoos 363

Frounr 17.3

(o) Web forming ond bonding by the melt blowing process, Photogroph reproduced courtesy
of INDA,
Associotion of the Nonwovens Fobrics lndustry, (b) Close-up photogroph of o meltblown fobric photo-
groph courtesy of Dr, Dong Zhong.

WEB LAYDOWN
AND BONDING
Cool Air
TO WINDUP
OR FURTHER
t Stream BONDING
Cool
Air of Short Takeup
Fibers Screen
EXTRUSION MELT BLOWING

In neediepunching the web is fed into a machine with a bed of barbed needles,
like fishhooks. The needles move in and out of the web, entangling the fibers. (see
Figure 17.5.) The resulting fabrics are bulky and soft, yet retain their integriry. prod-
ucts rypically made from neediepunched nonwovens are blankets, filters, fabric back-
ings, carpets, apparel, interlinings, road underlays, and auromobile trunk liners
(rNDA 1992).
Spunlaced or hydroentangled goods are made by fluid entanglement. High-speed
jets of water hitting a fibrous web bind fibers together by causing them to knot or curl
around each other. No binder is required. (See Figure i7.5.) patterns can be created by
the use of perforated, patterned screens that support the fiber web. As the fibers be-
come entangled, they assume the pattern of the supports. Depending on the patterns
used, spunlaced fabrics may have an appearance similar to fabrics *oven f.o- y".rrs.
Spunlacing is often used in making kitchen wipes. The wipes have a regular pat-
tern of holes surrounded by tighdy entangled fibers. Many wipes are also adhesively
bonded for increased wet strength.
For the stitchbonding technique 6ber webs are stitched through to hold the fibers
together. Maliwatt fabrics are fiber webs that have been stitched tog.th.r. (See Figure
17.6.)The resulting fabrics are used as lining fabrics, furnishing fabrics, insulatingla-
terials, base fabrics for tufted goods, and in industrial and geotextiles. Malivlies faLrics,
used in felts, packing materials, insulation materials, and utiliry rextiles, are created by

Frounr 17.4

Applicotion of loiex odhesive,

Diogroms reproduced courtesy
of INDA, Associaiion of ihe
Nonwovens Fobrics lndustry,

FROM TO
WEB DRYING
FORMING AND
WINDUP

LAf,EX
APPLICATION
364 Uxornsmnorlo frxrtrs

Frounr 17.5
NEEDLE BOARD

(o) Needlepunched process.

(b) Web forming ond bonding
by the spunlocing or
hydroentongling process, (c)
FORMED WEB
@
NEEDLEPUNCHI NG
Schemotic showing how fiber
webs moy be held together by
stiichbonding. Diogroms
DRY FORMED WEBS
courtesy of INDA, Associoiion of
Nonwovens Fobrics lndustry,
BALE OF
FIBER Water Jets

YYY Y Y TO
WINDUP
\
ENTANGLING
AND PATTERNING

WET FORMED WEBS

STITCHED
WEB
Stitching Yarns

WEB Stitching
STTTCHING Needle
I r-
lr
Yarn Feed tl
Web Guides
WEB
FEEDTNG

forming stitches from the fibers of the web itself. No additional yarns are required. (See

Figure 17.6.)
Other branded processes are kunit and multiknit. Kunit fabrics are formed by
feeding a web of fibers into a machine where a rype of compound knitting needle
(see chapter 16, page 331) forms knitting stitches from the fiber web. These stitches
hold the web together and form a fabric that may have either a plushlike, furlike,
or flat appearance. (See Figure 17.6.) Uses include linings for clothing and shoes,
plush for toys, automotive interior fabrics, acoustical and thermal insulation' pack-
aging material, and base fabrics to which coatings may be applied. In the multiknit
process, rwo fabrics formed by the kunit process are united into a double-sided,
multilayered fabric with knitting stitches made by a compound needle with a sharp
point that can penetrare both fabrics. Applications include insulation materials, gar-
ment interlinings, base materials for molded textile composites, and as a replace-
ment for foam in car and furniture upholstery.

Thermal Bonding. Thermoplastic fibers may be bonded by heat. The application of

heat causes the fusing together of heat-sensitive fibers, which effectively fastens them
together. As in bonding with adhesives, heat may be applied in a pattern to provide
 Orn:n Flgnlc CotsrnucloN METHoDS 365

a Maliwatt
Frounr 17.6

Cross-sectionol diogroms of pile

fobrics mode by stitchbonding
processes. (q) Mqliwott. (b)
Cross-lapped carded fleece with Mollvlies. (c) Kunit (d) Multiknit
mechanical compacting by Drowlngs reproduced courtesy
additional stitchbonding. of Korl Moyer Texiilmoschinen_
fobrik GmbH.

b Malivlies

Cross-lapped carded f leece.

The mechanical compacting is
effected by partial stitching of the
fiber structure.

c Kunil

Length-oriented carded fleece.

The mechanical compacting is
effected by stitching of the fiber
structure to pile loops of
pre-determined height.

d Multiknit

The ground fabric is Kunit and in

a connected process it is subsequenily
stitched on top of the loops, resulting h
two identical plain fabric surfaces.

sufficient bonding for durabiliry arnd allow greater flexibiliq, and softness in the
end product. Nonwovens .a,.r 1o
"l.o
be formed *#h a .mail percenrage of binder fibers
of lower. melting point than the predominant fib..r. \t lr.n the web is heated,
binder fibers melt, providing th. ,...rr".y the
(See Figure 17.7.)
"dhJon.
Spunbond and meltblown non*ou..r, thermally
bond *fr.n ,rr. -ot,.r, filaments
harden after extrusion. passing the spunbonded
or meltblown fiber webs between
366 UHornsnnorruoTexnlss

Ftounr 17.7

Two methods of thermol

bonding of fiber webs: (o) oir TO
bonding; (b) colendor bonding, WINDUP
Diogroms reproduced courtesy
of INDA, Associotion of the
Nonwovens Fobrics lndustry.

(a)

FROM TO
WEB WINDUP
FORMING

WEB
TRANSFER
(b) HOT CALENDER

heated cylinders called calendar rolls bonds fabrics more completely. Design efFecrs can
be produced if these cylinders have patterns embossed on their surfaces. Aeat can also
be applied to webs by hot air, infrared radiation, or ultrasound.

Uses of Nonwoven Fobrics

Nonwovens are one of the fastest growing segmenrs of the textile industry. Figure
17.8 shows the rapid increase in consumption of nonwoven fabrics in the United
States since 1970 and the prediction of continued growth into the nexr century.
Table 17.2 provides a summary of the pervasive nature of nonwovens in the
United States with new end uses cropping up continually. Many of the applications
would be considered industrial fabrics, as they are nor used for clothing or home fur-
nishings, but still touch our lives daily. Disposable nonwovens are particularly promi-
nent in the area of medical products. Made cheaply from manufactured fibers, they
can be easily sanitized and then disposed of.
An area of strong growth in industrial textiles has been the products known as
geotexti/es. Geotextiles perform functions such as filtration, separation, or reinforce-
ment in ground and soil applications. Although the development of geotextiles is re-
cent, there are historic examples of such textile applications. Hannibal's army in the
third century B.c. spread blankets and coats ouer a m"rshy battleground before
fighting.
ceotextiles can be woven or nonwoven fabrics of poiyesteq nylon, or polyolefin.
The cheaper processing and the wide variety of possible products of nonwovens make
them ideal for the large-volume applications in geote"tiles. Rugged nonwoven fabrics
can be used to stabilize roads by providing a separation layer beween the asphalt and
the soil roadbed. The geotextile prevenrs the asphalt aggregare from mixing into the
soil and weakening the road surface. (See Figure 17.9.)
 Orxrn Flsnrc ColsrnucnoH Mrrroos 367

Frounr 17.8 '000 of Metric Tons

1 200
U,S. nonwoven fobric volume
output, Chort courtesy of INDA,
Associotion of the Nonwovens
Fobrics lndustry,

1 970 1977 1 990 2000

Source: John R. Starr, lnc. estimates

Frounr 17.9

Typor@ nonwoven geotextile provides o tough, duroble permeoble seporotion loyer, used here in rood construction
(o) Rood surfoce without Typor@ loyer, Soil contominotes ond weokens oggregote bose ploced beneoth povement,
(b) Rood surfqce with Typor@. Aggregote will not sink into ond intermix with subsoil, Diogrom reproduced courtesy of
LINQ Industriol Fobrics. Inc,

Another growing application for nonwoven geotextiles is in soil erosion conrrol.

The geotextile fabric, when placed under the sand or gravel cover on an embank-
ment' can prevenr soil erosion by holding the soil underneath. (See Figure 17.10.)
Nonwoven geotextile mats of biodegradable natural fibers can also be placed on top
of newly seeded construction sites to hold the soil until vegetation can grow.
Frounr 17.10

Geotextile eorth embonkment

opplicotion. (1) grovel sond, (2)
geotextile fobric, (3)
embonkment, (4) subsoil.
Diogrom reprinted from
lndusfrial Texfiles by Jormilo
Svedovo, Courtesy of Elsevier
Science.

Treu 17.2
Producls Thot Use Nonwovens

Agricullure Conslruclion lndustriol, MilitotY o Exominotion gowns,

o Seed strips o Roofing ond tile o Cooted fobrics slippers
o Greenhouse covers underloyment . Filters o Filters for lV solutions,
o Acousticql ceilings o Cleon room opporel blood oxygenotors ond
Aulomolive o Air conditioning kidney diolyzers
o Sound ond heot insulo-
o lnsulotion
o Militory clothing o Tronsdermol drug
tion Home Furnishings
o Abrosives delivery
o lnterior trim o Upholstery bockings
o Porochutes Personol Core qnd
o Botiery seporotors ond webs
o Slipcovers o Coble insulotion Hygiene
e Vinyl roofs
o Wollcovering bockings
o Reinforced plostics o Buff pods
o Upholstery
o Topes o Diopers
o Corpet bocking o Quilts, blonkets, bed-
o Protective clothing, o Sonitory nopkins, tom-
spreods
Civil Engineering lobcoots pons
o Rood qnd roilrood o Mottresses, mottress
covers, tickings Leisure, frovel o lncontinence products
beds o Dry ond wet wipes
o Pillows, pillowcoses o Soils, kites
o Soil stobilizotion o Cosmetics opplicotors.
a Lompshodes o Sleeping bogs
o Droinoge
o Window shodes o Torpoulins, tents removers
. Dom ond streom o Droperies o Artificiol leother, lug- o Bibs
embonkments o Vocuum cleoner bogs
o Corpet bockings goge
o Golf ond tennis courts o Teo, coffee bogs
o Art convqses
o Artificiol turf Household
o Wipes: wet, dry, polish- o Airline heodrests School, Office
o Sedimentoiion ond ero-
o Fibergloss boots o Bookcovers
sion control ing
o Aprons Heollh Core o Moiling envelopes, lo-
Clothing Fralc
o Scouring pods o Surgicol: cops, gowns,
o lnterfocings o Mops,
o Glove liners mosks, shoe covers signs, pennonts
. Skiweor
o Loundry softeners ond o Sponges, dressings, . Floppy disk liners
o lnsuloted clothing, o
ontistotics wipes Towels
gloves
o Dust cloths, mops o Orthopedic podding o Promotionol items
o Swimweor
o Teo ond coffee bogs o Bondoges, topes
o lmitotion fur
o Doormots, bothmots o Dentol bibs
o Underweor
o Bro and shoulder o Gorment bogs o Dropes, wrops, pocks
podding . Plocemots, nopkins o Sterile pockoging
o Robes o lroning boord pods . Bedpon covers
o Loundry bogs o lnstrument pods
o Hondbogs
o Toilors' potterns o Woshcloths o Privocy curtains
o Shrouds, cqsket liners o Toblecloths o Bed linen, underpods
o Shoe liners, insoles o Cheese wrop
o Roinweor

/Vo/er Reproduced courtesy of INDA, Associotion of the Nonwovens Fobrics lndustry

368
 Orxrn Flenrc Corsrnucnol Mrrxoos 369

FrenrLLlrED FrrMs
Film fibrillation as a means of forming yarns was discussed in chapter 13. Film 6b-
rillation can also be used to create fabrics directly from polymer films. After exrrusion
the films are embossed, thereby thinning them in selected areas. The embossed film
is then stretched in the lengthwise and crosswise directions, and the film breaks apart
in the weak areas to form a netting. The fabrics produced by this means may be used
alone, as facings for other fabrics, or as supporting scrims berween layers of fabric.

Snrcn-BoNDED Fasnrcs
Stitch bonding is not only used for mechanically bonding nonwovens, it is also a
technique for producing and reinforcing other fabrics. Known variously as stitch
bonding xitch through, stitch knitting or mali (from one machine used in its manu-
facture), it produces fabrics for industrial, househoid, and, to a lesser extent, apparel
uses. Heinrich Mauersberger, an East German inventor, developed the stitch bonding
concept after observing his wife mending a fabric in which the filling yarns had been
worn away. Mauersberger assigned the trademark Maiimo to his process and the fab-
ric it produced.
Stitch bonding offers manufacturers the advantages offaster speeds than knitting
or weaving and can be produced at lower costs, not only because of increased volume
ofproduction but also because less fiber or yarn is required. Some stitch-bonded fab-
rics have greater bursting strength and tear strength than comparable woven fabrics.
One group of stitch-bonding machines construcrs fabrics from yarn. \farp and
filling yarns are laid loosely, one over the other. A third set ofyarns stitches the warp
and weft yarns together. (See Figure 17.11.) It is also possible to use filling yarns
alone, holding them in place with overstitching. These fabrics are called Malimo fab-
rics by the Mayer Textile Machine Corporation, which has acquired the Malimo
Company. The fabrics are used as industrial textiles, furnishing fabrics, and house-
hold textiles. (See Figure 17.12.)
Another yarn-based stitch-bonding technique, Malipol, creates single-sided pile
fabrics by stitching pile yarns onto a woven, knitted, non\ .oven, or stitch-bonded
fabric base. The resulting fabrics have the appearance of plush, terry cloth, or velour
and are used in apparel and as lining fabrics, upholstery fabrics, and imitation fur fab-
rics. The Schusspol stitch-bonding machine also produces pile fabrics by stitching
warp, filling, and pile yarns together at rhe same rime, and does not require a pre-
formed base fabric. Applications include carpets and other floor coverings, uphol-
stery, and terry fabrics.

Lrarnrn
Leather products, made from the skin of animals, are not considered textiles, al-
though they are often used alone or in combination with fabrics in apparel, uphol-
stery, and other products. The skins of large animals are called hides,while those from
young and small animals are skins. Leather is a skin or hide that has been tanned, thar
is treated to avoid decomposition and putrefaction. It is a fibrous material composed
of tightly meshed collagen fibers. Collagen is the protein found in the connective tis-
sues of the body.
370 Ut'totnsrlt.totl.toTlxrtlts

Frounr l7.l I
Schemolic showing how stitch-
bonded fobrics ore mode from
worp ond filling Yorns. (o) Filling
yorns, shown in cross section,
being fed into the mechonism.
(b) Worp yorn. (c) ComPound
loop-forming hook. (d) Stitch-
bonding yorn, (e) ComPleted
fobric with worP ond filling
yorns held together bY
stiichbonding Yorn.

Frounr 17.12

Fobrics constructed bY the

stitch-through technique'
 Orx:n Flgnrc Colsrnucnol Mrrxoos 371

Leather processing consisrs first of soaking the freshly removed skin in a salt so-
lution to inhibit the bacterial decomposition of the proteins and fat. The flesh un-
derlayer and any hair on the top surface are then removed. Traditionally the skins and
hides were treated with tannin, extracted from plants, to remove the protein berween
the collagen fibers. Hence the processing of skins into leather *". ."ll.d tanning. rn
modern tanneries, however, it is much more common to use chrome solutions, which
are easier to obtain and control.
The outer layer of the leather is porous, with tiny holes where the hairs were re-
moved. This porous surface is the grain which differs from animal to animal. Split
leather, that has been cut into layers, does not show the grain and is smoother. ihe
inner, or fesh, side is the softer suede face.
Leathers are made into many different products for both apparel and interior
and automobile furnishings. Because of the extensive processing, and the limited size
of skin pieces, Ieather products are expensive. Exotic skins, such as alligator, snake,
eel, ostrich, and others are exrremelv costly. The qualiry of leathers .".r ,,".y depend-
ing on the animai source and the processing.

Nrrs, MncnruE, hcr, AND Cnocnrr

Nels
Nets are created by looping and knotting a conrinuous strand of yarn into an open
mesh. In use since prehistoric times for trapping fish, birds, and other small animals,
nets also have a long history as decorative fabrics. Egyptian burial chambers, for ex-
ample, contained fabric made from open-work net with embroideries of pearls and
precious stones.
Most netted fabrics are made with either a square or diamond-shaped mesh. The
band process is a fairly simple one of looping and knotting to form an open-work
fabric. The decorativeness of the ner can be increased by embroidering designs on the
open mesh. The terms f ler work or lacis are applied to decorated nets, which are of-
ten classified as a rype of lace. (See Figure 17.13.)
Machine-made nets are manufactured on a bobbinet lace machine. Raschel or com-
pound needle tricot knitting machines also produce fabrics similar in appearance but
with different structures. Net fabrics range from lightweight tulles to h."oy- firhing .r.tr.

Mqcrqm6
Macramd might be considered as a variarion of the principle used in making nets.
Like netting, macramd uses rhe techniques of looping and knotting yarns. Unlike net-
ting, however, the decorative qualities of macramd are determined by the selection
and use of a variery of ornamental knots. In netting, it is the open area that is im-
portant. In macramd the closed or knotted areas are emphasized.
The word macramy' seems to be Arabic in origin, and the process itself probably
was brought to Europe from the Arab world. Like filet or lacis, macramd
-"y b. .l"r-
sified as a iace. Its first use was in finishing off the unwoven yarns ar the end of a fab-
ric. In time, macramd was constructed separately and attached to Iinens or garmenrs
in the same way rhat other trimmings were sewn into place.
The first major surge of interest in macramd came during the sevenreenth cen-
tury during a period of emphasis on lace making in general. Since that time macramd
372 UHo:nsnrotHo T:xrtres

Frounr 17.13

Exomples of /ocls or
embroidered net fobric from
the sixteenth century,
Photogrophs courtesy of the
Metropoliton Museum of Art,
Gilt of Mrs. Mogdoleno Nutioll

Itt
:tt

ta

has experienced periods of great favor and periods of relative obscuriry. During the
nineteenth cenrury it was an important decoration for clothes and household items.
Fashion magazines of the 1800s were filled with instructions for macramd work'
Macramd was not used widely during the early 1900s, but has enjoyed a resurgence
of interest since the late 1960s.
Since macramd does not require specialized tools, it can be made with a mini-
mum of equipmenr. During the eighteenth and nineteenth centuries sailors on whal-
ing ships often occupied their spare time by making macramd items that they
bartered when they reached port.
 Orxrn Flenrc Corusrnucrrol Mrrxoos 373

Frounr I 7.14

Mocrom6 fobric, knotted from ivory cotton in the lote nineteenth century, Photogroph courtesy of the Philodelphio
Museum of Art. Given by Mrs. Edword F. Boley, 1955.

The yarns or cords that are used in macramd are fastened to a holding cord,
which in turn is clamped or pinned securely so that the cords will not slip. For com-
plex work, the yarns are wound onto bobbins so that they do nor become entangled.
The work is done by creating a variety of knots that join the cords at different inter-
vals. (See Ftgure 17.14.) Placement of the knots and judicious selection of the rype of
knots make possible the creation of a variety of textures and decorative efTects.
Macramd is essentially a handcraft technique.

Lqce
Because of its delicate beauty, lace has been one of the most sought-after fabrics. The
precise origins of lace making are unknown, but its development was related not only
to knotting and netting but also to embroidery. Among the earliest lacelike fabrics were
374 UHotpstlHotHo Trxrtlrs

those that were called. drawn work. In drawn work, individual yarns were unraveled
From a woven fabric, and embroidery stitches were used to fasten grouPs of these yarns
together into a decorative pattern. Cut workwas also a forerunner of lace. In cut work,
areas of fabric ale cut out to form a pattern, and the raw edges alound the open areas
are embroidered both to prevent them from fraying and to add decoration. Ornamen-
tation can be increased by throwing threads across the open area to form geometric pat-
terns, by weaving in and out, or by embroidering ovef the threads that bridge the gap.
Although fabrics decorated by each of these techniques bear certain similarities
to lace, ,rr.r. 1".. making dispensed with the base fabric and created the design from
the threads alone. Laces afe generaliy divided into nvo categories, according to their
construction. One is called needlepoint lace' the other bobbin lace'
Needlepoint lace, which is slightly oider than bobbin lace, probably originated
in Venice sometime before the sixteenth century (Goldenberg 1904). In making
needlepoint laces, the design for the lace was first drawn on parchment or heary pa-
per. A piece of heary linen was sewn to the back of the parchment to hold it straight'
Threai, were then laid along the lines of the pattern and basted lightly onto the
pafchment and linen. None of these threads was attached to any othef. The lace was
.r."t.d by embroidering over the base threads with decorative stitches. These em-
broideries connected the base threads. The areas beween the threads could also be
filled in with fancy needlework, according to the requirements of the pattern. \7hen
the embroidery was complete, the basting threads that held the lace to the paPer were
clipped, and the finished lace was released.
Bobbin lace or, as it is also termed, pillow lace uses twisted and plaited threads.
It is more closely related to netting and knotting, whereas needlepoint lace stems
more from embroidery. Again the design is drawn on stiff paper. Holes are pricked
into the paper in the area of the pattern. This pattern is then stretched over a pillow,
and small pin, placed at close intervals through the holes in the paper. The pins
"r.
go through the paper and into the pillow. The thread is wound onto bobbins, and the
ihr."d, are worked around the pins to form meshes, openings, and closed areas. (Se€
Figure 17.15.) Bobbin lace seems ro have originated in Flanders or Belgium.
The techniques for making both bobbin lace and needlepoint lace quickly spread
throughout Europe. Each town developed its own sryle of lace, which had its tradi-
tionaf patterns and consrruction features. It is this localization of design that has
gi r.n us the names for most laces. Chantilly lace, for example' was first made in the
French ciry of chantiliy, venice point lace originated in venice, Italy, and Val lace was
first made in Valenciennes, France.
The production of lace by machine began soon after 1800. Although an earlier
machine had had good success in producing manufactured nets, machine-made laces
wefe not perfected until John Leavers invented a machine that could make as much
lace in one day as a skilled handworker would produce in six months (Schwab 1951).
Only an expert can teil the difference benveen machine-made and handmade lace.
Most modern laces are produced by machine on the Leavers machine. Knitted laces
may be made on the Raschel machine, and some lacelike embroidered fabrics are pro-
duced by the Schiffli machine. Schiffli fabrics, howevet are not tfue laces; rather, they
are embroidered, woven fabrics.

Crochel
The origins of crochet are obscure. The technique of creating fabric by pulling one loop
of yarn through another with a hook was brought to the United States by Irish immi-
granrs of rhe nineteenth cenrury. The craft was evidently practiced in Irish convents as
 OrHen Flantc Colsrnucrtol Merxoos 375

Froune 17.I5
Loce moking using o loce pillow ond bobbins,Yorns from the vqrious bobbins ore
knotted together following the
potiern drown on o sheet of porchment poper ploced over ihe pillow,The pins hold the knotted yorns in ploce'

an efficient means of copying lace fabrics. During the potato famine of the
1840s, the
the fam-
nuns taught -"',1, poo'. irirh *o-.', to crochet so that they could supplement
ily incoie. \fhen these families came to America, they brought Irish crochet with
them, and soon women throughout the United States had learned to crochet.
crocheting is closely related to knitting. Both join together a series of inter-
locked yarn loop, i,.,to a variety of open and/or closed patterns. crochet is made with
a single needle or hook, whereas knitting uses several needles'

Errrcrs oF SrRucruRE oN FABRIc PERFoRMANcE

The fabric constructions described in this chapter vary widely, and it is difficult to
ar-
generalize properties and performance. The following discussion highlights some
!r. to b. considered when assessing the performance of the various fabrics.

Durobility Fqctors
In nonr,voven fabrics that do not contain yarns, strength comes from fiber entangle-
ment ancl aclhesion, as well as inherent fiber tenacity. Fiber webs of coarser and higher
strength fibers will be stror.rger than those made from finer, weaker fibers. The bonding
376 Unoensnnolto Trxrttrs

of the fibers in the nonwoven stfucture also provides strength. Fabrics with a large
number ofbonding points are stronget and the strength also depends on the strength
of the individual bonds. Fiber webs with only {iber entanglement for adhesion, such as
needlepunched nonwovens, derive their strength from the frictionai forces berween the
entangled fibers, and can be torn apaft. Reinforcing scrims can add strength and more
densely entangled webs are stronger.
Some nonwoven fabrics may show lower abrasion resistance if the fibers are not
tightly held in the structure. Abrasion will puil fibers out, and the fabric will wear.
- with the
In fabrics made from yarns, fiber and yarn characteristics rogether
strengrh or weakness of the methods that hold the yarns together determine durabii-
ity. Laces and nets are often delicate because of their loose construction and fine
yarns, whereas macramd products, with heavier yarns and tight knotting' are stronger
and more durable.

Appeoronce
Nonwoven fabrics made by bonding fibers together rarely resemble woven or knitted
fabrics in their appearance. They also lack drapeabiligv. Shearing behavior plays an
important role in the drapability of a fabric; therefore a skirt made from felt or a non-
woven fabric appears stiff. Since the fibers are strongly bonded and not able to move
at the crossover points, the structure cannot accommodate the shearing force. In-
stead, when a shearing force is applied, the fabric buckles, much as paper does.
By contrast, the yarns in lace, crocheted, or macramd structufes can move, de-
creasing their shear resistance. Stitchbonded fabrics will vary in their shearing and
bending behavior. Varying the fibers and yarns in stitch-bonded, lace, crochet' and
macramd fabrics can provide unique and interesting decorative effects'

Comfort Fqclors
Few nonwoven fabrics are made into wearing apparel except when they are used as
interfacing to stiffen som€ part of a garment, as interlining to provide warmth, oI as
disposable garments. Comfort is, therefore, not usually a major consideration in eval-
uating such pfoducts. It is, however, a factor for nonwoven Protective clothing. These
items can sometimes be uncomfortable, both because they may not breathe and also
because of their sriffness.

Suutuanv
Although weaving and knitting are the predominant methods by which fabrics are
produced, the construction methods described in this chapter are also employed. The
most widely widely used of these is the processing of fibers into nonwovens. The
rapid growth in nonwoven fabrics made from fiber webs testifies to the versatiliqv of
these fabrics in uses ranging from tea bags to high-tech industrial applications. In
these products, engineers must pay special attention to the fibers used. In the case of
disposable products, cost is likely to be an especially important factor. For high-tech
products, fiber strength or the ability to withstand exposure to certain chemicals or
remperatures may be the most important considerations. As with all textile Products,
the interaction of all aspects of fabric structure must be evaluated.
Lace, crochet, and macramd might be considered as somewhar akin to knits, uti-
lizing yarns and keeping those yarns together by knotting or looping. Stitch-bonded
 Orxrn Flenrc Coxsrnucnot Mrrtoos 317

fabrics with yarns or fibers held together by a sort of a looped stitch also behave in
ways that may be similar ro woven or knitted fabrics. And they are used in similar ap-
plications in both apparel and home furnishings.

References i ' :, .!ir' ,1,'iru1" :

American Fabrics, 1974 ed. AAF appraises the non-wovens. American Fabrics l0l
(Summer): 40.
ASTM. 1998. Annual book of ASTM standards, vol. 7.01. \fest conshohocken, pa.:
"
American Sociery for Testing and Materials.
Goldenberg, S. L. 1904. Lace: hs origin and history.New york: Brentanos.
INDA. 1992. The nonwouen fabrics handbooh. cary, N.c.: Association of the Non-
wovens Fabric Industry.
Jirsik, o., and L. c. \Tadsworth. 1999. IVontuouen Textiles. Durham, N.c.: carorina
Academic Press.
Schwab, F. R. 1951. The story of lace and embroidery. New york: Fairchild.

Review Questions
1. Explain how the physical properties of wool fibers make the production of felt
possible.
2. How can fibers be held together in the manufacture of fiber webs made from
manufactured fibers?
3' \7hat are the economic advantages of spunbonding and melt blowing over
other nonwoven production methods?
4 Explain the basic principles of forming fabrics by stitch bonding.
5. \7hat are the differences in the techniques for making piliow lace and needle-
point lace by hand?
6. \7hat is the difference berween the techniques for making macramd and cro-
chet?
7. How are nonwoven fabrics used in geotextile applications?

Recommended Readings
Bark fabrics. 1940. CIBA Reuiew (May).
Felt. 1958. CIBA Reuiew no. 129 (November).
Criggs, D. 1989. Machine lace manufacture. Textiles lg (2): 32.
Levey, S. M. 1983. Lace: A history. London: Victoria and Albert Museum.
Nonwovens, a growth market. 1992. Tbxtile Horizons, December: g3.
fuse of the 'super suppliers.' 1999. Tbxtite Month
[fune): 54.
united Nations Industrial Development organization. 1976. Acceptable qualiyt leuek
in leathers. New York: United Nations.