NIST Special Publication 1018-3

Sixth Edition

Fire Dynamics Simulator

Technical Reference Guide
Volume 3: Validation
Kevin McGrattan
Simo Hostikka
Jason Floyd
Randall McDermott
Marcos Vanella

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1018

VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland

 NIST Special Publication 1018-3
Sixth Edition

Fire Dynamics Simulator

Technical Reference Guide
Volume 3: Validation
Kevin McGrattan
Randall McDermott
Marcos Vanella
Fire Research Division, Engineering Laboratory, Gaithersburg, Maryland
Simo Hostikka
Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Jason Floyd
UL Fire Safety Research Institute, Columbia, Maryland

http://dx.doi.org/10.6028/NIST.SP.1018

June 28, 2022

Revision: FDS6.7.9-0-gec52dee42

E N T OF C O M
TM M
AR

ER
D EP

CE
ICA
UN
IT

ER

D
E

ST AM
ATES OF

U.S. Department of Commerce

Gina M. Raimondo, Secretary

National Institute of Standards and Technology

Laurie E. Locascio, NIST Director and Undersecretary of Commerce for Standards and Technology
 Certain commercial entities, equipment, or materials may be identified in this
document in order to describe an experimental procedure or concept adequately.
Such identification is not intended to imply recommendation or endorsement by the
National Institute of Standards and Technology, nor is it intended to imply that the
entities, materials, or equipment are necessarily the best available for the purpose.

National Institute of Standards and Technology Special Publication 1018-3

Natl. Inst. Stand. Technol. Spec. Publ. 1018-3, 1084 pages (October 2013)
CODEN: NSPUE2
FDS Developers

The Fire Dynamics Simulator and Smokeview are the products of an international collaborative effort led by
the National Institute of Standards and Technology (NIST) and VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland.
Its developers and contributors are listed below.

Principal Developers of FDS

Kevin McGrattan, NIST, Gaithersburg, Maryland

Simo Hostikka, Aalto University, Espoo, Finland
Jason Floyd, UL Fire Safety Research Institute, Columbia, Maryland
Randall McDermott, NIST, Gaithersburg, Maryland
Marcos Vanella, NIST, Gaithersburg, Maryland

Principal Developer of Smokeview

Glenn Forney, NIST, Gaithersburg, Maryland

Principal Developer of FDS+Evac

Timo Korhonen, VTT, Finland

Contributors

Salah Benkorichi, BB7, UK

Daniel Haarhoff, Jülich Supercomputing Centre, Germany
Susan Kilian, hhpberlin, Germany
Vivien Lecoustre, University of Maryland, College Park, Maryland
Anna Matala, VTT, Finland
William Mell, U.S. Forest Service, Seattle, Washington
Kristopher Overholt, RStudio, Austin, Texas
Benjamin Ralph, University of Edinburgh, UK
Topi Sikanen, VTT, Finland
Julio Cesar Silva, Brazilian Navy, Brazil
Ben Trettel, The University of Texas at Austin
Craig Weinschenk, UL Fire Safety Research Institute, Columbia, Maryland

i
About the Developers

Kevin McGrattan is a mathematician in the Fire Research Division of NIST. He received a bachelor of
science degree from the School of Engineering and Applied Science of Columbia University in 1987
and a doctorate at the Courant Institute of New York University in 1991. He joined the NIST staff
in 1992 and has since worked on the development of fire models, most notably the Fire Dynamics
Simulator.
Simo Hostikka is an associate professor of fire safety engineering at Aalto University School of Engineer-
ing, since January 2014. Before joining Aalto, he worked as a Principal Scientist and Team Leader at
VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. He received a master of science (technology) degree in 1997
and a doctorate in 2008 from the Department of Engineering Physics and Mathematics of the Helsinki
University of Technology. He is the principal developer of the radiation and solid phase sub-models
within FDS.
Jason Floyd is a Lead Research Engineer at the Underwriters Laboratories Fire Safety Research Institute
in Columbia, Maryland. He received a B.S. (1993), M.S (1995), and a Ph.D. (2000) from the Nuclear
Engineering Program of the University of Maryland. After graduating, he was awarded a National
Research Council Post-Doctoral Fellowship at the Building and Fire Research Laboratory of NIST.
He is a principal developer of the combustion, control logic, aerosol, droplet evaporation, and HVAC
sub-models within FDS.
Randall McDermott joined the Fire Research Division at NIST in 2008. He received a B.S. from the
University of Tulsa in Chemical Engineering in 1994 and a Ph.D. from the University of Utah in 2005.
His research interests include subgrid-scale models and numerical methods for large-eddy simulation,
turbulent combustion, immersed boundary methods, and Lagrangian particle methods.
Marcos Vanella joined the Fire Research Division at NIST in 2019. He received diplomas in Mechani-
cal and Aeronautical Engineering from the National University of Cordoba, Argentina, and M.S. and
Ph.D. degrees in Mechanical Engineering from the University of Maryland, College Park. His research
interests include computer simulation and scientific software development applied to engineering sys-
tems, mainly in the areas of fluid flow and multiphysics interaction problems.
Glenn Forney is a computer scientist in the Fire Research Division of NIST. He received a bachelor of
science degree in mathematics from Salisbury State College and a master of science and a doctorate in
mathematics from Clemson University. He joined NIST in 1986 (then the National Bureau of Standards)
and has since worked on developing tools that provide a better understanding of fire phenomena, most
notably Smokeview, an advanced scientific software tool for visualizing Fire Dynamics Simulation data.
Timo Korhonen is a Senior Scientist at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland. He received a master
of science (technology) degree in 1992 and a doctorate in 1996 from the Department of Engineering
Physics and Mathematics of the Helsinki University of Technology. He is the principal developer of the
evacuation sub-model within FDS.

iii
Daniel Haarhoff did his masters work at the Jülich Supercomputing Centre in Germany, graduating in
2015. His thesis is on providing and analyzing a hybrid parallelization of FDS. For this, he implemented
OpenMP into FDS 6.

Susan Kilian is a mathematician with numerics and scientific computing expertise. She received her
diploma from the University of Heidelberg and received her doctorate from the Technical University
of Dortmund in 2002. Since 2007 she has been a research scientist for hhpberlin, a fire safety engineer-
ing firm located in Berlin, Germany. Her research interests include high performance computing and
the development of efficient parallel solvers for the pressure Poisson equation.

Vivien Lecoustre is a Research Associate at the University of Maryland. He received a master of science
in Aerospace Engineering from ENSMA (France) in 2005 and a doctorate in Mechanical Engineering
from the University of Maryland in 2009. His research interests include radiation properties of fuels and
numerical turbulent combustion.

Anna Matala worked as a research scientist at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland 2008-2019. She
received her PhD from Aalto University School of Science in 2013 and MSc in Systems and Operations
Research from Helsinki University of Technology in 2008. She works as a fire safety engineering and
research consultant. Her research concentrates on pyrolysis modelling and parameter estimation in fire
simulations.

William (Ruddy) Mell is an applied mathematician currently at the U.S. Forest Service in Seattle, Wash-
ington. He holds a B.S. degree from the University of Minnesota (1981) and doctorate from the Uni-
versity of Washington (1994). His research interests include the development of large-eddy simula-
tion methods and sub-models applicable to the physics of large fires in buildings, vegetation, and the
wildland-urban interface.

Kristopher Overholt is a solutions engineer at RStudio. He received a B.S. in Fire Protection Engineering
Technology from the University of Houston-Downtown in 2008, an M.S. in Fire Protection Engineering
from Worcester Polytechnic Institute in 2010, and a Ph.D. in Civil Engineering from The University
of Texas at Austin in 2013. He worked in the Fire Research Division at NIST from 2013 to 2015,
where he was central to the development of the FDS continuous integration framework, Firebot. He
also worked on aspects of FDS related to verification and validation and quality metrics. His research
interests include inverse fire modeling problems, soot deposition in fires, and the use of fire models in
forensic applications.

Topi Sikanen is a Research Scientist at VTT Technical Research Centre of Finland and a graduate student
at Aalto University School of Science. He received his M.Sc. degree in Systems and Operations Re-
search from Helsinki University of Technology in 2008. He works on the Lagrangian particle and liquid
evaporation models.

Ben Trettel is a graduate student at The University of Texas at Austin. He received a B.S. in Mechanical
Engineering in 2011 and an M.S. in Fire Protection Engineering in 2013, both from the University
of Maryland. He develops models for the transport of Lagrangian particles for the Fire Dynamics
Simulator.

Julio Cesar Silva is a Lieutenant in the Naval Engineers Corps of the Brazilian Navy. He worked in the Fire
Research Division of NIST as a Guest Researcher from National Council for Scientific and Technologi-
cal Development, Brazil. He received a M.Sc. in 2010 and a doctorate in 2014 from Federal University
of Rio de Janeiro in Civil Engineering. His research interests include fire-structure interaction and he
develops coupling strategies between FDS and finite-element codes.

iv
Benjamin Ralph is a fire safety engineer and Ph.D. student at the BRE Centre for Fire Safety Engineering
at University of Edinburgh, UK. He received his M.Eng. in Civil Engineering from the University of
Southampton, UK in 2008 and his P.G.Dip. in Fire Safety Engineering from the University of Ulster, UK
in 2014. He was a Guest Researcher in the Engineered Fire Safety Group at NIST in 2016. His research
interests include coupled hybrid modeling and performance-based design in fire safety engineering. He
is a developer of the HVAC sub-model - specifically the transient mass and energy transport solver.

Salah Benkorichi is a researcher and a Fire Engineer at the BB7, in Manchester, UK. He received his
M.Sc. in 2016 from the University of Poitiers. His research activities focus on flame spread and pyrolysis
modeling using multi-scale methods.

Craig Weinschenk is a Lead Research Engineer at the Underwriters Laboratories Fire Safety Research
Institute, in Columbia, Maryland. He worked in the Fire Research Division at NIST as a National
Research Council Postdoctoral Research Associate in 2011. He received a B.S. from Rowan University
in 2006 in Mechanical Engineering. He received an M.S. in 2007 and a doctorate in 2011 from The
University of Texas at Austin in Mechanical Engineering. His research interests include numerical
combustion, fire-structure interaction, and human factors research of fire-fighting tactics.

v
Preface

This is Volume 3 of the FDS Technical Reference Guide. Volume 1 describes the mathematical model and
numerical method. Volume 2 documents past and present model verification work. Instructions for using
FDS are contained in a separate User’s Guide [1].
The FDS Technical Reference Guide is based in part on the “Standard Guide for Evaluating the Predic-
tive Capability of Deterministic Fire Models,” ASTM E 1355 [2]. ASTM E 1355 defines model evaluation
as “the process of quantifying the accuracy of chosen results from a model when applied for a specific use.”
The model evaluation process consists of two main components: verification and validation. Verification is
a process to check the correctness of the solution of the governing equations. Verification does not imply
that the governing equations are appropriate; only that the equations are being solved correctly. Validation
is a process to determine the appropriateness of the governing equations as a mathematical model of the
physical phenomena of interest. Typically, validation involves comparing model results with experimental
measurement. Differences that cannot be explained in terms of numerical errors in the model or uncertainty
in the measurements are attributed to the assumptions and simplifications of the physical model.
Evaluation is critical to establishing both the acceptable uses and limitations of a model. Throughout
its development, FDS has undergone various forms of evaluation, both at NIST and beyond. This volume
provides a survey of validation work conducted to date to evaluate FDS.

vii
Disclaimer

The US Department of Commerce makes no warranty, expressed or implied, to users of the Fire Dynamics
Simulator (FDS), and accepts no responsibility for its use. Users of FDS assume sole responsibility under
Federal law for determining the appropriateness of its use in any particular application; for any conclusions
drawn from the results of its use; and for any actions taken or not taken as a result of analysis performed
using these tools.
Users are warned that FDS is intended for use only by those competent in the fields of fluid dynamics,
thermodynamics, heat transfer, combustion, and fire science, and is intended only to supplement the in-
formed judgment of the qualified user. The software package is a computer model that may or may not have
predictive capability when applied to a specific set of factual circumstances. Lack of accurate predictions
by the model could lead to erroneous conclusions with regard to fire safety. All results should be evaluated
by an informed user.
Throughout this document, the mention of computer hardware or commercial software does not con-
stitute endorsement by NIST, nor does it indicate that the products are necessarily those best suited for the
intended purpose.

ix
Acknowledgments

The following individuals and organizations played a role in the validation process of FDS.

• The US Nuclear Regulatory Commission Office of Research has funded key validation experiments, the
preparation of the FDS manuals, and the development of various sub-models that are of importance in
the area of nuclear power plant safety. Special thanks to Mark Salley, David Stroup, and Jason Dreisbach
for their efforts and support.

• Anthony Hamins of NIST directed the NIST/NRC and WTC experiments, conducted smaller methane
burner measurements, and quantified the experimental uncertainty of these and other experiments used
in this study. Alex Maranghides was the Director of the Large Fire Laboratory at NIST at the time
these tests were conducted, and he helped to design the experiments. Therese McAllister oversaw the
instrumentation of the structural steel during the WTC experiments.

• Anthony Hamins of NIST developed the technique of evaluating experimental uncertainty that is used
throughout this Guide. Blaza Toman of the Statistical Engineering Division of NIST developed the
method of quantifying the model uncertainty.

• Rick Peacock of NIST assisted in the interpretation of results from the “NBS Multi-Room Test Series,”
a set of three room fire experiments conducted at the National Bureau of Standards (now NIST) in the
mid-1980’s.

• Bryan Klein, currently employed at Thunderhead Engineering, Inc., assisted in the development of
techniques to automatically generate the plots that are found throughout this Guide.

• Bill Pitts, Nelson Bryner, and Erik Johnsson of NIST contributed and interpreted test data for the “NIST
Reduced Scale Enclosure Experiments.” Matthew Bundy, Erik Johnsson, Paul Fuss, David Lenhart,
Sung Chan Kim, and Andrew Lock of NIST contributed similar data collected within a full-scale stan-
dard compartment in 2010.

• Rodney Bryant of NIST contributed velocity profile data for the “Bryant Doorway” series.

• Anthony Putorti and Scott Bareham of NIST contributed temperature measurements from plate ther-
mometer experiments in a cone calorimeter.

• David Sheppard, currently of the Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco and Firearms (ATF), conducted the exper-
iments referred to as the “UL/NFPRF Test Series” on behalf of the Fire Protection Research Foundation
(then known as the National Fire Protection Research Foundation) while working at Underwriters Labs
in Northbrook, Illinois. Sheppard, along with Bryan Klein, currently employed at Thunderhead Engi-
neering, Inc., conducted the experiments referred to as the “ATF Corridors” series in 2008.

xi
• Jerry Back, Craig Beyler and Phil DiNenno of Hughes Associates and Pat Tatem of the Naval Research
Laboratory contributed experimental data for the “HAI/NRL Wall Fire” series. Thanks also to Craig
Beyler for assistance with the data for the “Beyler Hood Experiments.”

• Ken Steckler provided details about the “Steckler Compartment Experiments” of 1979.

• Jianping Zhang at the University of Ulster contributed heat flux measurements from the SBI apparatus.

• At the University of Maryland, Professor Fred Mowrer and Phil Friday were the first to apply FDS to the
NRC-sponsored experiments referred to in this document as the “FM/SNL Test Series” (Factory Mutual
and Sandia National Laboratories conducted these experiments).

• Jukka Vaari of VTT, Finland, contributed the Cup Burner test cases.

• Steve Nowlen of Sandia National Laboratory provided valuable information about the FM/SNL series,
and he also conducted the CAROLFIRE experiments.

• Ulf Wickström of SP, Sweden, contributed experimental data from a series of experiments (SP AST)
that were designed to evaluate the feasibility of using plate thermometer measurements as boundary
conditions for a heat conduction calculation within several types of steel beams. The adiabatic surface
temperature concept was tested in both the experiments and model.

• Jeremy Thornock at the University of Utah provided data on the Sandia helium plume.

• Sheldon Teiszen at Sandia National Laboratories, Albuquerque, provided detailed statistics for the he-
lium plume and pool fire experiments conducted in the Sandia FLAME facility.

• Taylor Myers, a student at the University of Maryland and a Summer Undergraduate Research Fellow
(SURF) at NIST, analyzed the Vettori Flat and Sloped Ceiling sprinkler experiments. Thanks also to
Bob Vettori of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission and formerly of NIST for his help in locating
the original test data and laboratory notebooks.

• Hans la Cour-Harbo, a masters degree student at the Technical University of Denmark, provided guid-
ance and insight on the NRCC Facade experiments. Scott Bareham of NIST provided the technical
drawing of the test enclosure.

• Prof. Stanislav Stoliarov and graduate students Mark McKinnon and Jing Li of the University of Mary-
land provided the properties of several polymers for the FAA Polymers example.

• Michael Spearpoint and masters degree students Roger Harrison and Rob Fleury of the University of
Canterbury, New Zealand, supplied measurements of mass entrainment rates into spill plumes (Harrison
Spill Plumes) and heat flux measurements from propane burner fires (Fleury Heat Flux).

• Ezti Oztekin of the Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) developed the FAA Cargo Compartments
cases based on experiments sponsored by the FAA.

• Topi Sikanen of VTT, Finland, and Jonathan Wahlqvist of Lund University, Sweden, contributed FDS
input files for the PRISME DOOR series.

• Paul Tyson, a student at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland, contributed the input files and sup-
porting documents for the NRCC Smoke Tower experiments.

• James White, a student at the University of Maryland, provided documentation and input files for the
UMD Line Burner cases.

xii
• Charlie Hopkin and Michael Spearpoint of Olsson Fire & Risk provided the data and FDS input files for
experiments conducted by Adam Bittern at the University of Christchurch, New Zealand.

• The simulations of liquefied natural gas (LNG) dispersion experiments that are described in this report
were originally designed by Jeffrey Engerer and Anay Luketa of Sandia National Laboratories on behalf
of the Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration of the U.S. Department of Transporta-
tion.

xiii
Contents

FDS Developers i

About the Developers iii

Preface vii

Disclaimer ix

Acknowledgments xi

Contents xv

List of Figures xxv

List of Tables xliii

List of Acronyms xlv

1 What is Model Validation? 1

1.1 Blind, Specified, and Open Validation Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 1
1.2 How to Use this Guide . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 2

2 Survey of Past Validation Work 5

2.1 Validation Work with Pre-Release Versions of FDS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 6
2.2 Validation of FDS since 2000 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.1 Fire Plumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 7
2.2.2 Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.3 Air and Gas Movement in the Absence of Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 8
2.2.4 Wind Engineering . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.5 Atmospheric Dispersion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 9
2.2.6 Growing Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.7 Flame Spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 10
2.2.8 Compartment Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
2.2.9 Sprinklers, Mist System, and Suppression by Water . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
2.2.10 Airflows in Fire Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.11 Tunnel Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 13
2.2.12 Smoke Detection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.13 Combustion Model . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.2.14 Soot Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 14
2.3 Reconstructions of Actual Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 15

xv
3 Description of Experiments 17
3.1 ArupFire Tunnel Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.2 ATF Corridors Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 17
3.3 Atmospheric Dispersion Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.4 Backward Facing Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.5 Beyler Hood Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.6 BGC/GRI LNG Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21
3.7 Bittern Sprinkler Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.8 Bouchair Solar Chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.9 BRE Spray Test for Radiation Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.10 Bryant Doorway Velocity Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 26
3.11 BST/FRS Wood Crib Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.12 Cable Response to Live Fire – CAROLFIRE . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.13 Crown Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.14 CSIRO Grassland Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
3.15 CSTB Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.16 Cup Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
3.17 DelCo Trainer Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.18 DoJ/HAI Pool Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.19 Droplet Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.20 Edinburgh Vegetation Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
3.21 FAA Cargo Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.22 FAA Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.23 Fleury Heat Flux Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.24 FM Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 40
3.25 FM/FPRF Data Center Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.26 FM Parallel Panel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 41
3.27 FM/SNL Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.28 FM Vertical Wall Flame Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.29 Frankman Vegetation Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.30 Hamins Gas Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.31 Harrison Spill Plumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 46
3.32 Heskestad Flame Height Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.33 Insulation Material Fire Resistance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.34 LEMTA Spray Test for Radiation Attenuation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
3.35 LLNL Enclosure Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 49
3.36 LNG Dispersion Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
3.37 Loughborough Jet Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.38 McCaffrey Plume Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.39 Montoir LNG Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.40 NBS Multi-Room Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
3.41 NIST Composite Beam Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
3.42 NIST E119 Compartment Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 65
3.43 NIST Douglas Firs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.44 NIST Enclosure Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.44.1 NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure Experiments, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.44.2 NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure Experiments, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.44.3 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure Experiments, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70

xvi
 3.44.4 Modeling Notes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.45 NIST Helium Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.46 NIST/NRC Compartment Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 74
3.47 NIST/NRC Corner, Wall, and Cabinet Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.47.1 Wall and Corner Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 76
3.47.2 Cabinet Effects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 78
3.48 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.49 NIST/NRC Parallel Panel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.50 NIST/NRC Transient Combustibles Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.51 NIST Pool Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 86
3.52 NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 87
3.53 NIST Soot Deposition Gauge . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.54 NIST Vent Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 91
3.55 NRCC Facade Heat Flux Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.56 NRCC Smoke Tower Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 96
3.57 NRL/HAI Wall Heat Flux Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.58 Phoenix LNG Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 98
3.59 Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 100
3.60 PRISME Project . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.61 Purdue Flames . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.62 Ranz Marshall Droplet Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.63 Restivo Compartment Air Flow Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 103
3.64 Sandia Methane Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.65 Sandia Plume Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
3.66 SETCOM Wall Condensation Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.67 Shell LNG Fireball Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 106
3.68 Sippola Aerosol Deposition Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 108
3.69 Smyth Slot Burner Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.70 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 110
3.71 SP Wood Crib Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 112
3.72 Steckler Compartment Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.73 SWJTU Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.74 Wu Bakar Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.75 UL/NIST Vent Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 116
3.76 UL/NFPRF Sprinkler, Vent, and Draft Curtain Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.77 UL/NIJ House Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 124
3.78 Ulster SBI Corner Heat Flux Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.79 UMD Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.80 UMD Line Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
3.81 USCG/HAI Water Mist Suppression Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.82 USFS/Catchpole Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.83 USFS/Corsica Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 132
3.84 USN High Bay Hangar Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.85 UWO Wind Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133
3.86 Vettori Flat Ceiling Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 134
3.87 Vettori Sloped Ceiling Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.88 VTT Large Hall Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 137
3.89 VTT Water Spray Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140

xvii
 3.90 Waterloo Methanol Pool Fire Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 140
3.91 WTC Spray Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 141
3.92 Summary of Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 143

4 Quantifying Model Uncertainty 149

4.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 149
4.2 Sources of Model Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 151
4.3 Experimental Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3.1 Uncertainty of Common Fire Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 153
4.3.2 Propagation of Input Parameter Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 155
4.3.3 Summary of Experimental Uncertainty Estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.4 Calculating Model Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159
4.5 Example . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
4.6 Additional Considerations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 163

5 HGL Temperature and Depth 165

5.1 HGL Reduction Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 165
5.2 ATF Corridors . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
5.3 CSTB Tunnel . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 170
5.4 DelCo Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 173
5.5 FM/SNL Test Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.6 LLNL Enclosure Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
5.7 NBS Multi-Room Test Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 195
5.8 NIST Composite Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 199
5.9 NIST E119 Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 202
5.10 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE), 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 206
5.11 NIST/NRC Test Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 213
5.12 NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 218
5.13 NIST Vent Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
5.14 NRCC Smoke Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231
5.15 PRISME DOOR Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 233
5.16 PRISME SOURCE Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 237
5.17 Steckler Compartment Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 240
5.18 UL/NIST Vent Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 248
5.19 UL/NIJ House Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 250
5.20 VTT Test Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.21 WTC Test Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
5.22 Summary of Hot Gas Layer Temperature and Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257

6 Fire Plumes 259

6.1 Plume Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 259
6.1.1 FM Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.1.2 FM/SNL Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.1.3 McCaffrey’s Plume Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.1.4 NIST/NRC Corner/Wall/Cabinet Effects Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 268
6.1.5 NIST Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 270
6.1.6 NRCC Smoke Tower Experiments, Stairwell Plumes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 276
6.1.7 Sandia Methane Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278

xviii
 6.1.8 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 282
6.1.9 UMD Line Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.1.10 USN High Bay Hangar Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.1.11 VTT Large Hall Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.1.12 Waterloo Methanol Pool Fire Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 292
6.1.13 Summary of Plume Temperature Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.2 Flame Height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.2.1 Heskestad’s Flame Height Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 301
6.2.2 UMD Line Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
6.2.3 Flame Height Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6.3 Flame Tilt . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
6.4 Harrison Spill Plumes/Entrainment Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
6.5 Sandia Plume Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.5.1 Sandia 1 m Helium Plume . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 309
6.5.2 Sandia 1 m Methane Pool Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.5.3 Sandia 1 m Hydrogen Pool Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.6 Purdue 7.1 cm Methane Flame . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.7 FM Vertical Wall Flame Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 327

7 Ceiling Jets and Device Activation 331

7.1 Ceiling Jet Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
7.1.1 ATF Corridors Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
7.1.2 Arup Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.1.3 DelCo Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
7.1.4 FAA Cargo Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.1.5 FM/SNL Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
7.1.6 NIST Composite Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 350
7.1.7 NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 352
7.1.8 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 354
7.1.9 NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 357
7.1.10 NIST Vent Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.1.11 NRCC Smoke Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.1.12 PRISME DOOR Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7.1.13 PRISME SOURCE Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
7.1.14 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
7.1.15 UL/NFPRF Series I Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.1.16 UL/NIJ House Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.1.17 UL/NIST Vent Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
7.1.18 Vettori Flat Ceiling Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
7.1.19 Vettori Sloped Ceiling Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
7.1.20 WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
7.1.21 Summary of Ceiling Jet Temperature Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.2 Sprinkler Activation Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.2.1 Time to First Sprinkler Activation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.2.2 Number of Sprinkler Activations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
7.3 Smoke Detector Activation Times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 405

8 Gas Velocity 407

xix
 8.1 ATF Corridor Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 407
8.2 Backward Facing Step . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
8.3 Bryant Doorway Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
8.4 Edinburgh Vegetation Drag . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
8.5 FM/FPRF Datacenter Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
8.6 McCaffrey’s Plume Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
8.7 NIST Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
8.8 PRISME DOOR Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
8.9 Restivo Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
8.10 Steckler Compartment Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 427
8.11 UL/NIJ House Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 435
8.12 Waterloo Methanol Pool Fire Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 440
8.13 WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
8.14 Summary of Velocity Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
8.15 Wu Bakar Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

9 Gas Species and Smoke 457

9.1 Major Combustion Products, O2 and CO2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 457
9.1.1 DelCo Trainers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458
9.1.2 FAA Cargo Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
9.1.3 LLNL Enclosure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 462
9.1.4 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
9.1.5 NRCC Smoke Tower . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 483
9.1.6 PRISME DOOR Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 485
9.1.7 PRISME SOURCE Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 489
9.1.8 WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
9.1.9 UMD Line Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
9.1.10 Summary of Major Combustion Products Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
9.2 Smoke . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
9.2.1 FM Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 496
9.2.2 FM/FPRF Data Center Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
9.2.3 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
9.2.4 FAA Cargo Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
9.3 Aerosols . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
9.3.1 Sippola Aerosol Deposition Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 512
9.3.2 NIST Soot Deposition Gauge Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
9.4 Droplet Evaporation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.4.1 Ranz and Marshall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.4.2 Fujita et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.4.3 Gavin . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
9.4.4 Kolaitis and Founti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
9.4.5 Maqua et al. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524
9.4.6 Taflin Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
9.5 Products of Incomplete Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
9.5.1 Smyth Slot Burner Experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 526
9.5.2 Beyler Hood Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 530
9.5.3 NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure (RSE) Experiments, 1994 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 532
9.5.4 NIST Reduced-Scale Enclosure (RSE) Experiments, 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . 534

xx
 9.5.5 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE) Experiments, 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
9.5.6 NIST Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 573
9.5.7 Summary, Products of Incomplete Combustion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
9.6 Helium Release in a Reduced Scale Garage Geometry . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

10 Pressure 587
10.1 FM/FPRF Datacenter Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 587
10.2 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
10.3 LLNL Enclosure Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 592
10.4 PRISME DOOR Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 601
10.5 PRISME SOURCE Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 606
10.6 UL/NIJ House Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 609
10.7 Summary of Pressure Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

11 Surface Temperature 617

11.1 Wall, Ceiling and Floor Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
11.1.1 FAA Cargo Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 618
11.1.2 NIST Composite Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 619
11.1.3 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE), 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
11.1.4 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634
11.1.5 PRISME DOOR Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 647
11.1.6 PRISME SOURCE Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 651
11.1.7 WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
11.1.8 Insulation Materials Fire Resistance Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
11.1.9 Summary of Wall, Ceiling, and Floor Temperature Predictions . . . . . . . . . . 673
11.2 Target Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
11.2.1 NIST Composite Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
11.2.2 NIST E119 Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
11.2.3 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 677
11.2.4 NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 692
11.2.5 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 705
11.2.6 WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 733
11.2.7 CAROLFIRE Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 745
11.2.8 Frankman Vegetation Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
11.2.9 PRISME Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 752
11.2.10 Summary of Target Temperature Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
11.2.11 Time to Failure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
11.3 Liquid Pool Surface Temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
11.3.1 Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
11.3.2 NIST Pool Fires and Waterloo Methanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 764
11.3.3 Summary of Liquid Pool Surface Temperature Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 764

12 Heat Flux 767

12.1 Heat Flux to Walls, Ceiling, and Floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
12.1.1 FAA Cargo Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768
12.1.2 FM Parallel Panel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
12.1.3 FM Vertical Wall Flame Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
12.1.4 NIST E119 Compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772

xxi
 12.1.5 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 773
12.1.6 NRCC Facade Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
12.1.7 NRL/HAI Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790
12.1.8 PRISME DOOR Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
12.1.9 PRISME SOURCE Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 799
12.1.10 Ulster SBI Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
12.1.11 WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 804
12.1.12 Summary of Wall, Ceiling and Floor Heat Flux Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
12.2 Heat Flux to Targets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
12.2.1 Fleury Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 809
12.2.2 Hamins Gas Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
12.2.3 BGC/GRI LNG Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840
12.2.4 Loughborough Jet Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
12.2.5 Montoir LNG Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
12.2.6 NIST Douglas Firs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
12.2.7 NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 853
12.2.8 NIST Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 862
12.2.9 Phoenix LNG Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
12.2.10 Sandia Methane Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 867
12.2.11 Shell LNG Fireballs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
12.2.12 WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
12.2.13 UMD Line Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
12.2.14 Summary of Target Heat Flux Predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
12.3 Attenuation of Thermal Radiation in Water Spray . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
12.3.1 BRE Spray Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
12.3.2 LEMTA Spray Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
12.4 Convective Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
12.4.1 Bouchair Solar Chimney . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 885
12.5 Radiation Source Term . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
12.5.1 FM Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
12.6 Condensation Heat Flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895
12.6.1 SETCOM Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

13 Suppression 897
13.1 Minimum Agent Concentration Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
13.1.1 Cup Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 897
13.1.2 FM Burner Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
13.1.3 UMD Line Burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
13.2 Compartment Fire Extinction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
13.2.1 LLNL Enclosure Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 901
13.2.2 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906
13.2.3 SWJTU Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
13.2.4 USCG/HAI Water Mist Suppression Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911
13.2.5 Summary, Flame Extinction Time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
13.3 VTT Water Spray Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918

14 Burning Rate and Fire Spread 921

14.1 FAA Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

xxii
 14.1.1 Glossary of Terms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921
14.1.2 Non-Charring Polymers, HDPE, HIPS, and PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923
14.1.3 Complex Non-Charring Polymers: PP, PA66, POM, and PET . . . . . . . . . . . 925
14.1.4 Polycarbonate (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
14.1.5 Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
14.1.6 Poly(aryl ether ether ketone)) (PEEK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 931
14.1.7 Poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
14.1.8 PBT with Glass Fibers (PBT-GF) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
14.2 UMD Polymers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
14.2.1 One-Step Degradation: ABS, HIPS, and PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
14.2.2 Two-Step Degradation: Kydex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
14.2.3 Three-Step Degradation: PEI, PET, and POM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
14.3 Corrugated Cardboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
14.4 Wood Cribs and Similar Wood/Paper Combustibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 950
14.4.1 BST/FRS Wood Crib Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951
14.4.2 NIST/NRC Transient Combustibles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
14.4.3 SP Wood Crib Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
14.5 Liquid Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
14.5.1 DoJ/HAI Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 959
14.5.2 Pool Fire Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
14.5.3 NIST Pool Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
14.5.4 Waterloo Methanol Pool Fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
14.6 Vertical Flame Spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
14.6.1 NIST/NRC Parallel Panel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
14.7 Wildland Fire Burning and Spread Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
14.7.1 Crown Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 971
14.7.2 CSIRO Grassland Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 972
14.7.3 USFS/Catchpole Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 974
14.7.4 USFS/Corsica Fire Spread Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1021
14.7.5 Burning Trees (NIST Douglas Firs) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1023
14.8 Summary of Burning and Spread Rates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1025

15 Wind Engineering and Atmospheric Dispersion 1027

15.1 UWO Wind Tunnel Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1027
15.2 LNG Dispersion Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1037
15.3 Stack Emission Plume Rise . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1045

16 Conclusion 1049
16.1 Summary of FDS Model Uncertainty Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1049
16.2 Normality Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1050
16.3 Summary of FDS Validation Git Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1055

Bibliography 1059

xxiii
List of Figures

3.1 Geometry of the ATF Corridors Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 18

3.2 Geometry of the Backward Facing Step experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 19
3.3 Sketch of Beyler Hood cross section . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 20
3.4 Plan view of the Bittern Sprinkler Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
3.5 Geometry of the Bouchair Solar Chimney experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 25
3.6 Geometry of Bryant’s compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
3.7 Snapshots of the simulation of CSIRO Grassland Fire F19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
3.8 Instrumentation of the single level DelCo training structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 35
3.9 Instrumentation of the two level DelCo training structure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 36
3.10 Geometry of the Edinburgh Vegetation Drag experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 39
3.11 Sketch of the FM parallel panel apparatus . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
3.12 Geometry of the FM/SNL Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 44
3.13 Geometry of the Harrison Spill Plumes Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 47
3.14 Geometry of the LLNL Enclosure Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 51
3.15 Photograph of a jet fire experiment at the Spadeadam Test Site . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 54
3.16 McCaffrey Plume Centerline Temperature and Velocity Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.17 McCaffrey Plume Burner Surface Temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 57
3.18 Geometry of the NBS Multi-Room Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 60
3.19 Elevation view of NIST Composite Beam experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 62
3.20 Plan view of NIST Composite Beam experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 63
3.21 Side view of NIST Composite Beam experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 64
3.22 Plan view of NIST E119 Compartment experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 66
3.23 Elevation view of NIST E119 Compartment experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 67
3.24 Elevation view of NIST E119 Compartment experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 68
3.25 Geometry of the compartment used in the NIST Full-Scale Enclosure experiments . . . . . 72
3.26 Geometry of the NIST/NRC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 75
3.27 Diagram of thermocouple layout for NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments . . . . . . . . 77
3.28 Large cabinet drawing, NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 79
3.29 Medium-sized cabinet drawing, NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments . . . . . . . . . . 80
3.30 Cabinet grill, NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.31 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire enclosure photographs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 83
3.32 Description of test items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 85
3.33 Geometry of the manufactured home from the NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments . . . . . . 89
3.34 Geometry of the compartment from the NIST Vent Study . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
3.35 Geometry of the NRCC Facade Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
3.36 Geometry of the NRCC Smoke Tower Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 97
3.37 Photograph of Phoenix LNG Fire Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
3.38 Geometry of Restivo’s compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 104
3.39 Cutaway view of the Sandia FLAME test cell . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105

xxv
3.40 Photographs of the Shell LNG Fireball experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 107
3.41 Geometry of the SP/AST compartment for Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 111
3.42 Geometry of the Steckler Compartment Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 115
3.43 Geometry of the UL/NIST Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 117
3.44 Plan view of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments, Series I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 119
3.45 Plan view of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments, Series II . . . . . . . . . . . . . 120
3.46 Plan view of the UL/NFPRF plastic commodity Test P-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 121
3.47 Layout of the one story ranch-style house in the UL/NIJ experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . 125
3.48 Geometry of UL NIJ Colonial-style House . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 126
3.49 UMD Line Burner isometric view of burner and oxidizer assembly . . . . . . . . . . . . . 131
3.50 Geometry of the Vettori Flat Ceiling compartment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 135
3.51 Geometry of the VTT Large Fire Test Hall . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 139
3.52 Geometry of the WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 142

4.1 Demonstration of model uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 150

4.2 Sample scatter plot . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 152
4.3 Sample time history plots . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 160

5.1 ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, first floor, 50 kW, 100 kW, 240 kW . . . . . 166
5.2 ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, first floor, 250 kW, 500 kW, mixed . . . . . . 167
5.3 ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, second floor, 50 kW, 100 kW, 240 kW . . . . 168
5.4 ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, second floor, 250 kW, 500 kW, mixed . . . . 169
5.5 CSTB Tunnel, Test 2, temperatures at 4, 8, 12 and 24 m downstream of fire . . . . . . . . 171
5.6 CSTB Tunnel, Test 27, temperatures at 4, 8, 12 and 24 m downstream of fire . . . . . . . . 172
5.7 DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 174
5.8 DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 175
5.9 DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
5.10 DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 177
5.11 DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 178
5.12 DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature, Tests 22-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179
5.13 DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature, Tests 24-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 180
5.14 FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1, 2, 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 181
5.15 FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 4, 5, 6, 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . 182
5.16 FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 8, 9, 10, 11 . . . . . . . . . . . 183
5.17 FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 12, 13, 14, 15 . . . . . . . . . . 184
5.18 FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 16, 17, 21, 22 . . . . . . . . . . 185
5.19 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 187
5.20 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 9-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 188
5.21 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 17-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 189
5.22 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 25-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 190
5.23 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 33-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 191
5.24 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 41-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 192
5.25 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 49-56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
5.26 LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 57-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 194
5.27 NBS Multi-Room experiments, HGL temperature and height, Test 100A . . . . . . . . . . 196
5.28 NBS Multi-Room experiments, HGL temperature and height, Test 100O . . . . . . . . . . 197
5.29 NBS Multi-Room experiments, HGL temperature and height, Test 100Z . . . . . . . . . . 198
5.30 NIST Composite Beam, mid-compartment HGL temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 200

xxvi
5.31 NIST Composite Beam, end-compartment HGL temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 201
5.32 NIST E119 Compartment Test 1, upper layer gas temperatures temperatures . . . . . . . . 203
5.33 NIST E119 Compartment Test 2, upper layer gas temperatures temperatures . . . . . . . . 204
5.34 NIST E119 Compartment Test 3, upper layer gas temperatures temperatures . . . . . . . . 205
5.35 NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 8-11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 207
5.36 NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 12-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 208
5.37 NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 16-19 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 209
5.38 NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 20-23 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
5.39 NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 24-27 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 211
5.40 NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 28-30, 32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 212
5.41 NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-2, 7-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . 214
5.42 NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 4, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . . 215
5.43 NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 3, 9, 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . 216
5.44 NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 5, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . 217
5.45 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, HGL temperature and height, corner experiments . . . . . . . 219
5.46 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, HGL temperature and height, wall experiments . . . . . . . . . 220
5.47 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, HGL temperature and height, cabinet experiments 1-4 . . . . . 221
5.48 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, HGL temperature and height, cabinet experiments 5-8 . . . . . 222
5.49 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, HGL temperature and height, cabinet experiments 9-12 . . . . 223
5.50 NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
5.51 NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 226
5.52 NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 227
5.53 NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 7 and 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 228
5.54 NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 9 and 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
5.55 NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 14 and 15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
5.56 NRCC Smoke Tower experiments, HGL temperature in the fire room and stair vestibule . . 232
5.57 PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 1, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . 233
5.58 PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 1, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . 234
5.59 PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 2, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . 235
5.60 PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 2, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . 236
5.61 PRISME SOURCE experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 2, Tests 1-4 . . . . . 238
5.62 PRISME SOURCE experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 2, Tests 5-6 . . . . . 239
5.63 Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 612, 710 . . . . . . . 241
5.64 Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 30, 41, 810 . . . . . . . . 242
5.65 Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 20, 21, 114, 144, 210, 212, 242, 410 . . . . 243
5.66 Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 116, 122, 220, 221, 224, 240,310, 324 . . . 244
5.67 Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 510, 512, 514, 517, 540, 542, 544, 610 . . . 245
5.68 Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 160, 513, 520, 521, 522, 524, 541, 622 . . . 246
5.69 Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167 . . . . . . 247
5.70 UL/NIST experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 249
5.71 UL/NIJ Experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1, 2, and 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
5.72 UL/NIJ Experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1, 4, and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 252
5.73 VTT experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 253
5.74 WTC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 254
5.75 WTC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 255
5.76 Summary, HGL temperature, natural and forced ventilation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 257
5.77 Summary, HGL temperature, unventilated compartments; HGL depth . . . . . . . . . . . . 258

xxvii
6.1 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 260
6.2 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
6.3 FM Burner experiments, temperature PDFs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 262
6.4 FM/SNL experiments, plume temperature, Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 263
6.5 FM/SNL experiments, plume temperature, Tests 5-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 264
6.6 FM/SNL experiments, plume temperature, Tests 13-17, 21-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
6.7 McCaffrey experiments, plume temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 266
6.8 McCaffrey experiments, plume temperature, Froude scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 267
6.9 NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, plume temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 269
6.10 NIST Pool Fires, centerline temperature, acetone, ethanol, methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . 271
6.11 NIST Pool Fires, centerline temperature, methanol and propane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 272
6.12 NIST Pool Fires, 30 cm methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms temperature . . . . . . . 273
6.13 NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol, plume mean and rms temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . 274
6.14 NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol fire, radial profiles of mean and rms temperature . . . . 275
6.15 NRCC Smoke Tower, stairwell temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 277
6.16 Sandia Methane Burner, plume temperature, Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 278
6.17 Sandia Methane Burner, plume temperature, Tests 5-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 279
6.18 Sandia Methane Burner, plume temperature, Tests 13-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 280
6.19 Sandia Methane Burner, plume temperature, Tests 21-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 281
6.20 SP AST experiments, plume temperature, 1.1 m diesel fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 283
6.21 SP AST experiments, plume temperature, 1.9 m diesel and 1.1 m heptane fires . . . . . . . 284
6.22 UMD_Line_Burner temperature profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
6.23 UMD_Line_Burner temperature contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
6.24 USN Hangar experiments, Iceland, plume temperature, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
6.25 USN Hangar experiments, Iceland, plume temperature, Tests 7, 9-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . 288
6.26 USN Hangar experiments, Iceland, plume temperature, Tests 14-15, 17-20 . . . . . . . . . 289
6.27 USN Hangar experiments, Hawaii, plume temperature, Tests 1-7, 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . 290
6.28 VTT experiments, plume temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 291
6.29 Waterloo Methanol, centerline profile, mean temperature, 2 cm to 60 cm above burner . . . 292
6.30 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms temperature, 2 cm to 8 cm above burner . . . . . 293
6.31 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms temperature, 10 cm to 16 cm above burner . . . . 294
6.32 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms temperature, 18 cm to 40 cm above burner . . . . 295
6.33 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms temperature, 50 cm to 60 cm above burner . . . . 296
6.34 Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of T 0 w0 and T 0 u0 , 2 cm to 8 cm above the burner . . . . 297
6.35 Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of T 0 w0 and T 0 u0 , 10 cm to 16 cm above the burner . . . 298
6.36 Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of T 0 w0 and T 0 u0 , 18 cm to 30 cm above the burner . . . 299
6.37 Summary of plume temperature predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
6.38 Verification of the heat release rate for Heskestad Flame Height cases . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
6.39 Summary of flame height predictions, Heskestad correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 303
6.40 Flame height uncertainty, multiple correlations and flame height definitions . . . . . . . . 303
6.41 Predicted HRR as a function of height above the burner . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
6.42 UMD_Line_Burner flame height . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
6.43 Summary of flame height predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 306
6.44 Summary of flame tilt angle predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
6.45 Summary of plume entrainment predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
6.46 Sandia 1 m helium plume image . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 310
6.47 Sandia 1 m helium plume vertical velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 311
6.48 Sandia 1 m helium plume radial velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 312

xxviii
6.49 Sandia 1 m helium plume mean and RMS mass fraction profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 313
6.50 Sandia 1 m methane pool fire instantaneous temperature contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 314
6.51 Sandia 1 m methane pool fire (Test 14) mean velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 315
6.52 Sandia 1 m methane pool fire (Test 24) mean velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 316
6.53 Sandia 1 m methane pool fire (Test 24) turbulent kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
6.54 Sandia 1 m methane pool fire (Test 17) mean velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 318
6.55 Sandia 1 m methane pool fire velocity signal and power spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 319
6.56 Sandia 1 m hydrogen pool fire instantaneous temperature contours . . . . . . . . . . . . . 320
6.57 Sandia 1 m hydrogen pool fire (Test 35) mean velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 321
6.58 Sandia 1 m hydrogen pool fire (Test 25) turbulent kinetic energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
6.59 Purdue 7.1 cm methane flame mean mixture fraction profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
6.60 Purdue 7.1 cm methane flame mean temperature profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
6.61 Purdue 7.1 cm methane flame mean velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325
6.62 Purdue 7.1 cm methane flame rms velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 326
6.63 FM Vertical Wall Flame mean temperature profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
6.64 FM Vertical Wall Flame soot depth measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329

7.1 ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 50 kW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 333

7.2 ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 100 kW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
7.3 ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 250 kW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 335
7.4 ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 500 kW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 336
7.5 ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, mixed HRR . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
7.6 Arup Tunnel experiments, ceiling jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
7.7 DelCo Trainers, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 339
7.8 DelCo Trainers, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 340
7.9 DelCo Trainers, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 22-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
7.10 Layout of ceiling TCs, FAA Cargo Compartments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
7.11 FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 343
7.12 FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 344
7.13 FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 345
7.14 FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 346
7.15 FM/SNL experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 347
7.16 FM/SNL experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 7-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
7.17 FM/SNL experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 15-17, 21-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
7.18 NIST Composite Beam, ceiling jet temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 351
7.19 NIST Smoke Alarm experiments, ceiling jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
7.20 NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
7.21 NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 356
7.22 NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, ceiling jet temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 358
7.23 NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, ceiling jet temperature, large cabinet . . . . . . . 359
7.24 NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, ceiling jet temperature, medium-sized cabinet . . 360
7.25 NIST Vent Study, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
7.26 NIST Vent Study, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 7-9, 13-15 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 362
7.27 NRCC Smoke Tower experiments, ceiling jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 363
7.28 NRCC Smoke Tower, upper floor temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 364
7.29 PRISME DOOR experiments, ceiling jet, Room 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
7.30 PRISME DOOR experiments, ceiling jet, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 366
7.31 PRISME SOURCE experiments, ceiling jet, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 368

xxix
7.32 SP AST experiments, ceiling jet, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 369
7.33 SP AST experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 2 and 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 370
7.34 UL/NFPPRF experiments, ceiling jet, Series I, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 371
7.35 UL/NFPPRF experiments, ceiling jet, Series I, Tests 7-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 372
7.36 UL/NFPPRF experiments, ceiling jet, Series I, Tests 15-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 373
7.37 UL/NIJ Experiments, ceiling jet temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 374
7.38 UL/NIST Vents experiments, ceiling jet . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 376
7.39 Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 378
7.40 Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 9-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
7.41 Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 17-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 380
7.42 Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 25-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 381
7.43 Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 33-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 382
7.44 Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 41-45 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
7.45 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 385
7.46 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 9-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 386
7.47 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 17-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 387
7.48 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 25-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 388
7.49 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 33-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 389
7.50 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 41-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 390
7.51 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 49-56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 391
7.52 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 57-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 392
7.53 Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 65-72 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 393
7.54 WTC experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
7.55 Summary of ceiling jet temperature predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 395
7.56 Comparison of measured and predicted sprinkler actuation times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
7.57 UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series I, Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . 398
7.58 UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series I, Tests 9-16 . . . . . . . 399
7.59 UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series I, Tests 17-22 . . . . . . . 400
7.60 UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series II, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . 401
7.61 UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series II, Tests 7-12 . . . . . . . 402
7.62 UL/NFPRF experiments, no. of sprinkler activations, Group A Commodity, Tests 1-5 . . . 403
7.63 Comparison of the number of predicted and measured sprinkler activations . . . . . . . . . 404
7.64 Summary of smoke detector activation times (temperature rise), NIST Smoke Alarms . . . 405
7.65 Summary of activation times, smoke detector model, NIST Smoke Alarms . . . . . . . . . 406

8.1 ATF Corridors, gas velocity, first level, Location H . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 408

8.2 ATF Corridors, gas velocity, first level, Location I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 409
8.3 ATF Corridors, gas velocity, second level, Location J . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 410
8.4 ATF Corridors, gas velocity, second level, Location K . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 411
8.5 Instantaneous contours of velocity magnitude . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 412
8.6 Friction coefficient and pressure coefficient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 413
8.7 Backward facing step flow profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 414
8.8 Bryant Doorway experiments, gas velocity profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 416
8.9 Edinburgh Vegetation Drag, gas velocity profiles, low bulk density . . . . . . . . . . . . . 417
8.10 Edinburgh Vegetation Drag, gas velocity profiles, medium bulk density . . . . . . . . . . . 418
8.11 Edinburgh Vegetation Drag, gas velocity profiles, high bulk density . . . . . . . . . . . . . 419
8.12 FM/FPRF experiments, gas velocity, low fan rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
8.13 FM/FPRF experiments, gas velocity, high fan rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 421

xxx
8.14 McCaffrey Plumes, centerline plume velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 422
8.15 McCaffrey Plumes, centerline plume velocity, Froude scaling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 423
8.16 NIST Pool Fires, centerline velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
8.17 PRISME DOOR experiments, gas velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 425
8.18 Restivo experiment, gas velocity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 426
8.19 Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 612, 710 . . . . . . . . 428
8.20 Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 30, 41, 810 . . . . . . . . 429
8.21 Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 20, 21, 114, 144, 210, 212, 242, 410 . . . . . 430
8.22 Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 116, 122, 220, 221, 224, 240, 310, 324 . . . . 431
8.23 Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 510, 512, 514, 517, 540, 542, 544, 610 . . . . 432
8.24 Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 160, 513, 520, 521, 522, 524, 541, 622 . . . . 433
8.25 Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167 . . . . . . 434
8.26 UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, single story house, Tests 1, 2, and 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 436
8.27 UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, two-story house, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
8.28 UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, two-story house, Test 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 438
8.29 UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, two-story house, Test 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 439
8.30 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms vert. vel., 2 cm to 8 cm above burner . . . . . . . 441
8.31 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms vert. vel., 10 cm to 16 cm above burner . . . . . . 442
8.32 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms vert. vel., 18 cm to 30 cm above burner . . . . . . 443
8.33 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms horz. vel., 2 cm to 8 cm above burner . . . . . . . 444
8.34 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms horz. vel., 10 cm to 16 cm above burner . . . . . 445
8.35 Waterloo Methanol, radial mean and rms horz. vel., 18 cm to 30 cm above burner . . . . . 446
8.36 Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of u0 w0 , 2 cm to 12 cm above the burner . . . . . . . . . 447
8.37 Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of u0 w0 , 14 cm to 30 cm above the burner . . . . . . . . 448
8.38 Layout of velocity probes, WTC Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 449
8.39 WTC experiments, inlet velocity, Points 1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 450
8.40 WTC experiments, inlet velocity, Points 6-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
8.41 WTC experiments, outlet velocity, Points 1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 452
8.42 WTC experiments, outlet velocity, Points 6-10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
8.43 Summary of velocity predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 454
8.44 Wu and Bakar critical velocity correlation with FDS results added . . . . . . . . . . . . . 455

9.1 DelCo Trainers, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 2-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 458

9.2 DelCo Trainers, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 5-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 459
9.3 DelCo Trainers, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 22-25 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
9.4 FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 461
9.5 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 463
9.6 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 464
9.7 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 9-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 465
9.8 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 466
9.9 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 17-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 467
9.10 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 21-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 468
9.11 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 25-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 469
9.12 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 29-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 470
9.13 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 33-36 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
9.14 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 37-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 472
9.15 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 41-44 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 473
9.16 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 45-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 474

xxxi
9.17 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 49-52 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 475
9.18 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 53-56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 476
9.19 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 57-60 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 477
9.20 LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 61-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 478
9.21 NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 3, 9, 17 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 479
9.22 NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 5, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 480
9.23 NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 1, 2, 7, 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . 481
9.24 NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 4, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . . . 482
9.25 NRCC Smoke Tower, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests BK-R and COMP-R . . . . . . . . 483
9.26 NRCC Smoke Tower, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests CLC-I-R and CLC-II-R . . . . . . 484
9.27 PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 1, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . . . 485
9.28 PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 1, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . . . 486
9.29 PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . . . 487
9.30 PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . . . 488
9.31 PRISME SOURCE experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 1-4 . . . . . . 490
9.32 PRISME SOURCE experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 5-6 . . . . . . 491
9.33 WTC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
9.34 WTC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 493
9.35 UMD_Line_Burner oxygen concentration profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 494
9.36 Summary of major gas species predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 495
9.37 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction, 20.9 % O2 . . . . . . 496
9.38 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot voiume fraction, 20.9 % O2 . . . . . . 497
9.39 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction, 16.8 % O2 . . . . . . 498
9.40 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot voiume fraction, 16.8 % O2 . . . . . . 499
9.41 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction, 15.2 % O2 . . . . . . 500
9.42 FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot voiume fraction, 15.2 % O2 . . . . . . 501
9.43 FM Burner experiments, soot volume fraction PDFs, 20.9 % O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 502
9.44 FM Burner experiments, soot volume fraction PDFs, 16.8 % O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
9.45 FM Burner experiments, soot volume fraction PDFs, 15.2 % O2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
9.46 FM/FPRF Data Center, smoke concentration, propylene and cable sources . . . . . . . . . 505
9.47 NIST/NRC experiments, smoke concentration, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . 507
9.48 NIST/NRC experiments, smoke concentration, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18 . . . . . . . . . 508
9.49 Summary of smoke concentration predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 509
9.50 FAA Cargo Compartments experiments, smoke obscuration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 510
9.51 Summary of smoke obscuration predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 511
9.52 Predicted and measured aerosol deposition velocities, Sippola experiments . . . . . . . . . 512
9.53 Summary of aerosol deposition velocity predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 513
9.54 Predicted and measured aerosol deposited mass, NIST Soot Deposition Gauge exp . . . . . 514
9.55 Summary of aerosol deposited mass predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 515
9.56 Droplet diameter for the Ranz and Marshall experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
9.57 Evaporation rates for the Ranz and Marshall experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 517
9.58 Summary of evaporation rates for the Ranz and Marshall experiments . . . . . . . . . . . 518
9.59 Normalized droplet area for the Fujita experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 519
9.60 Droplet temperature change, Fujita et al. experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 520
9.61 Droplet terminal velocity for the Gavin experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 521
9.62 Square of the droplet diameter, Kolaitis and Founti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 522
9.63 Droplet surface temperature, Kolaitis and Founti . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 523
9.64 Droplet surface temperature for the Maqua et al. experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 524

xxxii
9.65 Droplet diameter for the Taflin experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
9.66 Temperature predictions at 7 mm, 9 mm, and 11 mm above burner, Smyth experiment . . . 526
9.67 CH4 and O2 volume fractions at 11 mm, 9 mm, and 7 mm above burner, Smyth burner . . 527
9.68 CO2 and CO volume fractions at 11 mm, 9 mm, and 7 mm above burner, Smyth burner . . 528
9.69 H2 O and H2 volume fractions at 11 mm, 9 mm, and 7 mm above burner, Smyth burner . . 529
9.70 Summary of gas species predictions, Beyler hood experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 531
9.71 Comparison of measured and predicted CO concentration, NIST RSE experiments . . . . . 532
9.72 Comparison of measured and predicted CO2 concentration, NIST RSE experiments . . . . 532
9.73 Comparison of measured and predicted O2 concentration, NIST RSE experiments . . . . . 533
9.74 Comparison of measured and predicted H2 O concentration, NIST RSE experiments . . . . 533
9.75 Comparison of measured and predicted temperature, NIST RSE experiments . . . . . . . . 533
9.76 Summary of Test 1, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 534
9.77 Summary of Test 2, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 535
9.78 Summary of Test 3, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 536
9.79 Summary of Test 4, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 537
9.80 Summary of Test 5, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 538
9.81 Summary of Test 6, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 539
9.82 Summary of Test 7, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
9.83 Summary of Test 10, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 541
9.84 Summary of Test 11, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 542
9.85 Summary of Test 12, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 543
9.86 Summary of Test 15, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 544
9.87 Summary of Test 16, NIST RSE 2007 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 545
9.88 Summary of ISONG3, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 546
9.89 Summary of ISOHept4, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
9.90 Summary of ISOHept5, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 548
9.91 Summary of ISOHept8, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 549
9.92 Summary of ISOHept9, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 550
9.93 Summary of ISONylon10, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 551
9.94 Summary of ISOPP11, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 552
9.95 Summary of ISOHeptD12, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 553
9.96 Summary of ISOHeptD13, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 554
9.97 Summary of ISOPropD14, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 555
9.98 Summary of ISOProp15, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 556
9.99 Summary of ISOStyrene16, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 557
9.100 Summary of ISOStyrene17, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 558
9.101 Summary of ISOPP18, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 559
9.102 Summary of ISOHept19, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 560
9.103 Summary of ISOToluene20, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 561
9.104 Summary of ISOStyrene21, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 562
9.105 Summary of ISOHept22, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 563
9.106 Summary of ISOHept23, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 564
9.107 Summary of ISOHept24, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 565
9.108 Summary of ISOHept25, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 566
9.109 Summary of ISOHept26, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
9.110 Summary of ISOHept27, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568
9.111 Summary of ISOHept28, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 569
9.112 Summary of ISOToluene29, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 570

xxxiii
9.113 Summary of ISOPropanol30, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 571
9.114 Summary of ISONG32, NIST FSE 2008 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 572
9.115 NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, acetone . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 574
9.116 NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, ethanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
9.117 NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, methanol . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 576
9.118 NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, methane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 577
9.119 NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, propane, 20 kW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 578
9.120 NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, propane, 34 kW . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 579
9.121 Summary of carbon monoxide predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 580
9.122 Results of the NIST_He_2009 experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 582
9.123 Results of the NIST_He_2009 experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 583
9.124 Results of the NIST_He_2009 experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 584
9.125 Summary of species concentration predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 585

10.1 FM/FPRF Data Center, differential pressure . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 588

10.2 NIST/NRC experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 590
10.3 NIST/NRC experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18 . . . . . . . . 591
10.4 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
10.5 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 9-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594
10.6 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 17-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 595
10.7 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 25-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 596
10.8 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 33-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 597
10.9 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 41-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 598
10.10 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 49-56 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 599
10.11 LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 57-64 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 600
10.12 PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 1, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . 602
10.13 PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 1, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . 603
10.14 PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 2, Tests 1-3 . . . . . . 604
10.15 PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 2, Tests 4-6 . . . . . . 605
10.16 PRISME SOURCE, pressure and supply/exhaust flow rates, Tests 1, 2, 3 and 4 . . . . . . . 607
10.17 PRISME SOURCE, pressure and supply/exhaust flow rates, Tests 5, 5a, 6 and 6a . . . . . 608
10.18 UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Single-Story (Ranch) House, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 610
10.19 UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Single-Story (Ranch) House, Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 611
10.20 UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Single-Story (Ranch) House, Test 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 612
10.21 UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Two-Story (Colonial) House, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 613
10.22 UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Two-Story (Colonial) House, Test 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 614
10.23 UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Two-Story (Colonial) House, Test 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . 615
10.24 Summary of pressure predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 616

11.1 FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling surface temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . 618

11.2 NIST Composite Beam, under-deck temperatures, Sections 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 620
11.3 NIST Composite Beam, under-deck temperatures, Sections 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
11.4 NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
11.5 NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 623
11.6 NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
11.7 NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 7 and 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 625
11.8 NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 3-4, 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 627
11.9 NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 9-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 628

xxxiv
11.10 NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 629
11.11 NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 17-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 630
11.12 NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 21-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 631
11.13 NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 25-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
11.14 NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 29, 30, 32 . . . . . . . . . . 633
11.15 NIST/NRC experiments, north wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 635
11.16 NIST/NRC experiments, north wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . 636
11.17 NIST/NRC experiments, south wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 637
11.18 NIST/NRC experiments, south wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . 638
11.19 NIST/NRC experiments, east wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 639
11.20 NIST/NRC experiments, east wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 640
11.21 NIST/NRC experiments, west wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 641
11.22 NIST/NRC experiments, west wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 642
11.23 NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . 643
11.24 NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . 644
11.25 NIST/NRC experiments, floor wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 645
11.26 NIST/NRC experiments, floor temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
11.27 PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, vertical array, Room 1 . . . . . . . . . . 647
11.28 PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, four sides, Room 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
11.29 PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, vertical array, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . 649
11.30 PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, four sides, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 650
11.31 PRISME SOURCE experiments, wall temperatures, vertical array, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . 652
11.32 PRISME SOURCE experiments, wall temperatures, four sides, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . 653
11.33 WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, north array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 655
11.34 WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, south array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 656
11.35 WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, east array, Points 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 657
11.36 WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, east array, Points 5-7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 658
11.37 WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, west array, Points 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
11.38 WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, west array, Points 5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
11.39 WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, diagonal array . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 661
11.40 WTC experiments, wall temperatures, Points 98, 100, 102 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
11.41 WTC experiments, wall temperatures, Points 103, 105, 106 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 663
11.42 WTC experiments, wall temperatures, Points 107, 109, 110 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 664
11.43 WTC experiments, inner ceiling temperatures, north-south axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 665
11.44 WTC experiments, inner ceiling temperatures, east-west axis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 666
11.45 WTC experiments, inner wall temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 667
11.46 Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
11.47 Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 7-14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 670
11.48 Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 15-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 671
11.49 Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 23-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 672
11.50 Summary of compartment surface temperature predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 673
11.51 NIST Composite Beam, beam temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 674
11.52 NIST Composite Beam, beam temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
11.53 NIST E119 Compartment, Plate temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 676
11.54 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable A temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . 678
11.55 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable A temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 679
11.56 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable B temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . 680
11.57 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable B temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 681

xxxv
11.58 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Ca temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 682
11.59 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Ca temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 683
11.60 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Cb temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . 684
11.61 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Cb temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 685
11.62 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable D temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . 686
11.63 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable D temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 687
11.64 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable F temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . 688
11.65 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable F temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . 689
11.66 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable G temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . 690
11.67 NIST/NRC experiments, Cable G temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 691
11.68 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 693
11.69 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 694
11.70 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 695
11.71 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 696
11.72 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 697
11.73 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
11.74 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 7 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 699
11.75 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
11.76 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 701
11.77 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 702
11.78 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 11 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 703
11.79 NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . 704
11.80 SP AST experiments, Station A plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 1 . . . 706
11.81 SP AST experiments, Station B plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 1 . . . 707
11.82 SP AST experiments, Station C plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 1 . . . 708
11.83 SP AST experiments, Station A plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 2 . . . 709
11.84 SP AST experiments, Station B plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 2 . . . 710
11.85 SP AST experiments, Station C plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 2 . . . 711
11.86 SP AST experiments, Station A plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 3 . . . 712
11.87 SP AST experiments, Station B plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 3 . . . 713
11.88 SP AST experiments, Station C plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 3 . . . 714
11.89 SP AST experiments, steel temperatures, 1.1 m diesel fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
11.90 SP AST experiments, steel temperatures, 1.1 m and 1.9 m diesel, 1.1 m heptane fires . . . 717
11.91 SP AST experiments, steel temperatures, 1.1 m heptane fire . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 718
11.92 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 720
11.93 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 721
11.94 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 722
11.95 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
11.96 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 724
11.97 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test B1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 725
11.98 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test B2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 726
11.99 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test C1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 727
11.100 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test C2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 728
11.101 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test C3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 729
11.102 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test D1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 730
11.103 SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test D2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
11.104 Drawing of a plate thermometer . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 732
11.105 Predictions of plate thermometer temperatures in a cone calorimeter . . . . . . . . . . . . 732

xxxvi
11.106 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, upper column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 734
11.107 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, middle column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 735
11.108 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, lower column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 736
11.109 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, upper Truss A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 737
11.110 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, middle Truss A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 738
11.111 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, lower Truss A . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 739
11.112 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, upper Truss B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 740
11.113 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, middle Truss B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 741
11.114 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, lower Truss B . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 742
11.115 WTC experiments, steel temperatures, Bar 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 743
11.116 WTC experiments, slug temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
11.117 CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 11-13 . . . . . . . 746
11.118 CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 17, 19-20, 22-24, 27-28 . . . . 747
11.119 CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 4-6, 8, 10, 14-16 . . . . . . . . 748
11.120 CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 21, 25-26, 29-30, 63, 65 . . . . 749
11.121 CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 18, 31, 62, 64 . . . . . . . . . 750
11.122 Frankman vegetation experiments, fuel temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 751
11.123 PRISME LEAK experiments, cable temperature, Tests 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
11.124 PRISME LEAK experiments, cable temperature, Tests 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 754
11.125 PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 1, Cable BW . . . . . . . . . . . 755
11.126 PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 1, Cable HW . . . . . . . . . . . 756
11.127 PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 2, Cable BE . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
11.128 PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 2, Cable HE . . . . . . . . . . . . 758
11.129 PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 2, Cable HW . . . . . . . . . . . 759
11.130 Summary of target temperature predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 760
11.131 Summary of time to failure predictions for electrical cables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 761
11.132 ASTM E2058 water evaporation 50 kW/m2 , surface temperature . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
11.133 VTT heptane pool fire surface temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 762
11.134 Pool fire experiments, surface temperatures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 763
11.135 NIST 1 m and Waterloo 30 cm methanol pool fires, surface temperature . . . . . . . . . . 764
11.136 Summary of liquid pool surface temperature predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 765

12.1 FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, heat flux to ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 768

12.2 FM Parallel Panel experiments, side wall heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
12.3 FM Vertical Wall Flame experiments, flame radiance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 770
12.4 FM Vertical Wall Flame experiments, centerline heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 771
12.5 NIST E119 Compartment, wall heat fluxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 772
12.6 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to north wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . 774
12.7 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to north wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 775
12.8 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to south wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . 776
12.9 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to south wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 777
12.10 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to east wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 778
12.11 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to east wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . 779
12.12 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to west wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 780
12.13 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to west wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . 781
12.14 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the floor, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . . 782
12.15 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the floor, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . 783
12.16 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10 . . . . . . . . . . . 784

xxxvii
12.17 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . 785
12.18 Smokeview rendering of NRCC Facade experiment . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 786
12.19 NRCC Facade experiments, heat flux, window configuration 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 787
12.20 NRCC Facade experiments, heat flux, window configuration 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . 788
12.21 NRCC Facade experiments, heat flux, window configuration 5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 789
12.22 NRL/HAI experiments, heat flux to the wall, Tests 1-5 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 791
12.23 NRL/HAI experiments, heat flux to the wall, Tests 6-9 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 792
12.24 PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, vertical array, Room 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . 793
12.25 PRISME DOOR experiments, radiative heat flux, vertical array, Room 1 . . . . . . . . . . 794
12.26 PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, four walls, Room 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 795
12.27 PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, vertical array, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 796
12.28 PRISME DOOR experiments, radiative heat flux, vertical array, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . 797
12.29 PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, four walls, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 798
12.30 PRISME SOURCE experiments, total heat flux, vertical array, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . . 800
12.31 PRISME SOURCE experiments, radiative heat flux, vertical array, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . 801
12.32 PRISME SOURCE experiments, total heat flux, four walls, Room 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . 802
12.33 Ulster SBI experiments, corner fire heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 803
12.34 WTC experiments, heat flux to the floor . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 805
12.35 WTC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 806
12.36 WTC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 807
12.37 Summary of compartment surface heat flux predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 808
12.38 Fleury Heat Flux, 100 kW fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 810
12.39 Fleury Heat Flux, 150 kW fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 811
12.40 Fleury Heat Flux, 200 kW fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
12.41 Fleury Heat Flux, 250 kW fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 813
12.42 Fleury Heat Flux, 300 kW fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 814
12.43 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 817
12.44 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 818
12.45 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 9-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 819
12.46 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 820
12.47 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 17-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 821
12.48 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 21-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 822
12.49 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 25-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 823
12.50 Heat flux predictions, Hamins methane burner Tests 29-30 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 824
12.51 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 826
12.52 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 827
12.53 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 9-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 828
12.54 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 829
12.55 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 17-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 830
12.56 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 21-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 831
12.57 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 25-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 832
12.58 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 29-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 833
12.59 Heat flux predictions, Hamins propane burner Tests 33-34 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
12.60 Heat flux predictions, Hamins acetylene burner Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 836
12.61 Heat flux predictions, Hamins acetylene burner Tests 5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 837
12.62 Heat flux predictions, Hamins acetylene burner Tests 9-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 838
12.63 Heat flux predictions, Hamins acetylene burner Tests 13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 839
12.64 Schematic diagram of BGC/GRI test facility . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 840

xxxviii
12.65 BGC/GRI LNG Fires, heat flux profiles for Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 841
12.66 BGC/GRI LNG Fires, heat flux profiles for Tests 9-13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
12.67 Location of heat flux gauges, Loughborough Jet Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843
12.68 Loughborough Jet Fires, heat flux to pipe, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 844
12.69 Loughborough Jet Fires, heat flux to pipe, Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 845
12.70 Loughborough Jet Fires, heat flux to pipe, Test 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 846
12.71 Loughborough Jet Fires, far-field radiometers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 847
12.72 Layout of the Montoir LNG Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 848
12.73 Montoir LNG Fires, far-field radiometers, Test 1 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 849
12.74 Montoir LNG Fires, far-field radiometers, Test 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
12.75 Montoir LNG Fires, far-field radiometers, Test 3 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 851
12.76 NIST Douglas Firs, heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 852
12.77 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable B, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . . 854
12.78 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable B, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . 855
12.79 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable D, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . . 856
12.80 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable D, Tests 5, 9, 14 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 857
12.81 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable F, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . . 858
12.82 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable F, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . . 859
12.83 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable G, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16 . . . . . . . . . 860
12.84 NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable G, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18 . . . . . . . . . . . 861
12.85 NIST Pool Fires, 30 cm methanol, radial profiles heat flux near surface . . . . . . . . . . . 862
12.86 NIST Pool Fires, 30 cm methanol, radial and vertical profiles of total heat flux . . . . . . . 863
12.87 NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol, radial and vertical profiles of heat flux . . . . . . . . . 863
12.88 NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol, radial profiles of heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 864
12.89 Layout of the Phoenix LNG Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 865
12.90 Phoenix LNG Fires, radial profiles of wide-angle heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
12.91 Phoenix LNG Fires, vertical profiles of narrow-angle heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
12.92 Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 1-4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 868
12.93 Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 5-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 869
12.94 Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 9-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 870
12.95 Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 13-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 871
12.96 Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 17-20 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 872
12.97 Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 21-24 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
12.98 Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 25-28 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 874
12.99 Shell LNG Fireballs, heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 875
12.100 WTC experiments, heat flux at Station 2, high position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 876
12.101 WTC experiments, heat flux at Station 2, low position . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 877
12.102 WTC experiments, heat flux to upper column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 878
12.103 WTC experiments, heat flux to lower column . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 879
12.104 UMD Line Burner contour of integrated radiation intensity. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 880
12.105 UMD Line Burner radiative fraction and radiative heat flux . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 881
12.106 Summary of target heat flux predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 882
12.107 Droplet speeds and mean diameters for the three nozzles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 883
12.108 Comparison of radiation attenuation, BRE and LEMTA Spray experiments . . . . . . . . . 884
12.109 Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.1 m thermal cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 886
12.110 Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.2 m thermal cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 887
12.111 Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.3 m thermal cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 888
12.112 Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.5 m thermal cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 889

xxxix
12.113 Bouchair Solar Chimney, 1.0 m thermal cavity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
12.114 Summary of Bouchair Solar Chimney results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 891
12.115 FM Burner experiments, mean and rms vertical heat flux profiles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 893
12.116 FM Burner experiments, radiant fraction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 894
12.117 Summary of SETCOM results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 895

13.1 Results of Cup Burner experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 898

13.2 FM Burner combustion efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
13.3 UMD Line Burner combustion efficiency . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 900
13.4 LLNL Extinction Time, Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
13.5 LLNL Extinction Time, Tests 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 37 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 903
13.6 LLNL Extinction Time, Tests 39, 41, 43-48 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 904
13.7 LLNL Extinction Time, Test 49 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 905
13.8 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire maximum HRR, Tests 3, 4, 8, 9, 12, 13 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 907
13.9 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire maximum HRR, Tests 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23 . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
13.10 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire maximum HRR, Tests 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31 . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
13.11 SWJTU Tunnel experiments, extinction time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 910
13.12 USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 912
13.13 USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
13.14 USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914
13.15 USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 915
13.16 USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 916
13.17 Extinguishment times for the USCG/HAI water mist suppression tests . . . . . . . . . . . 917
13.18 Droplet speed, flux, and mean diameter profiles of the LN-2 nozzle . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919

14.1 Results of FAA Polymers, non-charring, comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 924

14.2 Results of FAA Polymers, complex, non-charring, comparison . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 926
14.3 Heat release rate of polycarbonate (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
14.4 Heat release rate of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
14.5 Heat release rate of poly(aryl ether ether ketone) (PEEK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
14.6 Mass loss rate of poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 935
14.7 Mass loss rate of poly(butylene terephtalate) with glass fibers (PBT-GF) . . . . . . . . . . 937
14.8 Mass loss rate of ABS and HIPS . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 939
14.9 Mass loss rate of PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
14.10 Mass loss rate of Kydex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
14.11 Mass loss rate of PEI and PET . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
14.12 Mass loss rate of POM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 945
14.13 Mass loss rate of corrugated cardboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949
14.14 BST/FRS Wood Cribs temperatures, Tests 1 and 2 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 951
14.15 BST/FRS Wood Cribs temperatures, Tests 3 and 4 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 952
14.16 BST/FRS Wood Cribs temperatures, Tests 5 and 6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 953
14.17 NIST/NRC Transient Combustibles: wood cribs . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 954
14.18 NIST/NRC Transient Combustibles: boxes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 955
14.19 NIST/NRC Transient Combustibles: pallets . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 956
14.20 SP Wood Cribs heat release rates, Tests 1-6 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 957
14.21 SP Wood Cribs heat release rates, Tests 7-12 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 958
14.22 DoJ/HAI Pool Fires, Tests 1-8 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 961
14.23 DoJ/HAI Pool Fires, Tests 9-16 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 962

xl
14.24 DoJ/HAI Pool Fires, Tests 17-22 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 963
14.25 DoJ/HAI Pool Fires, Tests 25-32 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 964
14.26 DoJ/HAI Pool Fires, Tests 33-40 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 965
14.27 DoJ/HAI Pool Fires, Tests 41-46 . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 966
14.28 ASTM E2058 fire propagation apparatus water evaporation at 50 kW/m2 heat flux . . . . . 967
14.29 VTT Large Hall Test burning rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 967
14.30 Comparison of burning rates for various liquid pool fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 968
14.31 NIST 1 m methanol burning rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
14.32 Waterloo Methanol mass loss rate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 969
14.33 NIST/NRC Parallel Panels experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 970
14.34 Comparison observed and predicted rates of spread for a variety of crown fires . . . . . . . 971
14.35 Measured and predicted fire front position for the CSIRO Grassland Fires . . . . . . . . . 973
14.36 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 975
14.37 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 976
14.38 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 977
14.39 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 978
14.40 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 979
14.41 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 980
14.42 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 981
14.43 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 982
14.44 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 983
14.45 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 984
14.46 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 985
14.47 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 986
14.48 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 987
14.49 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 988
14.50 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 989
14.51 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 990
14.52 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 991
14.53 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 992
14.54 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 993
14.55 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 994
14.56 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 995
14.57 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 996
14.58 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 997
14.59 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 998
14.60 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 999
14.61 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1000
14.62 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1001
14.63 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1003
14.64 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1004
14.65 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1005
14.66 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1006
14.67 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1007
14.68 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1008
14.69 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1009
14.70 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1010
14.71 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1011

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14.72 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1012
14.73 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1013
14.74 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1014
14.75 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1015
14.76 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1016
14.77 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1017
14.78 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1018
14.79 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1019
14.80 Flame front, USFS/Catchpole experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1020
14.81 HRR, USFS/Corsica experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1021
14.82 Rate of Spread, USFS/Corsica experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1022
14.83 Snapshots of a 2 m Douglas fir fire simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1023
14.84 Comparison measured and predicted mass loss rate for the Douglas fir tree experiments . .1024
14.85 Summary of heat release rate predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1025
14.86 Summary of burning rate predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1025
14.87 Summary of liquid pool burning rate predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1026
14.88 Summary, Wildfire Rate of Spread . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1026

15.1 UWO Wind Tunnel schematic drawings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1028

15.2 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS20-Test 7 pressure coefficients, 180° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1029
15.3 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS20-Test 7 pressure coefficients, 180° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1030
15.4 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS20-Test 7 pressure coefficients, 270° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1031
15.5 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS20-Test 7 pressure coefficients, 270° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1032
15.6 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS21-Test 6 pressure coefficients, 0° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1033
15.7 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS21-Test 6 pressure coefficients, 0° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1034
15.8 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS21-Test 6 pressure coefficients, 45° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1035
15.9 UWO Wind Tunnel, SS21-Test 6 pressure coefficients, 45° . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1036
15.10 LNG Dispersion experiments, Burro velocity and temperature profiles . . . . . . . . . . .1038
15.11 LNG Dispersion experiments, Coyote velocity and temperature profiles . . . . . . . . . .1039
15.12 LNG Dispersion experiments, Falcon velocity and temperature profiles . . . . . . . . . . .1040
15.13 LNG Dispersion experiments, Maplin Sands velocity and temperature profiles . . . . . . .1041
15.14 LNG Dispersion experiments, Burro and Coyote . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1042
15.15 LNG Dispersion experiments, Falson and Maplin Sands . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1043
15.16 Summary of LNG Dispersion predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1044
15.17 Images of Plume Height simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1046
15.18 Atmospheric Dispersion, Plume Height results . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1047

xlii
List of Tables

3.1 Summary of simulated Beyler Hood experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 21

3.2 BGC/GRI LNG Fires test parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
3.3 Summary of results, Bittern experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.4 Properties of sprinklers used in Bittern Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 24
3.5 BST/FRS test cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
3.6 Measured properties for the CSIRO Grassland Fire cases . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
3.7 Assumed properties for dry grass and soil . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
3.8 Summary of Cup Burner Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
3.9 Gasoline and kerosene components . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
3.10 Summary of FM/SNL Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
3.11 Summary of LLNL Enclosure Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 50
3.12 Summary of LNG Dispersion Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 53
3.13 Summary of the Loughborough Jet Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
3.14 Summary of McCaffrey Plume Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
3.15 Summary of the Montoir LNG Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 58
3.16 Measured properties for the NIST Douglas Fir Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 69
3.17 Assumed properties for the NIST Douglas Fir Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 70
3.18 Summary of NIST Reduced-Scale Experiments, 2007. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 71
3.19 Summary of NIST FSE Experiments selected for model validation . . . . . . . . . . . . . 73
3.20 Summary of NIST/NRC Cabinet Experiments. . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 81
3.21 Average heat and product yields of the various test items . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 84
3.22 Summary of NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments selected for model validation . . . . . . . . 88
3.23 Experiment Details for Gravimetric Measurements of Soot Deposition . . . . . . . . . . . 90
3.24 Heights of the thermocouples above the floor of each level of the enclosure . . . . . . . . . 93
3.25 Vent State by Experiment: Time Opened . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 93
3.26 Liquid fuel properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
3.27 Summary of Ranz and Marshall droplet evaporation experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
3.28 Summary of SETCOM condensation experiments selected for model validation . . . . . . 106
3.29 Summary of Sippola aerosol deposition experiments selected for model validation . . . . . 109
3.30 Parameters for SP Wood Cribs simulations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 113
3.31 Summary of Steckler compartment experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 114
3.32 Summary of UL/NIST Vent experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 118
3.33 Results of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments, Series I . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 122
3.34 Results of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments, Series II . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 123
3.35 Locations of measurement devices in the UL/NIJ ranch-style house . . . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.36 Locations of measurement devices in the UL/NIJ colonial-style house . . . . . . . . . . . 127
3.37 Sequence of events for the one story ranch-style house in the UL/NIJ experiments . . . . . 127
3.38 Sequence of events for the two story colonial-style house in the UL/NIJ experiments . . . . 128
3.39 Test matrix for the USFS/Corsica Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 133

xliii
3.40 Heat release rate profiles for the Vettori experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 136
3.41 Summary of important experimental parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 144
3.42 Summary of important numerical parameters . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 147

4.1 Summary of uncertainty estimates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 159

6.1 Summary of parameters for the flame height predictions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302

9.1 Test parameters of the NIST_He_2009 experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 581

11.1 Wall measurement positions for the NIST/NRC series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 634

11.2 Ceiling surface measurement locations for the WTC series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
11.3 Property of Insulation Materials . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668

12.1 Summary of the NRL/HAI Wall Heat Flux Measurements . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 790

12.2 Heat flux gauge positions relative to the center of the fire pan in the WTC series . . . . . . 804
12.3 Parameters of the Hamins methane burner experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
12.4 Parameters of the Hamins propane burner experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 825
12.5 Parameters of the Hamins acetylene burner experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
12.6 Radiometer positions, Loughborough Jet Fires . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 843

13.1 Summary of NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire Experiments . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 906

13.2 USCG/HAI water mist suppression extinguishment times . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 911

14.1 FAA non-charring polymer properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 923

14.2 FAA complex non-charring polymer properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 925
14.3 Properties of polycarbonate (PC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
14.4 Properties of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 929
14.5 Properties of poly(aryl ether ether ketone) (PEEK) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
14.6 Properties of poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT) . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 934
14.7 Properties of poly(butylene terephtalate) with glass fibers (PBT-GF) . . . . . . . . . . . . 936
14.8 Properties of ABS, HIPS, and PMMA . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 938
14.9 Properties of Kydex . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 941
14.10 Properties of PEI, PET, and POM . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
14.11 Properties of corrugated cardboard . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
14.12 Cardboard composition and dimensions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
14.13 Summary of DoJ/HAI Diked Fire Tests . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 960

16.1 Summary statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1049

16.2 Validation Git Statistics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . .1055

xliv
List of Acronyms

ALOFT A Large Outdoor Fire plume Trajectory model

AST Adiabatic Surface Temperature
ASTM American Society for Testing and Materials
ATF Bureau of Alcohol, Tobacco, Firearms, and Explosives
BRE British Research Establishment
CAROLFIRE Cable Response to Live Fire Test Program
CFAST Consolidated Model of Fire Growth and Smoke Transport
CFT Critical Flame Temperature
DNS Direct Numerical Simulation
FAA Federal Aviation Administration
FDS Fire Dynamics Simulator
FLAME Fire Laboratory for Accreditation of Models by Experimentation
FM Factory Mutual Global
FSE Full-Scale Enclosure
HAI Hughes Associates, Inc.
HDPE high density polyethylene
HGL Hot Gas Layer
HIPS high-impact polystyrene
HRR Heat Release Rate
ISO International Standards Organization
LEMTA Laboratoire d’Energétique et de Méchanique Théorique et Appliquée
LES Large Eddy Simulation
LLNL Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory
LNG Liquified Natural Gas
MEC Minimum Extinguishing Concentration
NBS National Bureau of Standards (former name of NIST)
NFPRF National Fire Protection Research Foundation
NIST National Institute of Standards and Technology
NRC Nuclear Regulatory Commission
NRCC National Research Council of Canada
NRL Naval Research Laboratory
PDPA Phase Doppler Particle Analyzer
PIV Particle Image Velocimetry
PMMA poly(methyl methacrylate)
PRISME Propagation d’un incendie pour des scénarios multi-locaux élémentaires
PVC Polyvinyl chloride
RANS Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes

xlv
RSE Reduced-Scale Enclosure
SBI Single Burning Item
SNL Sandia National Laboratory
SP Statens Provningsanstalt (Technical Research Institute of Sweden)
TGA Thermal Gravimetric Analysis
THIEF Thermally-Induced Electrical Failure
UL Underwriters Laboratories
USN United States Navy
VTFRL Virginia Tech Fire Research Laboratory
VTT Valtion Teknillinen Tutkimuskeskus (Technical Research Centre of Finland)
WTC World Trade Center

xlvi
Chapter 1

What is Model Validation?

Although there are various definitions of model validation, for example the one contained in ASTM E
1355 [2], most define it as the process of determining how well the mathematical model predicts the actual
physical phenomena of interest. Validation typically involves (1) comparing model predictions with experi-
mental measurements, (2) quantifying the differences in light of uncertainties in both the measurements and
the model inputs, and (3) deciding if the model is appropriate for the given application. This guide only
does (1) and (2). Number (3) is the responsibility of the end user. To say that FDS is “validated” means that
the end user has quantified the model uncertainty for a given application and decided that the model is ap-
propriate. Although the FDS developers spend a considerable amount of time comparing model predictions
with experimental measurements, it is ultimately the end user who decides if the model is adequate for the
job at hand.
This Guide is merely a collection of calculation results. As FDS develops, it will expand to include
new experimental measurements of newly modeled physical phenomena. With each minor release of FDS
(version 5.2 to 5.3, for example), the plots and graphs are all regenerated to ensure that changes to the model
have not decreased the accuracy of a previous version.
The following sections discuss key issues that must be considered when deciding whether or not FDS is
appropriate for a given application. It depends on (a) the scenarios of interest, (b) the predicted quantities,
and (c) the desired level of accuracy. FDS can be used to model most any fire scenario and predict almost
any quantity of interest, but the prediction may not be accurate because of limitations in the description of
the fire physics, and also because of limited information about the fuels, geometry, and so on.

1.1 Blind, Specified, and Open Validation Experiments

ASTM E 1355 [2] describes three basic types of validation calculations – Blind, Specified, and Open.

Blind Calculation: The model user is provided with a basic description of the scenario to be modeled.
For this application, the problem description is not exact; the model user is responsible for developing
appropriate model inputs from the problem description, including additional details of the geometry,
material properties, and fire description, as appropriate. Additional details necessary to simulate the
scenario with a specific model are left to the judgment of the model user. In addition to illustrating
the comparability of models in actual end-use conditions, this will test the ability of those who use the
model to develop appropriate input data for the models.

Specified Calculation: The model user is provided with a complete detailed description of model inputs,
including geometry, material properties, and fire description. As a follow-on to the blind calculation, this

1
 test provides a more careful comparison of the underlying physics in the models with a more completely
specified scenario.

Open Calculation: The model user is provided with the most complete information about the scenario,
including geometry, material properties, fire description, and the results of experimental tests or bench-
mark model runs which were used in the evaluation of the blind or specified calculations of the scenario.
Deficiencies in available input (used for the blind calculation) should become most apparent with com-
parison of the open and blind calculation.

The calculations presented in this Guide all fall into the Open category. There are several reasons for this,
the first being the most practical:

• All of the calculations presented in this Guide are re-run with each minor release of FDS (i.e., 5.3 to
5.4). The fact that the experiments have already been performed and the results are known qualify these
calculations as Open.

• Some of the calculations described in this Guide did originally fall into the Specified category because
they were first performed before the experiments were conducted. However, in almost every case, the
experiment was not conducted exactly as specified, and the pre-calculated results were not particularly
useful in determining the accuracy of the model.

• None of the calculations were truly Blind, even those performed prior to the experiments. The purpose
of a Blind calculation is to assess the degree to which the choice of input parameters affects the outcome.
However, in such cases it is impossible to discern the uncertainty associated from the choice of input
parameters from that associated with the model itself. The primary purpose of this Guide is to quantify
the uncertainty of the model itself, in which case Blind calculations are of little value.

1.2 How to Use this Guide

When considering whether to use FDS for a given application, do the following:

1. Survey Chapter 2 to learn about past efforts by others to validate the model for similar applications.
Keep in mind that most of the referenced validation exercises have been performed with older versions
of FDS, and you may want to obtain the experimental data and the old FDS input files and redo the
simulations with the version of FDS that you plan to use.

2. Identify in Chapter 3 the experimental data sets appropriate for your application. In particular, the
summary of the experiments found in Section 3.92 contains a table listing various non-dimensional
quantities that characterize the parameters of the experiments. For example, the equivalence ratio of
a compartment fire experiment indicates the degree to which the fire was over or under-ventilated. To
say that the results of a given experiment are relevant to your scenario, you need to demonstrate that its
parameters “fit” within the parameter space outlined in Table 3.41.

3. Search the Table of Contents to find comparisons of FDS simulations with the relevant experiments.
For a given experiment, there may be numerous measurements of quantities like the gas temperature,
heat flux, and so on. It is a challenge to sort out all the plots and graphs of all the different quantities
and come to some general conclusion. For this reason, this Guide is organized by output quantity, not
by individual experiment or fire scenario. In this way, it is possible to assess, over a range of different
experiments and scenarios, the performance of the model in predicting a given quantity. Overall trends
and biases become much more clear when the data is organized this way.

2
 4. Determine the accuracy of the model for given output quantities of interest listed in Table 16.1. An
explanation of the accuracy metrics is given in Chapter 4.

The experimental data sets and FDS input/output files described in this Guide are all managed via the on-
line project archiving system. You might want to re-run examples of interest to better understand how the
calculations were designed, and how changes in the various parameters might affect the results. This is
known as a sensitivity study, and it is difficult to document all the parameter variations of the calculations
described in this report. Thus, it is a good idea to determine which of the input parameters are particularly
important.

3
Chapter 2

Survey of Past Validation Work

In this chapter, a survey of FDS validation work is presented. Some of the work has been performed at NIST,
some by its grantees and some by engineering firms using the model. Because each organization has its own
reasons for validating the model, the referenced papers and reports do not follow any particular guidelines.
Some of the works only provide a qualitative assessment of the model, concluding that the model agreement
with a particular experiment is “good” or “reasonable.” Sometimes, the conclusion is that the model works
well in certain cases, not as well in others. These studies are included in the survey because the references
are useful to other model users who may have a similar application and are interested in even qualitative
assessment. It is important to note that some of the papers point out flaws in early releases of FDS that have
been corrected or improved in more recent releases. Some of the issues raised, however, are still subjects of
active research. The research agenda for FDS is greatly influenced by the feedback provided by users, often
through publication of validation efforts.
It is useful to divide the various validation exercises described in this chapter into two classes – those
for which the heat release rate (HRR) of the fire is specified as an input to the model and those for which
the HRR is predicted by the model. The former is often the case for a design application, the latter for a
forensic reconstruction.
Design applications typically involve an existing building or a building under design. A so-called “de-
sign fire” is specified either by a regulatory authority or by the engineers performing the analysis. Because
the fire’s heat release rate is specified, the role of the model is to predict the transport of heat and combustion
products throughout the room or rooms of interest. Ventilation equipment is often included in the simula-
tion, like fans, blowers, exhaust hoods, HVAC ducts, smoke management systems, etc. Sprinkler and heat
and smoke detector activation are also of interest. The effect of the sprinkler spray on the fire is usually less
of interest since the heat release rate of the fire is specified rather than predicted. Detailed descriptions of
the contents of the building are usually not necessary because these items are assumed to not contribute to
the fire, and even if they are, the burning rate will be specified, not predicted. Sometimes, it is necessary to
predict the heat flux from the fire to a nearby “target,” and even though the target may heat up to some spec-
ified ignition temperature, the subsequent spread of the fire usually goes beyond the scope of the analysis
because of the uncertainty inherent in object to object fire spread.
Forensic reconstructions require the model to simulate an actual fire based on information that is col-
lected after the event, such as eye witness accounts, unburned materials, burn signatures, etc. The purpose
of the simulation is to connect a sequence of discrete observations with a continuous description of the fire
dynamics. Usually, reconstructions involve more gas/solid phase interaction because virtually all objects in
a given room are potentially ignitable, especially when flashover occurs. Thus, there is much more empha-
sis on such phenomena as heat transfer to surfaces, pyrolysis, flame spread, and suppression. In general,
forensic reconstructions are more challenging simulations to perform because they require more detailed

5
information about the room contents, and there is much greater uncertainty in the total heat release rate as
the fire spreads from object to object.
Validation studies of FDS to date have focused more on design applications than reconstructions. The
reason is that design applications usually involve specified fires and demand a minimum of thermo-physical
properties of real materials. Transport of smoke and heat is the primary focus, and measurements can be
limited to well-placed thermocouples, a few heat flux gauges, gas samplers, etc. Phenomena of importance
in forensic reconstructions, like second item ignition, flame spread, vitiation effects and extinction, are more
difficult to model and more difficult to study with well-controlled experiments. Uncertainties in material
properties and measurements, as well as simplifying assumptions in the model, often force the comparison
between model and measurement to be qualitative at best. Nevertheless, current validation efforts are moving
in the direction of these more difficult issues.

2.1 Validation Work with Pre-Release Versions of FDS

FDS was officially released in 2000. However, for two decades various CFD codes using the basic FDS
hydrodynamic framework were developed at NIST for different applications and for research. In the mid
1990s, many of these different codes were consolidated into what eventually became FDS. Before FDS, the
various models were referred to as LES, NIST-LES, LES3D, IFS (Industrial Fire Simulator), and ALOFT
(A Large Outdoor Fire Plume Trajectory).
The NIST LES model describes the transport of smoke and hot gases during a fire in an enclosure using
the Boussinesq approximation, where it is assumed that the density and temperature variations in the flow
are relatively small [3, 4, 5, 6]. Such an approximation can be applied to a fire plume away from the fire
itself. Much of the early work with this form of the model was devoted to the formulation of the low Mach
number form of the Navier-Stokes equations and the development of the basic numerical algorithm. Early
validation efforts compared the model with salt water experiments [7, 8, 9], and fire plumes [10, 11, 12, 13].
Clement validated the hydrodynamic model in FDS by measuring salt water flows using Laser Induced dye
Fluorescence (LIF) [14]. An interesting finding of this work was that the transition from a laminar to a
turbulent plume is very difficult to predict with any technique other than DNS.
Eventually, the Boussinesq approximation was dropped and simulations began to include more fire-
specific phenomena. Simulations of enclosure fires were compared to experiments performed by Steck-
ler [15]. Mell et al. [16] studied small helium plumes, with particular attention to the relative roles of
baroclinic torque and buoyancy as sources of vorticity. Cleary et al. [17] used the LES model to simulate
the environment seen by multi-sensor fire detectors and performed some simple validation work to check
the model before using it. Large fire experiments were performed by NIST at the FRI test facility in Japan,
and at US Naval aircraft hangars in Hawaii and Iceland [18]. Room airflow applications were considered by
Emmerich and McGrattan [19, 20].
These early validation efforts were encouraging, but highlighted the need to improve the hydrodynamic
model by introducing the Smagorinsky form of large eddy simulation. This addition improved the stability of
the model because of the relatively simple relation between the local strain rate and the turbulent viscosity.
There is both a physical and numerical benefit to the Smagorinsky model. Physically, the viscous term
used in the model has the right functional form to describe sub-grid mixing processes. Numerically, local
oscillations in the computed flow quantities are damped if they become large enough to threaten the stability
of the entire calculation.

6
2.2 Validation of FDS since 2000
There is an on-going effort at NIST and elsewhere to evaluate FDS as new capabilities are added. To date,
most of this work has focused on the model’s ability to predict the transport of heat and exhaust products
from a fire through an enclosure. In these studies, the heat release rate is usually prescribed, along with the
production rates of various products of combustion. More recently, validation efforts have moved beyond
just transport issues to consider fire growth, flame spread, suppression, sprinkler/detector activation, and
other fire-specific phenomena.
The validation work discussed below can be organized into several categories: Comparisons with full-
scale tests conducted especially for the chosen evaluation, comparisons with previously published full-scale
test data, comparisons with standard tests, comparisons with documented fire experience, and comparisons
with engineering correlations. There is no single method by which the predictions and measurements are
compared. Formal, rigorous validation exercises are time-consuming and expensive. Most validation exer-
cises are done simply to assess if the model can be used for a very specific purpose. While not comprehensive
on their own, these studies collectively constitute a valuable assessment of the model.

2.2.1 Fire Plumes

There are several examples of fire flows that have been extensively studied, so much so that a set of engi-
neering correlations combining the results of many experiments have been developed. These correlations
are useful to modelers because of their simplicity. The most studied phenomena include fire plumes, ceiling
jets, and flame heights.
Although much of the early validation work before FDS was released involved fire plumes, it remains
an active area of interest. One study by Chow and Yin [21] surveys the performance of various models in
predicting plume temperatures and entrainment for a 470 kW fire with a diameter of 1 m and an unbounded
ceiling. They compare the FDS results with various correlations and a RANS (Reynolds-Averaged Navier-
Stokes) model.
Battaglia et al. [22] used FDS to simulate fire whirls. First, the model was shown to reproduce the
McCaffrey correlation of a fire plume, then it was shown to reproduce qualitatively certain features of fire
whirls. At the time, FDS used Lagrangian elements to introduce heat from the fire (no longer used), and this
combustion model could not replicate the extreme stretching of the core of the flame zone.
Quintiere and Ma [23, 24] compared predicted flame heights and plume centerline temperatures to
empirical correlations. For plume temperature, the Heskestad correlation [25] was chosen. Favorable agree-
ment was found in the plume region, but the results near the flame region were found to be grid-dependent,
especially for low Q∗ fires. At this same time, researchers at NIST were reaching similar conclusions, and
it was noticed by both teams that a critical parameter for the model is D∗ /δ x, where D∗ is the characteristic
fire diameter and δ x is the grid cell size. If this parameter is sufficiently large, the fire can be considered
well-resolved and agreement with various flame height correlations was found. If the parameter is not large
enough, the fire is not well-resolved and adjustments must be made to the combustion routine to account for
it.
Gutiérrez-Montes et al. [26] simulated 1.3 MW and 2.3 MW fires in a 20 m cubic atrium using FDS
version 4. Similar experiments were conducted at VTT, Finland, in a 19 m tall test hall with similar sized
fires. These results are included in Section 6.1.11.
Hurley and Munguia [27, 28] compared FDS (version 4) simulations with plume and ceiling jet measure-
ments from a series of full-scale tests conducted by Underwriters Laboratories. The tests were conducted
in a 36.6 m by 36.6 m compartment with ceiling heights ranging from 3 m to 12.2 m. Heat release rates
followed a modified t-squared growth profile. Thermocouples attached to brass disks were used to simulate
thermal detectors.

7
2.2.2 Pool Fires
Xin et al. [29] used FDS to model a 1 m diameter methane pool fire. The computational domain was 2 m
by 2 m by 4 m with a uniform grid size of 2.5 cm. The predicted results were compared to experimental
data and found to qualitatively and quantitatively reproduce the velocity field. The same authors performed
a similar study of a 7.1 cm methane burner [30] and a helium plume [31].
The 7.1 cm diameter buoyant diffusion flame has been extensively studied both experimentally and
computationally. Zhou and Gore [32] reported radial profiles of mixture fraction and vertical velocity for
estimation of thermal expansion for natural gas buoyant diffusion flames stabilized on a 7.1 cm diameter
diffuser burner. Xin et al. [33] used a Lagrangian thermal element based combustion model to simulate this
flame. The authors noted that the simulations were sensitive to the burnout time utilized by the combustion
model. To gain further insight into the species distribution inside the fire, Xin et al. [30] performed fire
dynamics simulations using a mixture fraction based combustion model. Xin and Gore [34] used laser-
induced incandescence to determine soot distributions in vertical and horizontal planes for methane and
ethane turbulent buoyant flames. Biswas et al. [35] utilized a novel time series model to simulate the scalar
concentrations and temperature fields for these flames.
Hostikka et al. [36] modeled small pool fires of methane, natural gas and methanol to test the FDS
radiation solver for low-sooting fires. They conclude that the predicted radiative fluxes are higher than
measured values, especially at small heat release rates, due to an over-prediction of the gas temperature.
These tests are also included in the Heat Flux section of this report.
Hietaniemi, Hostikka and Vaari [37] considered heptane pool fires of various diameters. Predictions
of the burning rate as a function of diameter follow the trend observed in a number of experimental stud-
ies. Their results show an improvement in the model over the earlier work with methanol fires, due to
improvements in the radiation routine and the fact that heptane is more sooty than methanol, simplifying
the treatment of radiation. The authors point out that reliable predictions of the burning rate of liquid fuels
require roughly twice as fine a grid spanning the burner than would be necessary to predict plume velocities
and temperatures. The reason for this is the prediction of the heat feedback to the burning surface necessary
to predict rather than to specify the burning rate.

2.2.3 Air and Gas Movement in the Absence of Fire

The low Mach number assumption in FDS is appropriate not only to fire, but to most building ventilation
scenarios. An example of how the model can be used to assess indoor air quality is presented by Musser
et al. [38]. The test compartment was a displacement ventilation test room that contained computers, furni-
ture, and lighting fixtures as well as heated rectangular boxes intended to represent occupants. A detailed
description of the test configuration is given by Yuan et al. [39]. The room is ventilated with cool supply
air introduced via a diffuser that is mounted on a side wall near the floor. The air rises as it is warmed by
heat sources and exits through a return duct located in the upper portion of the room. The flow pattern is in-
tended to remove contaminants by sweeping them upward at the source and removing them from the room.
Sulphur hexafluoride, SF6 , was introduced into the compartment during the experiment as a tracer gas near
the breathing zone of the occupants. Temperature, tracer concentration, and velocity were measured during
the experiments.
In another study, Musser and Tan [40] used FDS to assess the design of ventilation systems for facilities
in which train locomotives operate. Although there is only a limited amount of validation, the study is useful
in demonstrating a practical use of FDS for a non-fire scenario.
Mniszewski [41] used FDS to model the release of flammable gases in simple enclosures and open areas.
In this work, the gases were not ignited.
Kerber and Walton [42] provided a comparison between FDS version 1 and experiments on positive

8
pressure ventilation in a full-scale enclosure without a fire.

2.2.4 Wind Engineering

Most applications of FDS involve fires within buildings. However, it can be used to model thermal plumes
in the open and wind impinging on the exterior of a building. Rehm, McGrattan, Baum and Simiu [43] used
the LES solver to estimate surface pressures on simple rectangular blocks in a crosswind, and compared
these estimates to experimental measurements. In a subsequent paper [44], they considered the qualitative
effects of multiple buildings and trees on a wind field.
A different approach to wind was taken by Wang and Joulain [45]. They considered a small fire in a
wind tunnel 0.4 m wide and 0.7 m tall with flow speeds of 0.5 m/s to 2.5 m/s. Much of the comparison
with experiment is qualitative, including flame shape, lean, length. They also use the model to determine the
predominant modes of heat transfer for different operating conditions. To assess the combustion, they imple-
mented an “eddy break-up” combustion model [46] and compared it to the mixture fraction approach used
by FDS. The two models performed better or worse, depending on the operating conditions. Some of the
weaknesses of the mixture fraction model as implemented in FDS version 2 were addressed in subsequent
versions.
Chang and Meroney [47] compared the results of FDS with the commercial CFD package FLUENT in
simulating the transport of pollutants from steady point sources in an idealized urban environment. FLUENT
employs a variety of RANS (Reynolds Averaged Navier-Stokes) closure methods, whereas FDS employs
large eddy simulation (LES). The results of the numerical models were compared with wind tunnel mea-
surements within a 1:50 scale physical model of an urban street “canyon.”
FDS has recently been applied to urban canopy modeling [48] and wind engineering. Le et al. [49]
modeled flow over a backward facing step using DNS with a Reynolds number of 5,100. To verify the
results, Jovic and Driver [50] supplemented the DNS simulation with an identically proportioned wind
tunnel experiment. Together, the data sets from these two studies have provided the baseline for analysis of
recent simulations of flow over a backward facing step that are documented in this guide.
Sarwar et al. [51] used FDS to compare SGS eddy viscosity models. The constant Smagorinsky model
performed the best, although the dynamic Smagorinsky and Deardorff models, nearly equivalent in accuracy,
were found to perform better than the Vreman model. To avoid explicit specification of inlet turbulence
conditions, the authors created an extremely long inlet section to allow turbulence to develop.

2.2.5 Atmospheric Dispersion

During the 1980s and 1990s, the Building and Fire Research Laboratory at NIST studied the burning of
crude oil under the sponsorship of the US Minerals Management Service. The aim of the work was to
assess the feasibility of using burning as a means to remove spilled oil from the sea surface. As part of the
effort, Rehm and Baum developed a special application of the LES model called ALOFT. The model was
a spin-off of the two-dimensional LES enclosure model, in which a three-dimensional steady-state plume
was computed as a two-dimensional evolution of the lateral wind field generated by a large fire blown in
a steady wind. The ALOFT model is based on large eddy simulation in that it attempts to resolve the
relevant scales of a large, bent-over plume. Validation work was performed by simulating the plumes from
several large experimental burns of crude oil in which aerial and ground sampling of smoke particulate was
performed [52]. Yamada [53] performed a validation of the ALOFT model for 10 m oil tank fire. The results
indicate that the prediction of the plume cross section 500 m from the fire agree well with the experimental
observations.
Mouilleau and Champassith [54] performed a validation study to assess the ability of FDS (version 4) to
model atmospheric dispersion. They concluded that the best results were obtained for simulations done with

9
explicitly-modeled wind fluctuations. Specific atmospheric flow characteristics were evaluated for passive
releases in open and flat fields.

2.2.6 Growing Fires

Floyd [55, 56] compared FDS predictions with measurements from fire tests at the Heiss-Dampf Reaktor
(HDR) facility in Germany. The structure was originally the containment building for a nuclear power
reactor. The cylindrical structure was 20 m in diameter and 50 m in height topped by a hemispherical
dome 10 m in radius. The building was divided into eight levels. The total volume of the building was
approximately 11,000 m3 . From 1984 to 1991, four fire test series were performed within the HDR facility.
The T51 test series consisted of eleven propane gas tests and three wood crib tests.
FDS predictions of fire growth and smoke movement in large spaces were performed by Kashef [57].
The experiments were conducted at the National Research Council Canada. The tests were performed in a
compartment with dimensions of 9 m by 6 m by 5.5 m with 32 exhaust inlets and a single supply fan. A
burner generated fires ranging in size from 15 kW to 1000 kW.

2.2.7 Flame Spread

Although FDS simulations have been compared to actual and experimental large-scale fires, it is difficult
to quantify the accuracy because of the uncertainty associated with material properties. Most quantified
validation work associated with flame spread have been for small, laminar flames with length scales ranging
from millimeters to a few centimeters.
For example, FDS (or its core algorithms) have been used at a grid resolution of roughly 1 mm to
look at flames spreading over paper in a micro-gravity environment [58, 59, 60, 61, 62, 63], as well as “g-
jitter” effects aboard spacecraft [64]. Simulations have been compared to experiments performed aboard
the Space Shuttle. The flames are laminar and relatively simple in structure, and the materials are relatively
well-characterized.
FDS flame spread predictions were compared to experiments over a 5 m slab of PMMA performed by
Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC) [23, 24].
A charring model was implemented in FDS by Hostikka and McGrattan [65]. The model was a sim-
plification of work done at NIST by Ritchie et al. [66]. The charring model was first used to predict the
burning rate of a small wooden sample in the cone calorimeter. Full-scale room tests with wood paneling
were modeled, but the results were grid-dependent. This was likely a consequence of the gas phase spatial
resolution, rather than the solid phase.
Kwon et al. [67] performed three simulations to evaluate the capability of FDS, version 4, in predicting
upward flame spread. The FDS predictions were compared with empirical correlations and experimental
data for upward flame spread on a 5 m PMMA panel. A simplified flame spread model was also applied to
assess the simulation results.
An extensive amount of flame spread validation work with FDS version 4 has been performed by Hi-
etaniemi, Hostikka, and Vaari at VTT, Finland [37]. The case studies are comprised of fire experiments
ranging in scale from the cone calorimeter (ISO 5660-1, 2002) to full-scale fire tests such as the room cor-
ner test (ISO 9705, 1993). Comparisons are also made between FDS 4 results and data obtained in the SBI
(Single Burning Item) Euro-classification test apparatus (EN 13823, 2002) as well as data obtained in two
ad hoc experimental configurations: one is similar to the room corner test but has only partial linings and
the other is a space to study fires in building cavities. In the study of upholstered furniture, the experimental
configurations are the cone and furniture calorimeters, and the ISO room. For liquid pool fires, compari-
son is made to data obtained by numerous researchers. The burning materials include spruce timber, MDF
(Medium Density Fiber) board, PVC wall carpet, upholstered furniture, cables with plastic sheathing, and

10
heptane. The scope of the VTT work is considerable. Assessing the accuracy of the model must be done on
a case by case basis. In some cases, predictions of the burning rate of the material were based solely on its
fundamental properties, as in the heptane pool fire simulations. In other cases, some properties of the ma-
terial are unknown, as in the spruce timber simulations. Thus, some of the simulations are true predictions,
some are calibrations. The intent of the authors was to provide guidance to engineers using the model as to
appropriate grid sizes and material properties. In many cases, the numerical grid was made fairly coarse to
account for the fact that in practice, FDS is used to model large spaces of which the fuel may only comprise
a small fraction.
Mangs and Hostikka [68] carried out experiments and simulations (FDS 5.4.3) of the vertical flame
spread on the surface of thin birch wood cylinders at different ambient temperatures. The parameters for
the pyrolysis model were estimated from TGA and cone calorimeter experiments. The gas phase flow was
calculated in the DNS mode with 1.0 mm grid cells in axi-symmetric geometry. The simulation model
was able to predict the flame spread rates within the uncertainties associated with the experiments and
postsimulation analysis of the spread rate.

2.2.8 Compartment Fires

As part of the NIST investigation of the World Trade Center fires and collapse, a series of large scale fire
experiments were performed specifically to validate FDS [69]. The tests were performed in a rectangular
compartment 7.2 m long by 3.6 m wide by 3.8 m tall. The fires were fueled by heptane for some tests and a
heptane/toluene mixture for the others. The results of the experiments and simulations are included in detail
in this Guide.
A second set of experiments to validate FDS for use in the World Trade Center investigation is docu-
mented in Ref. [70]. The experiments are not described as part of this Guide. The intent of these tests was
to evaluate the ability of the model to simulate the growth of a fire burning three office workstations within a
compartment of dimensions 11 m by 7 m by 4 m, open at one end to mimic the ventilation of windows simi-
lar to those in the WTC towers. Six tests were performed with various initial conditions exploring the effect
of jet fuel spray and ceiling tiles covering the surface of the desks and carpet. Measurements were made of
the heat release rate and compartment gas temperatures at four locations using vertical thermocouple arrays.
Six different material samples were tested in the NIST cone calorimeter: desk, chair, paper, computer case,
privacy panel, and carpet. Data for the carpet, desk and privacy panel were input directly into FDS, with
the other three materials lumped together to form an idealized fuel type. Open burns of single workstations
were used to calibrate the simplified fuel package. Details of the modeling are contained in Ref. [71].
The BRE Centre for Fire Safety Engineering at the University of Edinburgh conducted a series of large-
scale fire tests in a real high rise building in Dalmarnock, Glasgow, Scotland [72, 73]. The experiments took
place in July, 2006, with the close collaboration of the Strathclyde Fire Brigade and other partners. These
experiments attempted to create realistic scenario in which a wide range of modern fire safety engineering
tools could be put to a test. Jahn, Rein and Torero assessed the sensitivity of FDS when applied to these
experiments [74]. Fire size and location, convection, radiation and combustion parameters were varied in
order to determine the associated degree of sensitivity. Emphasis was put in the prediction of secondary
ignition and time to flashover. In this context and while keeping the HRR constant, simulations of fire
growth were significantly sensitive to location of the heat release rate, fire area, flame radiative fraction, and
material thermal and ignition properties.
Students at Stord/Haugesund University College in Norway simulated full-scale experiments of temper-
ature and smoke spread in a realistic multi-room setting using both CFAST and FDS [75]. Data from the
top 0.5 m of the compartments was compared with measurements. The simulations were found to provide
satisfying results in CFAST, as an alternative to FDS.
Drean et al. [76] measured the fire exposure to an exterior facade of a two-level test facility operated

11
by the engineering firm Efectis in Saint-Aubin, France. The objective was to evaluate the ability of FDS,
version 6, to predict the gas temperatures and heat fluxes at the exterior wall.

2.2.9 Sprinklers, Mist System, and Suppression by Water

Vettori [77] modeled sprinkler activation patterns in a room with an obstructed ceiling. In a follow-up
report, Vettori [78] extended his study to include sloped ceilings, with and without obstructions. Both of
these experimental series are included within the current validation guide and are referred to the Vettori Flat
and Sloped Ceiling Experiments.
A significant validation effort for sprinkler activation and suppression was a project entitled the Interna-
tional Fire Sprinkler, Smoke and Heat Vent, Draft Curtain Fire Test Project organized by the National Fire
Protection Research Foundation [79]. Thirty-nine large scale fire tests were conducted at Underwriters Lab-
oratories in Northbrook, IL. The tests were aimed at evaluating the performance of various fire protection
systems in large buildings with flat ceilings, like warehouses and “big box” retail stores. All the tests were
conducted under a 30 m by 30 m adjustable-height platform in a 37 m by 37 m by 15 m high test bay. At
the time, FDS had not been publicly released and was referred to as the Industrial Fire Simulator (IFS), but
it was essentially the same as FDS version 1. The first and second series of heptane spray burner fires are
included in this guide under the heading “UL/NFPRF Sprinkler, Vent, and Draft Curtain Study.” Most of the
full-scale experiments performed during the project used a heptane spray burner to generate controlled fires
of 1 MW to 10 MW. However, five experiments were performed with 6 m high racks containing the Factory
Mutual Standard Plastic Commodity, or Group A Plastic. To model these fires, bench scale experiments
were performed to characterize the burning behavior of the commodity, and larger test fires provided vali-
dation data with which to test the model predictions of the burning rate and flame spread behavior [80, 81].
Two to four tier configurations were evaluated.
High rack storage fires of pool chemicals were modeled by Olenick et al. [82] to determine the validity
of sprinkler activation predictions of FDS. The model was compared to full-scale fires conducted in January,
2000 at Southwest Research Institute in San Antonio, Texas.
FDS has been used to study the behavior of a fire undergoing suppression by a water mist system. Kim
and Ryou [83, 84] compared FDS predictions to results of compartment fire tests with and without the
application of a water mist. The cooling and oxygen dilution were predicted to within about 10 % of the
measurements, but the simulations failed to predict the complete extinguishment of a hexane pool fire. The
authors suggest that this is a result of the combustion model rather than the spray or droplet model.
Another study of water mist suppression using FDS was conducted by Hume at the University of Can-
terbury, Christchurch, New Zealand [85]. Full-scale experiments were performed in which a fine water mist
was combined with a displacement ventilation system to protect occupants and electrical equipment in the
event of a fire. Simulations of these experiments with FDS showed qualitative agreement, but the version of
the model used in the study (version 3) was not able to predict accurately the decrease in heat release rate of
the fire.
Hostikka and McGrattan [86] evaluated the absorption of thermal radiation by water sprays. They
considered two sets of experimental data and concluded that FDS has the ability to predict the attenuation of
thermal radiation “when the hydrodynamic interaction between the droplets is weak.” However, modeling
interacting sprays would require a more costly coalescence model. They also note that the results of the
model were sensitive to grid size, angular discretization, and droplet sampling.
O’Grady and Novozhilov [87] compared the predictions of FDS version 4 against full-scale fire tests
performed at SP Sweden involving a 1.5 MW steady-state fire with two different sprinkler flow rates [88].
The authors reported results for gas temperatures and the tangential flow velocity in the ceiling jet. Sen-
sitivity of the model to a range of input parameters was investigated. The model demonstrated moderate
sensitivity to the spray parameters, such as spray cone configuration, initial droplet velocities, and droplet

12
sizes. On the other hand, the sensitivity to other parameters such as sprinkler atomization length and rms of
droplet size distribution was low.
Xiao [89] compared FDS simulations with real scale compartment measurements for unsprinklered and
sprinklered experiments. Numerical results for doorway mass flow rate and temperature are compared with
the experimental data for three fire sizes.

2.2.10 Airflows in Fire Compartments

Friday and Mowrer [90] studied the use of FDS in large scale mechanically ventilated spaces. The ventilated
enclosure was provided with air injection rates of 1 to 12 air changes per hour and a fire with heat release
rates ranging from 0.5 MW to 2 MW. The test measurements and model output were compared to assess the
accuracy of FDS. These simulations have been repeated with the latest version of FDS and reported in this
guide under the heading “FM/SNL Test Series.”
Zhang et al. [91] utilized the FDS model to predict turbulence characteristics of the flow and temperature
fields due to fire in a compartment. The experimental data was acquired through tests that replicated a half-
scale ISO Room Fire Test. Two cases were explored – the heat source in the center of the room and the heat
source adjacent to a wall. In both cases, the heat source was a heating element with an output of 12 kW/m2 .

2.2.11 Tunnel Fires

Cochard [92] used FDS to study the ventilation within a tunnel. He compared the model results with a
full-scale tunnel fire experiment conducted as part of the Massachusetts Highway Department Memorial
Tunnel Fire Ventilation Test Program. The test consisted of a single point supply of fresh air through a
28 m2 opening in a 135 m tunnel.
McGrattan and Hamins [93] also applied FDS to simulate two of the Memorial Tunnel Fire Tests as val-
idation for the use of the model in studying an actual fire in the Howard Street Tunnel, Baltimore, Maryland,
July 2001. The experiments chosen for the comparison were unventilated. One experiment was a 20 MW
fire; the other a 50 MW fire.
Piergoirgio et al. [94] provided a qualitative analysis of FDS applied to a truck fire within a tunnel.
The goal of their analysis was to describe the spread of the toxic gases within the tunnels, to determine the
places not involved in the spreading of combustion products and to quantify the oxygen, carbon monoxide
and hydrochloric acid concentrations during the fire.
Edwards et al. [95, 96] used FDS to determine the critical air velocity for smoke reversal in a tunnel as
a function of the fire intensity, and his results compared favorably with experimental results. In a further
study, Edwards and Hwang [97] applied FDS to study fire spread along combustibles in a ventilated mine
entry. Analyses such as these are intended for planning and implementation of ventilation changes during
mine fire fighting and rescue operations.
Bilson et al. [98] used FDS to evaluate the interaction of a deluge system with a tunnel ventilation and
smoke exhaust system.
Harris [99] used FDS to determine the heat flux from a tunnel fire under varying water application rates.
These results were qualitatively consistent with experimental results of Arvidson [100], who conducted burn
tests for shielded and unshielded standard plastic commodities under a variety of spray conditions.
Trelles and Mawhinney [101, 102] simulated with FDS 4 a series of full-scale fire suppression experi-
ments conducted at the San Pedro de Anes test tunnel near Gijon, Asturias, Spain in February, 2006. The
fuel consisted of wooden and polyethylene pallets, and the suppression system consisted of different con-
figurations of water mist nozzles.

13
2.2.12 Smoke Detection
The ability of version 1 of FDS to accurately predict smoke detector activation was studied by D’Souza [103].
The smoke transport model within FDS was tested and compared with UL 217 test data. The second step
in this research was to further validate the model with full-scale multi-compartment fire tests. The results
indicated that FDS is capable of predicting smoke detector activation when used with smoke detector lag
correlations that correct for the time delay associated with smoke having to penetrate the detector housing.
A follow-up report by Roby et al. [104] and paper by Zhang et al. [105] describes the implementation and
validation of the smoke detector algorithm currently incorporated in FDS.
Another study of smoke detector activation was carried out by Brammer at the University of Canterbury,
New Zealand [106]. Two fire tests from a series performed in a two-story residence were simulated, and
smoke detector activation times were predicted using three different methods. The methods consisted of
either a temperature correlation, a time-lagged function of the optical density, or a thermal device much like
a heat detector. The purpose was to identify ways to reliably predict smoke detector activation using typical
model output like temperature and smoke concentration. It was remarked that simulating the early stage of
the fire is critical to reliable prediction.
Cleary [107] also provided a comparison between FDS computed gas velocity, temperature and concen-
trations at various detector locations. The research concluded that multi-room fire simulations with the FDS
model can accurately predict the conditions that a sensor might experience during a real fire event.

2.2.13 Combustion Model

A few studies have been performed comparing direct numerical simulations (DNS) of a simple burner flame
to laboratory experiments [108]. Another study compared DNS calculations of a counterflow diffusion
flames to experimental measurements and the results of a one-dimensional multi-step kinetics model [109].
Bundy, Dillon and Hamins [110, 111] studied the use of FDS in providing data and correlations for fire
investigators to support their investigations. A paraffin wax candle was placed within a small plexi-glass
enclosure. The heat flux from the candle flame was modeled with FDS.
Floyd et al. [112, 56] compared the radiation model of FDS version 2 with full-scale data from the Vir-
ginia Tech Fire Research Laboratory (VTFRL). The test compartment was outfitted with equipment capable
of taking temperature, air velocity, gas concentrations, unburned hydrocarbon and heat flux measurements.
The test facility consisted of a single compartment geometrically similar to the ISO 9705 standard compart-
ment with dimensions of 1.2 m by 1.8 m by 1.2 m in height. The ceiling and walls were constructed of
fiberboard over a steel shell with a floor of concrete. Three baseline experiments were completed with fires
ranging in size from 90 kW to 440 kW.
Xin and Gore [113] compared FDS predictions and measurements of the spectral radiation intensities of
small fires. The fuel flow rates for methane and ethylene burners were selected so that the Froude numbers
matched that of liquid toluene pool fires. The heat release rate was 4.2 kW for the methane flame and
3.4 kW for the ethylene flame. Line of sight spectral radiation intensities were measured at six downstream
locations. The spectral radiation intensity calculations were performed by post-processing the transient
scalar distributions provided by FDS.
Zhang et al. [114] compared the experimental results of a circular methane gas burner to predictions
computed by FDS. The compartment was 2.8 m by 2.8 m by 2.2 m high with natural ventilation from a
standard door.

2.2.14 Soot Deposition

Several studies have been conducted that indicate soot deposition is an important factor in compartment
fires for the accurate prediction of smoke concentrations, smoke detector activations, and visibility. Gottuk

14
et al. [115] reported that smoke concentrations predicted by FDS near smoke alarms in a corridor were two
to five times greater than measured smoke concentrations. Hamins et al. [116] conducted full-scale com-
partment fire experiments for use in validation studies of various fire models, including FDS. The results
indicated that smoke concentrations predicted by FDS were up to five times greater than measured smoke
concentrations. Floyd and McDermott [117] implemented thermophoretic and turbulent diffusion soot depo-
sition mechanisms in FDS and compared predicted soot densities and concentrations to measurements from
small- and large-scale experiments. Riahi [118] conducted bench-scale experiments to measure soot densi-
ties and soot deposition patterns on walls for various fuels. Riahi identified thermophoretic deposition as an
important soot deposition mechanism in the hot gas layer. Cohan [119] used FDS to simulate select cases
from the Gottuk [115] corridor tests, Hamins et al. [116] NRC experiments, and Riahi [118] hood experi-
ments with thermophoretic and turbulent diffusion soot deposition mechanisms. Overholt and Ezekoye [120]
implemented gravitational settling of soot in the gas-phase in FDS and quantified the effects of gravitational
settling/deposition compared to thermophoretic and turbulent diffusion deposition for small- and large-scale
validation cases.

2.3 Reconstructions of Actual Fires

ASTM E 1355 states that a model may be evaluated by comparing it with “Documented Fire Experience”
which includes:

• eyewitness accounts of real fires,

• known behavior of materials in fires (for example, melting temperatures of materials), and

• observed post-fire conditions, such as the extent of fire spread.

Often the term “reconstruction” is applied to this type of simulation, because the model is used to reconstruct
events based on evidence collected during and after the fire. Some of the more notable studies performed at
NIST include:

• McGrattan, Bouldin, and Forney simulated the fires within the World Trade Center towers and Building
7 on September 11, 2001 [71].

• Grosshandler et al. investigated the fire that occurred at the Station Nightclub in Rhode Island in Febru-
ary, 2003 [121].

• Madrzykowski and Vettori examined a fire in a townhouse in Washington, D.C., where two fire fighters
were killed and one severely injured in 1999 [122].

• Vettori, Madrzykowski, and Walton simulated a fire in a Houston restaurant that killed two fire fighters
in 2000 [123].

• Madrzykowski, Forney and Walton simulated a fire that killed three children and three fire fighters in a
two story duplex house in Iowa in 1999 [124].

• Madrzykowski and Walton investigated the fire in the Cook County (Chicago) Administration Building
in October, 2003, that killed six people trapped in a stairwell [125].

• Bryner et al. simulated a fire in a large furniture store that occurred in June, 2007, killing nine fire
fighters [126].

15
Outside of NIST, FDS has been used to investigate many actual fires, but very few of these studies are
documented in the literature. Exceptions include:

• A large fire in a “cash & carry” warehouse in the UK was studied by Camp and Townsend using both
hand calculations and FDS (version 1) [127].

• A study by Rein et al. [128] looked at several fire events using an analytical fire growth model, the NIST
zone model CFAST, and FDS.

• A similar study was performed several years earlier by Spearpoint et al. [129] as a class exercise at the
University of Maryland.

• During the SFPE Professional Development Week in the fall of 2001, a workshop was held in which
several engineers related their experiences using FDS as a forensic tool [130].

• The role of carbon monoxide in the deaths of three fire fighters was studied by Christensen and Icove [131].

16
Chapter 3

Description of Experiments

This chapter contains a brief description of the experiments that were used for model validation. Only
enough detail is included here to provide a general understanding of the model simulations. Anyone wish-
ing to use the experimental measurements for validation ought to consult the cited test reports or other
publications for a comprehensive description.

3.1 ArupFire Tunnel Fire Experiments

Gabriele Vigne and Jimmy Jönsson of ArupFire conducted a series of fire experiments within a tunnel with
a 50 m2 cross section. The tunnel is located in La Ribera del Folgoso, Spain. It is approximately 6.5 m
high, 8 m wide and 300 m long. Five replicate tests were conducted using a 1 m by 2 m steel pan filled
with heptane on water. Near-ceiling temperatures were measured 2 m, 4 m, 6 m and 8 m from the plume
centerline. The peak heat release rate was approximately 5.3 MW.

3.2 ATF Corridors Experiments

A series of eighteen experiments were conducted in a two-story structure with long hallways and a con-
necting stairway in the large burn room of the ATF Fire Research Laboratory in Ammendale, Maryland, in
2008 [132]. The test enclosure consisted of two 17.0 m long hallways connected by a stairway consisting of
two staircases and an intermediary landing. There was a door at the opposite end of the first floor hallway,
which was closed during all tests. The end of the second floor hallway was open with a soffit near the ceiling.
The walls and ceilings of the test structure were constructed of 1.2 cm gypsum wallboard. The flooring
throughout the structure, including the stairwell landing floor, consisted of one layer of 1.3 cm thick cement
board on one layer of 1.9 cm thick plywood supported by wood joists. The first set of stairs, which had eight
risers, led from the first floor up to the landing area. The second set of stairs, which had nine risers, led from
the landing area up to the second floor. The stairs were constructed of 2.5 cm thick clear pine lumber. The
two set of stairs were separated by an approximately 0.42 m wide gap in the middle of the stairwell. This
gap was separated from the stairs by a 0.91 m tall barrier constructed of a single piece of gypsum board.
The flue space was open to the first floor. The flue space was separated from the second floor by a 0.9 m tall
barrier constructed of gypsum board. There was a metal exterior type door at the end of the first floor near
the burner. The door was closed during all experiments.
The fire source was a natural gas diffusion burner. The burner surface was horizontal, square and 0.45 m
on each side, its surface was 0.37 m above the floor, and it was filled with gravel. The burner was located
near the end of the first floor away from the stairs. A diagram of the test structure is displayed in Figure 3.1.

17
Figure 3.1: Geometry of the ATF Corridors Experiments.

18
3.3 Atmospheric Dispersion Correlations
A common exercise in atmospheric dispersion modeling is predicting the plume rise height of stack emis-
sions. Stull [133] presents an empirical correlation for plume rise height from a smoke stack in a stable
atmospheric boundary layer. Details of the correlation and simulation are found in Section 15.3.

3.4 Backward Facing Step

A common validation experiment for CFD codes involves flow through a channel with a backward facing
step. These experiments are designed to test the influence of grid resolution, inlet turbulence, wall boundary
treatments, and eddy viscosity models. One set of experiments has been conducted by Jovic and Driver [50].
A schematic view of the experiment is shown in Fig. 3.2. The dimensions of the channel are based on step
height h = 0.0098 m. The length of the channel is 24 h. The width of the channel is 4 h. The height of the
inlet section is 5 h, and the height of the channel downstream of the step is 6 h. The expansion ratio is thus
1.2. The inlet is split into three sub-inlets to permit localized variation of inlet turbulence. The Reynolds
number of the flow is 5100, based on the free-stream velocity (7.2 m/s) and the step height.

Figure 3.2: Geometry of the Backward Facing Step experiments.

3.5 Beyler Hood Experiments

Craig Beyler performed small-scale fire experiments where a variety of circular gas burners were centered
at various heights underneath a closed, cylindrical hood, 100 cm in diameter and 48 cm in height [134]. The
hood consisted of two concentric cylinders separated by an air gap, as shown in Fig. 3.3. The inner cylinder

19
was shorter than the outer and this allowed combustion products to be removed uniformly from the hood
perimeter. The exhaust gases were then analyzed to determine species concentrations. The burner could be
raised and lowered with respect to the bottom edge of the hood. The reported relative standard uncertainty
of the measured gas species mass fractions was 6 %. The fuels consisted of acetone, ethanol, isopropanol,
methanol, propane, propylene, and toluene. Hood equivalence ratios varied from 0.2 to 1.7. A subset of
47 of the original 148 experiments spanning the equivalence ratio range for each fuel were simulated for
validation, see Table 3.1.

100 cm

48 cm

30 cm
Burner

Figure 3.3: Sketch of Beyler Hood cross section.

Modeling Notes
Simulations of the Beyler Hood experiments are performed at 3 cm resolution within a fairly simple facsim-
ile of the actual hood. The boundary conditions are set to adiabatic to allow for a relatively quick ramp up
to steady-state conditions.
The two-step simple chemistry combustion scheme is applied, where an infinitely fast reaction converts
the fuel to CO, soot, and water vapor, followed sequentially by a second fast reaction that converts the soot
and CO to CO2 . Some of the soot and CO does not convert to CO2 , based on post-flame yields listed by
Tewarson [135].
A minimum auto-ignition temperature is specified for each fuel [136] to prevent the fuel vapor from
igniting at the layer interface. This restriction is relaxed in the grid cells just above the burner surface to
allow for ignition without a secondary heat source. In addition, a critical flame temperature of 500 ◦ C is
applied in all cases to account for local flame extinction. The grid is too coarse to support the actual values,
and the chosen value is a placeholder until a better flame extinction model is developed.

20
Table 3.1: Summary of simulated Beyler Hood experiments. A negative value of Separation Distance
indicates the burner top is below the lower rim of the hood.

Exp. Fuel HRR Burner Sep. Exp. Fuel HRR Burner Sep.
No. Gas (kW) (cm) Dist. (cm) No. Gas (kW) (cm) Dist. (cm)
117 Acetone 18.0 22.6 -12 232 Propane 13.5 19.5 -5
119 Acetone 16.4 22.6 -1 257 Propane 8.2 19.5 -15
122 Acetone 16.4 22.6 4 287 Propane 7.9 19.5 5
142 Acetone 12.1 22.6 4 303 Propane 18.3 19.5 5
145 Acetone 12.7 22.6 4 307 Propane 21.4 19.5 5
106 Ethanol 17.3 22.6 -9 318 Propane 18.3 19.5 -20
107 Ethanol 21.3 22.6 -4 322 Propane 21.4 19.5 -20
108 Ethanol 17.3 22.6 4 334 Propane 21.4 19.5 -15
110 Ethanol 13.5 22.6 4 355 Propane 18.3 19.5 0
115 Ethanol 13.5 22.6 4 359 Propane 21.4 19.5 0
130 Isopropanol 12.4 22.6 4 371 Propane 21.4 19.5 -5
132 Isopropanol 12.4 22.6 4 389 Propane 18.3 19.5 0
133 Isopropanol 12.4 22.6 4 429 Propane 28.1 19.5 -10
136 Isopropanol 12.4 22.6 -1 433 Propane 31.5 19.5 -10
141 Isopropanol 12.4 22.6 4 445 Propane 31.5 19.5 -15
942 Methanol 11.0 22.6 0 780 Propylene 7.5 19.5 -10
943 Methanol 11.0 22.6 0 805 Propylene 7.5 19.5 -10
945 Methanol 11.0 22.6 -5 859 Propylene 31.4 19.5 -10
947 Methanol 11.0 22.6 0 870 Propylene 19.0 19.5 -2
951 Methanol 9.8 22.6 0 882 Propylene 19.1 19.5 -10
160 Toluene 11.5 22.6 -6 886 Propylene 19.1 19.5 -5
162 Toluene 11.5 22.6 -1 910 Propylene 31.4 19.5 -11
165 Toluene 11.5 22.6 4
166 Toluene 11.5 22.6 5
170 Toluene 11.5 22.6 4

3.6 BGC/GRI LNG Fire Experiments

In 1982 and 1983, P.A. Croce and K.S. Mudan of Arthur D. Little, Inc., and J. Moorhouse of the British Gas
Corporation (BGC) supervised 13 liquified natural gas (LNG) trench fire experiments conducted by BGC
on behalf of the Gas Research Institute (GRI) [137]. Thirteen experiments were performed with nominal
trench sizes ranging from 0.8 m by 4.4 m to 3.9 m by 52 m and aspect ratios ranging from approximately
5 to 30. Wind speeds varied from approximately 1 m/s to almost 10 m/s. Measurements made during
the tests included flame geometry, radiative heat flux, emissive power, burning rate, LNG liquid and vapor
compositions, and meteorological data. The fires were observed to exhibit substantial flame drag and flame
breakup, unlike low aspect ratio pools. Steady burning was achieved in all tests.
The key parameters for each experiment are listed in Table 3.2. The Flame Tilt angle is the measured
deflection of the flame from the vertical. The Flame Drag Ratio is the distance that the flame drags along the
ground outside of the trench added to the trench width, and then divided by the trench width. The Avg. Flame
Length denotes the time-averaged flame length, while the Max. Flame Length refers to the time-averaged
extent of the fluctuating flame tips.

21
 Table 3.2: BGC/GRI LNG Fires test parameters.

Test Trench Trench Aspect Wind Burning Flame Flame Avg. Flame Max. Flame
No. Length Width Ratio Speed Rate Tilt Drag Length Length
(m) (m) (m/s) (kg/m2 /s) (deg) Ratio (m) (m)
1 23.53 1.81 13.00 3.8 0.064 56.3 2.57 4.4 8.9
2 15.52 1.81 8.57 1.5 0.069 56.1 2.30 3.8 7.3
3 9.23 1.83 5.04 1.0 0.098 45.2 1.21 7.1 11.4
4 23.50 1.83 12.84 8.36 0.054 56.8 2.96 3.4 7.3
5 9.05 1.82 4.97 9.31 0.060 60.5 2.96 4.2 8.2
6 23.45 3.94 5.95 4.98 0.082 59.6 2.62 6.9 16.8
7 23.45 0.82 28.60 3.80 0.049 48.3 3.98 2.0 4.3
8 11.82 0.82 14.41 2.05 0.058 49.8 3.77 2.1 4.6
9 9.10 0.82 11.10 5.40 0.051 47.0 3.68 1.5 3.7
10 52.05 3.89 l3.38 7.05 0.060 61.3 2.83 7.9 20.3
11 4.37 0.81 5.40 5.90 0.052 49.9 4.16 1.8 3.6
12 52.15 1.82 28.65 8.60 0.046 61.3 3.70 3.3 8.1
13 23.10 0.77 30.00 3.69 0.043 55.7 4.23 2.1 5.3

Modeling Notes
The experiments are simulated using the specified fuel burning rate. The fuel is assumed to be methane. The
atmosphere is assumed to be neutral with a large Obukhov length, L = 1000000, and the ground surface is
flat with an assumed aerodynamic roughness, z0 = 0.1 m. The relative humidity, ambient temperature and
pressure, and wind speed at 9 m are specified in the report. The radiative fraction is assumed to 0.25 and the
radiative path length is assumed to be 50 m; that is, the effective absorption coefficients of the various gas
mixtures are evaluated over a distance of 50 m. The radiation source term is taken directly as 25 % of the
combustion energy release rate. The soot yield is assumed to be 0.005.

Flame Height Results: Section 6.2.3

Flame Tilt Results: Section 6.3

Heat Flux Results: Section 12.2.3

3.7 Bittern Sprinkler Experiments

In 2004, a set of 22 fire experiments was conducted at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, by Adam
Bittern [138, 139]. In each experiment, a single chair was burned within an enclosure with two sprinklers
installed. The sprinklers were not charged with flowing water during the experiments, but pressure gauges
were installed immediately upstream of each sprinkler to indicate activation. The sprinkler actuation time,
chair mass loss rate, and gas temperature profile were measured. The HRR was estimated from the measured
mass loss rate and heat of combustion of the fuel.
The experiments incorporated four different types of sprinklers, two fire locations (the center and corner
of the enclosure), and two ventilation conditions (open or closed door). The enclosure was timber-framed
and lined with 10 mm thick gypsum plasterboard. The door was made of plywood and was 0.8 m wide
by 2.1 high. The compartment layout, dimensions and experimental arrangement are shown in Figure 3.4.

22
The chair used as fuel for each experiment was made of flexible polyurethane foam slabs, where each slab
measured approximately 0.5 m by 0.4 m by 0.1 m. The seat was ignited using a solid petroleum lighter.
Table 3.3 reports the sprinkler actuation times of each sprinkler.

Corner
Chair 0.8 m

2.0 m 2.0 m

Sprinkler 1 Sprinkler 2
4.0 m
2.0 m 2.0 m
Center
Chair

8.0 m

Figure 3.4: Plan view of the Bittern Sprinkler Experiments.

Modeling Notes
The assumptions given in this section were used in the original analysis of the experiments [138].
The gypsum board had a thickness of 1 cm, density of 731 kg/m3 , specific heat of 0.90 kJ/(kg·K),
conductivity of 0.17 W/(m·K), and emissivity of 0.88. The concrete floor was assumed to have a thickness
of 10 cm, density of 2300 kg/m3 , specific heat of 0.88 kJ/(kg·K), conductivity of 1.2 W/(m·K), and emissivity
of 0.5.
The properties of the sprinklers are shown in Table 3.4. These properties are based on the manufacturer’s
specification where available or otherwise estimated based on measured values of comparable sprinklers.
For modeling purposes, the sprinkler offset, 2 cm, was selected based on an approximate 2 cm glass bulb
length, and the C-factor selected was based on a sensitivity analyses undertaken in the original study.
The average heat of combustion of the upholstery was measured in a cone calorimeter to be 21.9 MJ/kg
(Exp. 1-10) and 20.4 MJ/kg (Exp. 12-22). Since the primary fuel used in the experiments was flexible
polyurethane foam, the radiant loss fraction assumed in the fire model was 0.46. Other combustion pa-
rameters were as for polyurethane foam, and all parameters selected are consistent with those used in the
original BRANZFIRE study [139]. For the “simple chemistry” combustion model, inputs for stoichiomet-
ric yields have been selected from literature based on GM23 foam, with an effective molecular formula of
CH1.8 O0.35 N0.06 . The soot yield was assumed to be 0.227 kg/kg. The area of the fire was taken to be 0.4 m
by 0.5 m. The height of the fire was assumed to be 0.65 m above the floor.

23
Table 3.3: Summary of results, Bittern experiments. Note that Exp. 11 has been excluded because of a failed
mass loss measurement.

Exp. Spr. 1 Time (s) Spr. 2 Time (s) T0 (◦ C) Door Fire Position
1 Res A 210 Res A 250 23.7 Open Center
2 Res A 225 Res A 211 25.5 Open Center
3 Res B 192 Res B 192 25.5 Open Center
4 SS68 226 SS68 226 25.7 Open Center
5 SS68 266 SS68 272 27.5 Open Center
6 SS68 216 SS68 211 27.7 Open Center
7 Res A 182 Res A 186 28.2 Open Center
8 Res B 182 Res B 187 27.9 Open Center
9 Res B 233 Res B 230 28.9 Open Center
10 Res A 183 Res B 184 29.4 Open Center
12 SS68 246 Res B 228 24.0 Closed Center
13 SS68 204 Res B 194 24.5 Closed Center
14 SS68 203 Res B 187 24.2 Closed Center
15 SS68 270 Res B 253 23.7 Closed Center
16 Res B 178 Res A 224 20.6 Closed Corner
17 Res B 181 Res A 228 23.8 Closed Corner
18 SS68 187 Res A 221 25.0 Closed Corner
19 SS68 189 Res A 223 26.4 Closed Corner
20 SS68 205 Res A DNA 25.3 Closed Corner
21 SS93 216 SS93 330 25.2 Closed Corner
22 SS93 205 SS93 263 25.2 Closed Corner

Table 3.4: Properties of sprinklers used in Bittern Experiments.

Short Description RTI C-Factor Act. Temp.

Name (m·s)1/2 (m/s)1/2 ◦C

Res A Residential, 3 mm glass bulb 36 0.4 68

Res B Residential, 3 mm glass bulb 36 0.4 68
SS68 Standard Response, 5 mm glass bulb 95 0.4 68
SS93 Standard Response, 5 mm glass bulb 95 0.4 93

For experiments 11 to 22, the door to the compartment was closed. The estimated leakage area was
assumed based on data for loose-fitting internal walls. An area of 0.053 m2 was evenly distributed across
the door.

3.8 Bouchair Solar Chimney

To evaluate solar-induced ventilation systems in desert climates, Bouchair [140] constructed a simple test
apparatus shown in Fig. 3.5. A compartment with interior dimensions of approximately 1.6 m long, 1.8 m,
and 2.0 m high had a window on one side and an air inlet slot on the other, leading into a 1.5 m wide cavity
with two heating panels spanning the long dimension. The panels were heated to 10 ◦ C, 20 ◦ C, 30 ◦ C, or
40 ◦ C above ambient, drawing air through the compartment and into the thermal cavity. The mass flow rate

24
of air through the cavity was measured. The inlet slot was either 0.1 m or 0.4 m high, and 1.4 m wide. The
thermal cavity was 1.5 m wide, and the hot panels were separated by 0.1 m, 0.2 m, 0.3 m, 0.5 m, or 1.0 m.
In all, there were 40 different sets of test parameters.
In addition to the results presented in this guide, simulations of this experiment were performed by Shi
and Zhang [141]. The objective of the simulations is to predict the mass flow rate by accurately modeling
the convective heat transfer between the air and hot panels.

Figure 3.5: Geometry of the Bouchair Solar Chimney experiment.

3.9 BRE Spray Test for Radiation Attenuation

Murrel et al. [142] measured the attenuation of thermal radiation passing through a water spray using a heat
flux gauge. The radiation was produced by a heat panel, one meter square, at 900 ◦ C. The horizontal distance
from the radiation panel to the spray nozzle was 2 m and to the measurement point 4 m. The nozzles were
positioned at a height 0.24 m above the panel upper edge. The heat flux gauge was positioned at the line
passing through the center of the panel. The attenuation of radiation was defined as (q0 − qs )/q0 , where q0
is the initial radiative heat flux, measured without a spray, and qs is the heat flux measured during the spray
operation.

25
 Experimental results are used from three full-cone type nozzles, labeled A, B and D. The opening angles
of the nozzles were between 90 and 108 degrees. The purpose of the simulation is to compare the measured
and simulated attenuation of radiation at different flow conditions. The nozzles were specified in terms of
median droplet size and mean vertical velocity using PDPA measurement in a single position, 0.7 m below
the nozzle. The droplet boundary conditions were determined by assuming dm ∝ p−1/3 and v ∝ p1/2 type of
dependencies between the droplet size, speed and pressure.

3.10 Bryant Doorway Velocity Measurements

Rodney Bryant of the Fire Research Division at NIST performed a series of velocity measurements of the
gas velocity within the doorway of a standard ISO 9705 compartment for fires ranging from 34 kW to
511 kW [143, 144, 145]. A doorway served as the only vent for the enclosure. It included a jamb of 37 cm
extending outward to facilitate the laser measurements. The entire compartment was elevated 0.3 m off the
floor of the laboratory (see Fig. 3.6). The measurements were made using both bi-directional probes and
PIV (Particle Image Velocimetry). The PIV measurements only cover the lower two-thirds of the doorway
because of difficulties in seeding the hot outflow gases. The bi-directional probe measurements span the
entire height of the doorway, but Bryant reports that these measurements were up to 20 % greater than the
PIV measurements in certain regions of the flow. Consequently, only the PIV data was used for comparison
to the model.

26
 Figure 3.6: Geometry of Bryant’s compartment.

3.11 BST/FRS Wood Crib Fire Experiments

In 1993, British Steel Technical, Swinden Laboratories, in collaboration with the Building Research Estab-
lishment (BRE), Fire Research Station, conducted nine fire experiments inside the BRE ex-airship hangar
testing facility at Cardington, Bedfordshire, England [146]. The objective of the experiments was to examine
the influence of combustible loading and ventilation on fire severity.
The roof of the test compartment was made of 20 cm thick reinforced aerated concrete slabs with a
density of 450 kg/m3 . The walls were made of 215 mm thick lightweight concrete blocks with a density of
1375 kg/m3 . The floor was covered with a 125 mm deep layer of sand with a density of 1750 kg/m3 . Both
the roof and walls were lined with two 25 mm thick layers of standard grade ceramic fiber blanket with a
density of 128 kg/m3 . Taking into account the lining materials, the compartment was 22.9 m long, 5.6 m
deep, and 2.8 m high.
Ventilation was provided at one end of the compartment through a full-width, variable height opening.
Lightweight concrete blocks were used to construct temporary walls to reduce the ventilation from fully
open to an eighth of the available area.
The combustibles consisted of 33 1 m square wood cribs in 11 rows. Each crib was constructed of
1 m long and 5 cm square cross section sticks of Western Hemlock softwood ( density 400 kg/m3 ), dried
to 10 % moisture content. The sticks were stacked with 5 cm gaps. Table 3.5 lists the fire load densities

27
and ventilation areas. The rear-most three cribs at the back of the compartment were ignited simultaneously.
Temperatures were measured along crib lines 2 (back), 6 (middle) and 10 (front), using 3 mm thermocouples
placed 300 mm below the ceiling. The average of three thermocouples at the same longitudial position is
used for model validation.
Table 3.5: Fire load densities and relative ventilation areas in the BST/FRS experiments [146].

Test number 1 2 3 4 5 6
Combustible load (kg/m2 ) 40 20 20 40 20 20
Relative Ventilation Area 1/1 1/1 1/2 1/2 1/4 1/8

Modeling Notes
The fire spread on wood cribs is modeled as a combination of simple and complex pyrolysis models. The un-
resolved surface area of the wood cribs is compensated using a area multiplicator input parameter. Modeling
is reported in [147].

3.12 Cable Response to Live Fire – CAROLFIRE

CAROLFIRE was a project sponsored by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission to study the thermal
response and functional behavior of electrical cables [148]. The primary objective of CAROLFIRE was
to characterize the various modes of electrical failure (e.g., hot shorts, shorts to ground) within bundles
of power, control and instrument cables. A secondary objective of the project was to develop a simple
model to predict thermally-induced electrical failure (THIEF). The measurements used for these purposes
were conducted at Sandia National Laboratories and are described in Volume II of the CAROLFIRE test
report. In brief, there were two series of experiments. The first were conducted within a heated cylindrical
enclosure. Single and bundled cables were exposed to various heat fluxes and the electrical failure modes
recorded. The second series of experiments involved cables within trays in a semi-enclosed space under
which a gas-fueled burner created a hot layer to force cable failure. Only results from the first series are
used here.
Petra Andersson and Patrick Van Hees of the Swedish National Testing and Research Institute (SP) pro-
posed that a cable’s thermally-induced electrical failure can be predicted via a one-dimensional heat transfer
calculation, under the assumption that the cable can be treated as a homogenous cylinder [149]. Their results
for PVC cables were encouraging and suggested that the simplification of the analysis is reasonable and that
it should extend to other types of cables. The assumptions underlying the THIEF model are as follows:
1. The heat penetration into a cable of circular cross section is primarily in the radial direction.
2. The cable is homogeneous in composition. In reality, a cable is constructed of several different types of
polymeric materials, cellulosic fillers, and a conducting metal, most often copper.
3. The thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density of the assumed homogeneous cable are independent
of temperature. In reality, both the thermal conductivity and specific heat of polymers are temperature-
dependent, but this information is not easily obtained from manufacturers.
4. It is assumed that no decomposition reactions occur within the cable during its heating, and ignition
and burning are not considered in the model. In fact, thermoplastic cables melt, thermosets form a char
layer, and both release volatile gases up to and beyond the point of electrical failure.

28
 5. Electrical failure occurs when the temperature just inside the cable jacket reaches an experimentally
determined value.

3.13 Crown Fires

The term “crown fire” refers to a wildfire that spreads from the ground surface into the tree canopy. Alexan-
der and Cruz [150] compiled a data set of 57 crown fires that occurred in the U.S. and Canada between
1965 and 2003. For each fire, the relative humidity, ambient temperature, and dominant vegetation type
are reported, along with estimated values for the vegetation moisture content, canopy1 bulk density, and
open 10 m wind speed. The vegetation consists mainly of coniferous trees, like pines and spruces, and dry
undergrowth and ground cover, i.e. scrub brush and dry pine needles. The reported relative humidity ranges
between 5 % and 50 %, the estimated moisture content ranges between 5 % and 10 %, the estimated canopy
bulk density ranges between 0.1 kg/m3 and 0.2 kg/m3 , the estimated wind speed ranges between 10 km/h
and 50 km/h, and the observed rate of spread ranges between 10 m/min and 110 m/min.

Modeling Notes
It is not possible to compare directly the model simulations with the observed fires because of lack of
information about the number, spacing, and height of the trees; and the depth, mass, and composition of the
ground cover. Instead, Ziegler et al. [151, 152, 153, 154] developed tree maps based on various forests found
in the western region of the U.S. The maps contain the location and rough dimensions of each tree in a 4 ha
area. Eight maps were developed based on four specific locations and pre- or post-treated conditions. In
addition, Ziegler et al. suggest that the moisture content of the trees is approximately 100 %, and the ground
cover 5 %. The crown bulk density for all simulations is 1.2 kg/m3 , and the surface density is 0.72 kg/m2
with a depth of 6 cm. The simulated fires are ignited along a strip, and the rate of spread is calculated based
on the position of peak temperature.
The simulations are performed with a numerical grid that has a resolution of 1 m by 1 m by 0.5 m near
the ground, and the vertical dimension increases gradually with height. Because of this relatively coarse
resolution, the burning rate of the vegetation is limited to ensure that any given patch of surface vegetation
or volume of canopy vegetation cannot burn completely in less than 30 s.

3.14 CSIRO Grassland Fires

In July and August of 1986, the Commonwealth Scientific and Industrial Research Organisation (CSIRO)
of Australia conducted controlled grassland fire experiments near Darwin, Northern Territory [155]. July
and August are in the middle of the dry season when the grasses are fully cured (dried) and the weather is
warm and dry. The experiments were conducted on flat plots measuring 100 m by 100 m, 200 m by 200 m,
or 200 m by 300 m. Two cases have been simulated. Case C064 was conducted on a 100 m by 100 m plot
of kerosene grass (Eriachne burkittii); Case F19 was conducted on a 200 m by 200 m plot of kangaroo grass
(Themeda australis).

Modeling Notes
Two of these experiments were originally simulated with FDS by Mell et al. [156]. These simulations
modeled the grass as a collection of cylindrical Lagrangian particles. The pyrolysis model assigned to the
1 Note the difference between canopy bulk density and crown bulk density, both of which are abbreviated CBD. The former is

the bulk density over the entire forested area, whereas the latter refers to the bulk density within the crown of an individual tree.

29
particles is described in the FDS User’s Guide [1], chapter “Earth, Wind and Fire,” Section 19.1, “Thermal
Degradation Model for Vegetation.”
Now these two experiments are also simulated using the Boundary Fuel Model (BFM) [157] and the
Rothermel-Albini fire spread algorithm [158, 159]. For the experiment labelled Case C064, fuel index 1
(Short Grass) is used, with a modified moisture fraction of 0.063. For F19, fuel index 3 (Tall Grass) is used,
with a modified moisture fraction of 0.058.
Measured properties for the specific types of grasses burned in the two experiments are listed in Ta-
ble 3.6. Properties that were not measured are listed in Table 3.7. These assumed properties are typically for
wood or cellulosic fuels. The moisture is modeled as water. The grass is assumed to be composed primarily
of cellulose.
Snapshots of the Lagrangian particle simulation of Case F19 is shown in Fig. 3.7. The computational
domain in this case is 240 m by 240 m by 20 m. The grid cells are 0.5 m cubes. The domain is subdivided
into 36 individual meshes and run in parallel. The grass is represented 1 simulated blade per grid cell. The
radius of the cylinder is derived from the measured surface area to volume ratio. Each simulated blade of
grass represents many more actual blades of grass. The weighting factor is determined from the measured
bulk mass per unit area. The fires in the experiments were ignited by two men carrying drip torches walking
in opposite directions along the upwind boundary of the plot (the red strip in Fig. 3.7). In FDS, this action
was modeled using a specified spread rate along the strip.

Table 3.6: Measured properties for the CSIRO Grassland Fire cases [155].

Property Units Case F19 Case C064

Wind Speed m/s 4.8 4.6
Ambient Temperature ◦C 34 32
Surface Area to Volume Ratio m−1 12240 9770
Grass Height m 0.51 0.21
Bulk Mass per Unit Area kg/m2 0.313 0.283
Moisture Fraction % 5.8 6.3

30
Figure 3.7: Snapshots of the simulation of CSIRO Grassland Fire F19 compared to photographs of the fire.

31
Table 3.7: Assumed properties for various types of dried grass and soil. Note that the Pyrolysis Temperature
is taken to be the temperature at which the mass loss rate peaks in the TGA experiments of Morvan and
Dupuy [160].

Property Units Value Reference

Chemical Composition – C6 H10 O5 Assumption
Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 15600 [161]
Soot Yield kg/kg 0.015 [135]
Char Yield kg/kg 0.2 [161]
Specific Heat kJ/(kg·K) 1.5 Various sources
Conductivity W/(m·K) 0.1 Assumption
Density kg/m3 512 [158]
Heat of Pyrolysis kJ/kg 418 [160]
Pyrolyis Temperature ◦C 200 [160]
Obukhov Length m -500 Assumption
Aerodynamic Roughness Length m 0.03 Assumption
Drag Coefficient – 2.8 [162]
Soil Specific Heat kJ/(kg·K) 2.0 [163]
Soil Conductivity W/(m·K) 0.25 [163]
Soil Density kg/m3 1300 [163]

3.15 CSTB Tunnel Experiments

Between 2005 and 2008, the French building research laboratory, Centre Scientifique et Technique du Bâ-
timent (CSTB) cooperated with the French Tunnel Study Center (CETU), the French National Centre for
Scientific Research (CNRS, Institut PPRIME) and the French Directorate for Civil Security (DSC) to con-
duct fire experiments in a tunnel, some of which involved a water mist system [164, 165]. The first aim was
to improve the understanding of the interaction between water mist and a tunnel fire. The second was to de-
velop a database for model validation. A one-third scale was selected with the objective of studying realistic
fire phenomena in an affordable way. Twenty-eight experiments were conducted (20 with and 8 without
water mist) with varying fuels (heptane pool, wood crib, and wood pallet) and longitudinal velocities (with
and without back layering).
The tunnel was 43 m long, with a semi-circular cross section whose area was approximately 4 m2 . The
walls were covered by a fire resistant mortar cement with well known thermal properties. The floor was
made of concrete. A fan was mounted at the downstream side of the tunnel. Measurements were made of
the following: fuel mass, gas temperature, air velocity, radiative heat flux and gas concentration (CO, CO2
and O2 ). Sensors were located at 11 longitudinal positions.
Tests 2 and 27 have been selected because neither exhibited back layering. The longitudinal velocity in
Test 2 was approximately 2.2 m/s and in Test 27 it was 3.1 m/s. Both experiments involved a 0.5 m2 area
heptane pool. In Test 2, the HRR was deduced from the fuel mass loss rate only. In Test 27, the HRR was
deduced from both the mass loss rate and from oxygen consumption calorimetry.
In Test 27, a water mist system was manually activated 300 s after ignition. The water mist system
was composed of six nozzles along the centerline of the tunnel, from 4 m upstream to 3.5 m downstream
of the fire, 1.5 m apart. The operating pressure was approximately 90 bar. The water flow rate injected at
each nozzle was close to 5.5 L/min, corresponding to a total mist discharge rate of approximately 33 L/min.
Test 27 is interesting because it involved a very low water injection rate. The main consequence is that

32
the HRR actually increased slightly after the nozzles were activated, and the fire did not extinguish. The
experiment stopped when the fuel was exhausted. This allowed for an assessment of the model’s ability to
predict the gas cooling and radiation attenuation.

Modeling Notes
The simulations of these experiments are performed using 12 meshes. To prevent numerical instability due
to oscillations in pressure, a common problem for tunnel fire simulations, the VELOCITY_TOLERANCE and
PRESSURE_TOLERANCE are reduced to 0.01 m/s and 400 s−2 , respectively, and the MAX_PRESSURE_ITERATIONS
is increased to 50. The multi-port mist nozzles are each modeled as a collection of single nozzles with vary-
ing orientations.

3.16 Cup Burner Experiments

The cup-burner is a widely used experimental apparatus for studying the effectiveness of flame extinguish-
ing agents. Typically, these experiments feature a steady fuel-air co-flow diffusion flame that is established
above the cup. The extinguishing agent is gradually introduced into the air stream to determine the minimum
concentration of the agent that leads to lift off. One hundred and ten experimental data sets are examined.
The data sets include sixteen fuels: acetone, acetylene, benzene, butane, dodecane, ethanol, ethylene, hep-
tane, hexane, hydrogen, methane, methanol, octane, propanol, and toluene, and five inert gases: argon
(Ar), carbon dioxide (CO2 ), helium (He), and nitrogen (N2 ), and sulfur hexaflouride (SF6 ). A STANJAN2
calculation has been performed to determine the equilibrium temperature using the measured minimum
extinguishing concentration for each experiment. The calculation assumes constant pressure and enthalpy
using a stoichiometric mixture of fuel and air plus agent. For combinations of fuel and agent with multiple
experiments, the average extinguishing concentration and the average flame temperature is taken, resulting
in forty-six unique combinations of fuel and agent listed in Table 3.8.

Modeling Notes
Cup burner dimensions, fuel inlet velocity, and co-flow inlet velocity vary slightly amongst the researchers;
however, extinguishing concentrations have been shown to be fairly insensitive over the range of typical
values. The cup burner model was implemented as a 2D, cylindrical geometry with a 1 cm radius for the
burner and a 4 cm radius for the tube. A 1 mm grid resolution was used. For gaseous fuels a 1 cm/s inlet
velocity was used for the burner. Liquid fuels used burning rates from the SFPE Handbook; fuels without
published burning rates scaled the burning rate of a chemically similar fuel (e.g. alcohol, alkane) using
the heat of vaporization for the fuel. The fuel temperature boundary condition was ambient for gaseous
fuels and one-half of the boiling point for liquid fuels. The co-flow was set to 12 cm/s. The agent mass
fraction was ramped from approximately 10 % below to 10 % above the values shown in Table 3.8. The
CRITICAL_FLAME_TEMPERATURE was set to the values in Table 3.8.

2 STANJAN is a program for chemical equilibrium calculations.

33
 Table 3.8: Summary of Cup Burner Data

Fuel Agent MEC CFT References

Acetone Ar 34.0 1729 [166, 167]
Acetone CO2 19.0 1678 [168]
Acetone N2 28.0 1670 [166, 168]
Acetylene CO2 45.0 1338 [168]
Acetylene N2 58.0 1312 [168]
Benzene CO2 20.1 1691 [168, 169]
Benzene N2 30.3 1683 [166, 168, 169]
Butane N2 31.0 1594 [168]
Butane CO2 19.0 1639 [168]
Dodecane N2 33.0 1577 [166]
Ethanol Ar 36.5 1654 [166, 167]
Ethanol CO2 23.7 1542 [168, 169]
Ethanol N2 34.6 1529 [166, 168, 169]
Ethylene CO2 32.0 1471 [168]
Ethylene N2 45.0 1441 [168]
Heptane Ar 39.5 1643 [166, 170, 167, 171, 172, 173, 174, 175, 176]
Heptane N2 31.2 1617 [166, 170, 177, 167, 178, 171, 172, 173, 168, 169, 174, 175, 176]
Heptane CO2 21.4 1617 [167, 178, 171, 172, 173, 168, 169]
Heptane He 31.5 1763 [171, 172]
Heptane SF6 11.0 1531 [171]
Hexane Ar 33.0 1740 [167]
Hexane CO2 20.0 1647 [168]
Hexane N2 29.0 1646 [166, 168]
Hydrogen CO2 60.0 913 [168]
Hydrogen N2 72.0 870 [168]
Methane Ar 33.8 1659 [166, 179, 167]
Methane N2 24.2 1663 [179, 168, 180]
Methane CO2 14.4 1694 [168, 169]
Methane He 26.7 1746 [179]
Methanol Ar 45.0 1494 [166, 167]
Methanol CO2 29.2 1410 [168, 169]
Methanol N2 40.8 1395 [166, 168, 169]
Octane Ar 27.0 1790 [167]
Octane CO2 24.0 1542 [168]
Octane N2 33.0 1564 [166, 168]
Propane Ar 37.5 1652 [166, 167]
Propane CO2 21.0 1600 [168]
Propane N2 32.3 1573 [177, 168, 180]
Propanol Ar 28.0 1781 [167]
Propanol CO2 22.0 1584 [168]
Propanol He 30.0 1755 [171]
Propanol N2 30.0 1608 [168, 171]
Propanol SF6 11.0 1515 [171]
Toluene Ar 27.0 1854 [167]
Toluene CO2 17.0 1744 [168, 169]
Toluene N2 24.4 1755 [168, 169]

MEC Minimum Extinguishing Concentration (mol/mol)

CFT Critical Flame Temperature (◦ C)

34
3.17 DelCo Trainer Experiments
The NIST Fire Fighting Technology Group conducted a series of experiments in two structures of similar
design located at the Delaware County (“DelCo”) Emergency Services Training Center in Sharon Hill, Penn-
sylvania [181]. Three propane burners were used to provide the fire source for all experiments, and various
sensors were used to collect gas temperature, gas velocity, heat flux, and gas concentration measurements
throughout the structure.
The single level structure was instrumented with five bare-bead thermocouple arrays and two gas sample
inlet pipes at the locations shown in Fig. 3.8. Both floors of the two level structure were instrumented with
three bare-bead thermocouple arrays and one gas sample inlet pipe at the locations shown in Fig. 3.9.

12.2 m

9.1 m
5.5 m

0.6 m N
A4
A2 A10

A3
A8
Roof Vent
A7 1.8 m
7.3 m
5.5 m
A9
4.8 m
4.6 m 4.4 m
3.0 m
A5
3.5 m
A1
2.6 m
1.6 m
1.5 m 1.3 m 1.6 m 1.5 m

Figure 3.8: Instrumentation of the single level DelCo training structure. The thermocouple arrays are denoted by
crossed circles and the gas sampling measurement locations are denoted by hexagons at locations A1 and A4. The
burner is denoted by three cross-hatched squares.

35
 11.2 m

N
7.8 m
A7 A8

2.3 m A13

6.4 m
A14
4.6 m
A11 5.8 m A9 3.5 m
A16 2.6 m
1.6 m 0.5 m
A10 1.5 m

0.3 m A17

11.9 m

0.6 m N

A5
5.2 m A2 A3
7.0 m
A6
3.6 m 2.9 m
3.4 m
7.1 m
2.4 m
0.4 m

A1
0.4 m 0.6 m

Figure 3.9: Instrumentation of the second floor (top) and first floor (bottom) of the two level DelCo training structure.
The thermocouple arrays are denoted by crossed circles and the gas sampling measurement locations are denoted by
hexagons at locations A1 and A10. The burner is denoted by three cross-hatched squares.

36
3.18 DoJ/HAI Pool Fire Experiments
The U.S. Department of Justice sponsored a series of liquid pool fire experiments performed by Hughes
Associates, Inc. [182]. Hundreds of experiments were performed, involving six different liquid fuels, eight
different substrates, a variety of pan sizes and pool depths. Of these, 44 experiments were chosen from
the “Diked Fire Test Series,” where gasoline or kerosene was burned within 0.3 m, 0.6 m, or 1.2 m square
pans with liquid depths ranging from 1 mm to 20 mm. The substrate was either coated concrete or vinyl,
each of which was designed to avoid liquid absorption. The vinyl flooring material had a nominal thickness
of 1.2 mm applied to a 14.7 mm plywood using a vinyl adhesive. Table 14.13 provides a summary of the
experimental parameters.

Modeling Notes
The test report for the experiments does not explicitly list the components of the gasoline or kerosene.
Rather, distillation curves are provided showing that the initial and final boiling points for gasoline are
45 ◦ C and 212 ◦ C, and for kerosene 170 ◦ C and 257 ◦ C. The density of the gasoline is 742 kg/m3 and the
kerosene 798 kg/m3 . From various industry documents, it is postulated that the gasoline is a mixture of n-
hexane (0.521 by mass), n-heptane (0.054), n-octane (0.063), n-decane (0.023), benzene (0.20), and toluene
(0.139). The kerosene is assumed to be a mixture of iso-octane (0.04), n-nonane (0.19), iso-nonane (0.12),
n-decane (0.15), iso-decane (0.11), n-undecane (0.09), and cis-decalin (0.30). The relavant properties of
these liquids are listed in Table 3.26.
A few additional assumptions are made concerning the mixtures. First, that the absorption coefficient of
all components is set to 150 m−1 , a value that is typical of heavy hydrocarbon liquids. Seconds, the thermal
conductivity of the components is set to an artificially low value of 0.02 W/m/K to roughly account for the
buoyancy that drives heated liquid upwards towards the surface. Third, all liquid components are assumed to
evaporate into a single gas phase species, n-hexane. If this were not assumed, additional transport equations
and combustion reactions would be needed for all liquid components.
Finally, to simulate the ignition of the liquid pools, an external flux is imposed at the surface for 10 s in
the case of gasoline and 25 s for kerosene.

Table 3.9: Gasoline and kerosene components [183].

Fuel Chemical W ρ cp hv Tb
Component Formula (g/mol) (kg/m3 ) (kJ/(kg·K)) (kJ/kg) ◦C

Benzene C6 H6 78.1 879 1.72 393 80.1

cis-Decalin C10 H18 138.3 897 1.68 297 195.8
iso-Decane C10 H22 142.3 728 2.20 269 167.0
n-Decane C10 H22 142.3 730 2.21 278 174.1
n-Heptane C7 H16 100.2 684 2.24 317 98.4
n-Hexane C6 H14 86.2 659 2.27 335 68.7
iso-Nonane C9 H20 128.3 708 2.34 350 143.0
n-Nonane C9 H20 128.3 718 2.22 290 150.8
iso-Octane C8 H18 114.2 692 2.09 270 99.2
n-Octane C8 H18 114.2 702 2.23 301 125.6
Toluene C7 H8 92.1 867 1.67 360 110.6
n-Undecane C11 H24 156.3 740 2.21 268 195.9

37
3.19 Droplet Evaporation
Five sets of experiments have been selected for validation of the evaporation of liquid droplets.

Fujita, Kurose, and Komori Experiments

Fujita, Kurose, and Komori performed a series of experiments that suspended a water drop in a heated,
vertical wind tunnel [184]. Four experiments were modeled with relative humidity values of 0 % and 30 %
and droplet Reynolds numbers of 60 and 150 (approximately 0.8 m/s and 2.0 m/s). Droplet size and surface
temperature were recorded as functions of time.

Gavin Experiments
Gavin performed two experiments of a single water drop falling in dry air [185]. The test apparatus was
a vertical wind tunnel. A drop was injected into the wind tunnel and the vertical air stream velocity was
changed over time to maintain the drop at a constant elevation in the wind tunnel. The first droplet was
769 µm with an initial temperature of 23.0 ◦ C. The second droplet was 557 µm with an initial temperature
of 24.3 ◦ C.

Kolaitis and Founti Experiments

Kolaitis and Founti measured the diameter and temperature of suspended liquid fuel droplets in a heated
air stream [186]. Four experiments were chosen: a 1.26 mm droplet of ethanol at an initial temperature of
34.2 ◦ C in 94 ◦ C quiescent air, a 1.13 mm droplet of decane at an initial temperature of 73.8 ◦ C in 94 ◦ C
quiescent air, a 1.15 mm droplet of heptane at an initial temperature of 49.0 ◦ C in 94 ◦ C quiescent air, and a
1.42 mm droplet of heptane at an initial temperature of 15.5 ◦ C in 94 ◦ C air at 0.146 m/s.

Maqua, Castanet, and Lemoine Experiments

Maqua, Castanet, and Lemoine measured the temperature of falling droplets of ethanol and acetone mixtures
in a heated plume [187]. Because the temperature and velocity of the plume was not well-characterized, only
the experiments involving a droplet falling in quiescent air were modeled. As FDS does not currently have
a sub-model for the evaporation of a multi-component fuel, only the experiments for a pure ethanol droplet
(140 µm) and a pure acetone droplet (140 µm) were modeled. The initial droplet temperature in both
experiments was 45 ◦ C in 20 ◦ C air.

Taflin Experiments
Taflin measured the diameter of suspended water droplets in dry air [188]. One droplet was initially 43.9 µm
and the other was 56.6 µm.

3.20 Edinburgh Vegetation Drag

Mueller et al. [189] characterized the pressure drop through beds of randomly oriented pine needles and
used the results to parameterize a drag model following the form of the Forchheimer equation. They then
measured the development of velocity profiles within and above these pine needle beds, using a hotwire
anemometer, and compared the results to FDS predictions using the parameterized model. Fuel beds with

38
bulk densities of 20 kg/m3 , 40 kg/m3 , and 60 kg/m3 were tested, with inlet velocities in the range of 0.5-
2.0 m/s. A condensed version of the comparison is reproduced in this guide, which serves to test the ability
of the model to represent the general features of flow in sparse multiphase media.

Modeling Notes
In the experiment, the test section extended 400 mm beyond the vegetation layer. This extent of the domain
is reproduced in the simulations in order to avoid possible influence of the downstream boundary condition.
The upstream boundary condition is set using the measurements located at x = −75 mm, which allows for
the reproduction of a slight non-uniformity in the flowfield. Due to difficulties in compacting the high bulk
density case, the fuel layer is set to extend to 55 mm in the 60 kg/m3 simulations.

150 mm
375 mm

100 mm

flow
direction
225 mm
25 mm 125 mm
-25 mm
x = -75 mm

Figure 3.10: Geometry of the wind tunnel test section for the Edinburgh Vegetation Drag experiments. Vegetation
filled the lower half of the 150 mm x 100 mm test section, starting from x = 0 mm. Circles indicate the locations of
velocity measurements, with the filled circles corresponding to those used for comparison in this guide.

3.21 FAA Cargo Compartments

The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has sponsored experiments and modeling of smoke trans-
port within aircraft storage compartments [190, 191]. Two types of compartments were used; one from a
Boeing 707 and one from a McDonnell Douglas DC-10. The 707 compartment was 6.7 m in length, 3.2 m
in width, and 1.4 m in height. The DC-10 compartment was 14 m in length, 4.4 m in width, and 1.7 m in
height. The fire for all experiments was fueled by a 0.1 m by 0.1 m tray of plastic resin producing a peak
HRR of 5 kW [192]. The long walls of the compartments were barrel-shaped to conform to the shape of the
aircraft fuselage. The fire was placed in different locations, and measurements of gas and ceiling tempera-
ture, heat flux, gas concentration, and smoke obscuration were made at a variety of locations, mostly near
the ceiling.

3.22 FAA Polymers

As part of their efforts to characterize the burning behavior of commonly used plastics, the U.S. Federal
Aviation Administration (FAA) conducted measurements of the thermal properties of charring and non-
charring polymers with the specific purpose of providing input data for numerical pyrolysis models [193,
194]. The study aimed to determine whether a one-dimensional conduction/reaction model could be used as

39
a practical tool for prediction and/or extrapolation of the results of fire calorimetry tests. The non-charring
polymers included poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and high density
polyethylene (HDPE). The charring polymers included polycarbonate (PC) and polyvinyl chloride (PVC).

3.23 Fleury Heat Flux Measurements

Rob Fleury, a master’s degree student at the University of Canterbury in Christchurch, New Zealand, mea-
sured the heat flux from a variety of propane fires [195]. The objective of the work was to evaluate a variety
of empirical heat flux calculation methods. For the measurements, heat flux gauges were mounted on move-
able dollies that were placed in front of, and to the side of, burners with dimensions of 0.3 m by 0.3 m (1:1
burner), 0.6 m by 0.3 m (2:1 burner), and 0.9 m by 0.3 m (3:1 burner). The heat release rates were set to
100 kW, 150 kW, 200 kW, 250 kW, and 300 kW. The gauges were mounted at heights of 0 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m,
and 1.5 m relative to the top edge of the burner.

3.24 FM Burner Experiments

A series of gas burner experiments was conducted by Zeng and Wang at FM Global in which the co-flow air
stream was gradually diluted with nitrogen until flame extinction was achieved [196]. Numerical simulations
were subsequently performed by Ren et al. [197]. In the experiments, a cylindrical, water-cooled steel burner
(15.2 cm O.D., 13.7 cm I.D.) was placed near the floor of a 1.22 m by 1.22 m by 1.83 m tall compartment.
Four fuels were used: ethylene (C2 H4 ), methane (CH4 ), propane (C3 H8 ), and propylene (C3 H6 ). The heat
release rate in each experiment was 10 kW with a 1 kW ring of pilot burners to stabilize the flame. At
the start of each experiment, air was pumped through the floor at a rate sufficient to supply the fire with
approximately 10 times the stoichiometric requirement. Subsequently, nitrogen was slowly added to the air
stream until the fire was extinguished.
In the same enclosure and using the same burner, Ren et. al [198] made high-frequency mean and
rms temperature measurements along six radial profiles above a 15 kW ethylene fire. Soot measurements
were made at similar locations. The co-flow air stream at the floor was set to 20.9 %, 16.8 %, and 15.2 %
oxygen volume fraction. Additional experiments were performed at 19 %, 17 %, and 15 % oxygen in which
global radiation measurements were made, including total radiative fraction and the vertical distribution of
radiative emission.

Modeling Notes
The FDS simulations of the 10 kW ethylene, methane, propane and propylene fires are run for 65 s, in which
time the oxygen concentration in the co-flow stream is ramped down linearly from 21 % to 8 %. The volume
flow of the co-flow stream has been increased tenfold compared to the experiments to prevent a downwash
of ambient air into the sealed compartment. The 15 kW ethylene fire simulations at the various fixed oxygen
levels are performed for 20 s. For these simulations, the oxygen volume fraction is specified directly, as is
the co-flow stream.
The combustion and extinction are modeled using a two-step reaction scheme. In the first step, fuel is
converted to CO, soot, and water vapor, and in the second step, the CO and soot are oxidized to form CO2 .
Both reactions are fast, but the oxidation step follows the first reaction in serial. That is, in a given time step,
all available oxygen first converts fuel to CO and Soot, assumed to be C0.9 H0.1 . Any leftover oxygen is then
used to oxidize existing CO and Soot. There are two assumptions. First, it is assumed that 3/5 of the carbon
in the fuel molecule is converted to CO, and 2/5 to Soot in the first reaction step. Second, the post-flame

40
yields of Soot and CO are set to 0.043 and 0.013, respectively, based on Tewarson’s measurements reported
in the SFPE Handbook [135].
Under the assumption that Air contains 383 ppm CO2 and water vapor corresponding to 40 % humidity,
the full two-step reaction scheme for ethylene is written in terms of “lumped” species as follows:
(C2 H4 ) + 7.60 (0.208 O2 + 0.783 N2 + 0.0004 CO2 + 0.009 H2 O) −→
| {z } | {z }
Fuel Air
10.07 (0.119 CO + 0.201 H2 O + 0.088 Soot + 0.591 N2 + 0.0003 CO2 ) (3.1)
| {z }
Products 1

(Products 1) + 0.63 (Air) −→ 1.49 (0.0009 CO + 0.0073 Soot + 0.126 CO2 + 0.141 H2 O + 0.725 N2 )
| {z }
Products 2
(3.2)
For each of the four fuels simulated, it has been assumed that 3/5 of the carbon in the fuel molecule is
converted to CO in the first step. However, there are only detailed measurements of radiative emission and
soot volume fraction for ethylene. Thus, it is not clear how the carbon is distributed between the soot and CO
in the early stages. For lighter sooting fuels like methane, the fraction of carbon allocated to CO approaches
unity.
The radiative fraction has been predicted rather than specified in all simulations.

3.25 FM/FPRF Data Center Experiments

The Fire Protection Research Foundation funded a series of large scale tests of smoke detection in high
airflow data centers as part of a research project on behalf of the NFPA 75 and NFPA 76 Technical Commit-
tees [199]. The tests consisted of a data center mockup that was 4.9 m high, 4.9 m wide, and 7.3 m deep.
The mockup was divided into a 0.9 m tall subfloor with air supplied via a natural vent opening on one short
wall, a 0.9 m tall ceiling plenum with air removed via a mechanical vent opening on one short wall, two
2 m tall by 0.6 m wide by 5.3 m long enclosed cold aisles located along the outer walls, and a 3.1 m tall hot
aisle. Flow from the subfloor to the cold aisles occurred through grated floor tiles, flow from the cold aisles
to the hot aisle was through two rows of empty equipment cabinets with perforated metal doors, and flow
from the hot aisle to the ceiling plenum was through perforated metal ceiling tiles.
Two groups of tests were performed. The first group of tests used a sonic anemometer to map the flow
field in the facility for a flow of 78 air changes per hour (ACH) and 265 ACH. Additional measurements
were made of the pressure drops through the floor and ceiling tiles. The second group of tests measured
smoke detection response to a variety of detectors from a range of typical smoke sources plus propylene
(used for its ease of characterization and repeatability).
The FDS model of the facility makes use of the screen drag model for Lagrangian particles to model the
pressure losses through the various metal meshes and grates present in the mockup. The FDS model also
uses the specified leakage location model to model leakage through the seams of floor and ceiling tiles. The
actual leakage area was not measured during the test. Instead the area was estimated using the reduction
in the FM measured pressure drop from to the manufacturer’s reported pressure drop to compute a leakage
flow. A description of the process used to create the FDS model and the test uncertainties can be found in a
companion report documenting modeling of the tests with FDS 6.0.0 [200].

3.26 FM Parallel Panel Experiments

Patricia Beaulieu of Worcester Polytechnic Institute made heat flux measurements within a set of vertical
parallel panels as part of a cooperative research program between Worcester Polytechnic Institute and FM

41
Global (Factory Mutual) [201]. The experimental apparatus consisted of two vertical parallel panels, 2.4 m
high and 0.6 m wide, with a sand burner at the base. The objective of the project was to measure the flame
spread rate over various composite wall lining materials, but there were also experiments conducted with
inert walls for the purpose of measuring the heat flux from fires fueled by propane and propylene at heat
release rates of 30 kW, 60 kW, and 100 kW. A sketch of the apparatus is shown in Fig. 3.11.

1/8 in to 1/4 in sample

1 in marinite board
1/2 in plywood
in
24

12
in

in
96

Gravel Burner
Nominally 24 in by 12 in by 12 in

Figure 3.11: Sketch of the FM parallel panel apparatus.

3.27 FM/SNL Experiments

The Factory Mutual and Sandia National Laboratories (FM/SNL) test series consists of 25 compartment
fire experiments conducted in 1985 for the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) by Factory Mutual
Research Corporation (FMRC), under the direction of Sandia National Laboratories (SNL) [202, 203]. The
primary purpose of these experiments was to provide data with which to validate computer models for
various types of compartments typical of nuclear power plants. The experiments were conducted in an
enclosure measuring approximately 18 m long by 12 m wide by 6 m high, constructed at the FMRC fire
test facility in Rhode Island. A drawing is included in Fig. 3.12. All of the experiments included forced
ventilation to simulate typical power plant conditions. Six of the experiments were conducted with a full-
scale control room mock-up in place. Parameters varied during the experiments included fire intensity,

42
enclosure ventilation rate, and fire location. Only data from nineteen experiments (Tests 1-17, 21, and 22) is
used in the current study. In these experiments, the fires were fueled by a propylene gas burner, and heptane
and methanol liquid pools. In the experiments not selected, the heat release was not reported and could not
be estimated with confidence. Table 3.10 lists the test parameters.
The following information was provided by the test director, Steve Nowlen of Sandia National Labora-
tory. In particular, Tests 4, 5, and 21 were given extra attention.

Heat Release Rate: The HRR was determined using oxygen consumption calorimetry in the exhaust stack
with a correction applied for the carbon dioxide in the upper layer of the compartment. The uncertainty
of the fuel mass flow was not documented. Several tests selected for this study had the same target peak
heat release rate of 516 kW following a 4 min “t-squared” growth profile. The test report contains time
histories of the measured HRR, for which the average, sustained HRR following the ramp up for Tests
4, 5, and 21 have been estimated as 510 kW, 480 kW, and 470 kW, respectively. Once reached, the peak
HRR was maintained essentially constant during a steady-burn period of 6 min in Tests 4 and 5, and
16 min in Test 21. Note that in Test 21, Nowlen reports a “significant” loss of effluent from the exhaust
hood that could lead to an under-estimate of the HRR towards the end of the experiment.

Radiative Fraction: The radiative fraction was not measured during the experiment, but in this study it
is assumed to equal 0.35, which is typical for a smoky hydrocarbons. It was further assumed that the
radiative fraction was about the same in Test 21 as the other tests, as fuel burning must have occurred
outside of the electrical cabinet in which the burner was placed.

Measurements: Four types of measurements were conducted during the FM/SNL test series that are used
in the current model evaluation study, including the HGL temperature and depth, and the ceiling jet
and plume temperatures. Aspirated thermocouples (TCs) were used to make all of the temperature
measurements. Generally, aspirated TC measurements are preferable to bare-bead TC measurements,
as systematic radiative exchange measurement error is reduced.

HGL Depth and Temperature: Data from all of the vertical TC trees were used when reducing the HGL
height and temperature. For the majority of the tests, Sectors 1, 2, and 3 were used, all weighted evenly.
For Tests 21 and 22, Sectors 1 and 3 were used, evenly weighted. Sector 2 was partially within the fire
plume.

43
Figure 3.12: Geometry of the FM/SNL Experiments.

44
 Table 3.10: Summary of FM/SNL Experiments. ACH stands for Air Changes per Hour.

Test Fuel Nominal Peak Fire Ventilation Room

No. Type HRR (kW) Position Rate (ACH) Configuration
1 Propylene Burner 516 Center 10 Empty
2 Propylene Burner 516 Center 10 Empty
3 Propylene Burner 2000 Center 10 Empty
4 Propylene Burner 516 Center 1 Empty
5 Propylene Burner 516 Center 10 Empty
6 Heptane Pool 500 Wall 1 Empty
7 Propylene Burner 516 Center 1 Empty
8 Propylene Burner 1000 Center 1 Empty
9 Propylene Burner 1000 Center 8 Empty
10 Heptane Pool 1000 Wall 4.4 Empty
11 Methanol Pool 500 Wall 4.4 Empty
12 Heptane Pool 2000 Wall 4.4 Empty
13 Heptane Pool 2000 Wall 8 Empty
14 Methanol Pool 500 Wall 1 Empty
15 Heptane Pool 1000 Wall 1 Empty
16 Heptane Pool 500 Corner 1 Empty
17 Heptane Pool 500 Corner 10 Empty
21 Propylene Burner 500 Cabinet 1 Furnished
22 Propylene Burner 1000 Cabinet 1 Furnished

3.28 FM Vertical Wall Flame Experiments

A series of experiments was conducted by FM Global [204] in which turbulent flames were generated by
flowing various gases through a vertical, water-cooled burner, 1.32 m tall and 0.38 m wide, with 0.152 m
side walls. Measurements of soot depth, temperature, radiative heat flux, and radiance were made at various
heights.

3.29 Frankman Vegetation Experiments

Experiments were performed by Frankman et al. [205] at Brigham Young University in 2010 in which
small wood shavings and pine needles were exposed to various levels of heat flux from a ceramic burner.
Small thermocouples recorded the steady state temperatures. The fuel elements were positioned 15 cm,
25 cm, 35 cm, and 45 cm from the 23 cm by 15 cm rectangular ceramic burner with a radiative heat flux of
approximately 37 kW/m2 . The fuel elements were suspended by a wire with a horizontal orientation. The
hydraulic diameters of the small excelsior, large excelsior and Ponderosa pine samples were reported to be
0.44 mm, 1.29 mm, and 0.70 mm, respectively.

Modeling Notes
These calculations are performed with a relatively crude grid because typical wildland fire simulations can-
not employ fine grids. A free convection correlation for horizontal cylinders is employed for the convective

45
heat transfer coefficient of the fuel samples. Cylindrical Lagrangian particles are used to represent the fu-
els with diameters equal to the reported hydraulic diameters. The burner is modeled as a hot plate with a
radiative heat flux of 37 kW/m2 . Nominal values of 0.1 W/m/K, 1 kJ/kg/K, and 450 kg/m3 are assumed
for the thermal conductivity, specific heat, and density of the vegetation. The emissivity is assumed to be
1. The results are relatively insensitive to the thermal properties because the final temperatures are largely
determined via the balance of radiation heat flux on to and convective heat flux off of the fuel samples. The
temperature rise of all samples does not exceed 100 ◦ C.

3.30 Hamins Gas Burner Experiments

Anthony Hamins of NIST measured the heat flux at various points around gas burner fires [36]. Three
different sized circular burners were used, with diameters of 0.10 m, 0.38 m, and 1.0 m. Three different
gases were used, acetylene, methane, and propane. The heat release rates ranged from 2 kW to 200 kW, and
values of Q̇∗ ranged from 0.04 to 10.6.

3.31 Harrison Spill Plumes

Roger Harrison, a student at the University of Canterbury, New Zealand, performed a series of one-tenth
scale experiments to characterize thermal spill plume entrainment [206, 207, 208, 209]. The dimensions of
the fire compartment were 1 m by 1 m by 0.5 m high. The height of the compartment opening was equal to
the height of the compartment. The width of the opening was varied from 0.2 m to 1 m. A 0.3 m balcony
was attached to the top of the compartment opening. The balcony extended 0.5 m beyond each side of the
fire compartment. The heat release rate of the fire varied from 5 kW to 15 kW. The plume entrainment rate
was measured at different heights by varying the exhaust rate of gases from a hood above the compartment.
Two different test configurations were used to model both detached and adhered spill plumes. A diagram of
the test structure is displayed in Figure 3.13.

46
Figure 3.13: Geometry of the Harrison Spill Plumes Experiments.

47
3.32 Heskestad Flame Height Correlation
A widely used experimental correlation for flame height is given by the expression [210, 25]:

Lf Q̇
= 3.7 (Q̇∗ )2/5 − 1.02 ; Q̇∗ = √ (3.3)
D ρ∞ c p T∞ g D5/2

where ρ∞ , c p , and T∞ are the ambient density, specific heat, and temperature. Q̇∗ is a non-dimensional
quantity that relates the fire’s heat release rate, Q̇, with the diameter of its base, D. The greater the value of
Q∗ , the higher the flame height relative to its base diameter.

3.33 Insulation Material Fire Resistance Tests

Paudel et al. [211] studied small-scale fire resistance tests for 30 different types of stone wool insulation
varying in density, thickness, and organic content. During each test, a 60 cm square sample of insulation
covered by a 1 mm thick steel plate was mounted to the opening of a small combustion chamber. Thus, one
side of the sample was exposed to ambient (T∞ ) conditions, and the other side was attached to the steel plate
whose temperature followed the ISO 834 standard fire curve,

Th (t) = T∞ + 345 log10 (8t + 1) (3.4)

with time, t, in minutes and exposure temperature, Th , in ◦ C. The temperature measurements were made
using K-type thermocouples covered with 30 mm square inorganic insulating pads. The pads were attached
to the back side of the sample using heat-resistant glue or pins.

Modeling Notes
The numerical simulation is explained in Ref. [211]. Because detailed kinetic properties of the material are
currently not available, the chemical decomposition parameters (A, Ea and n) were optimized based on the
cold-side measured temperatures. Unlike in Ref. [211], the optimized values in the simulation are constant,
A = 0.0028 s−1 , Ea = 21700 J/mol, and n = 0.71. The optimization used a Monte Carlo method of 1000
Latin hypercube samples, where the sampling range was 0.001 to 1000 s−1 for A, 1 × 104 to 1 × 105 J/mol
for Ea , and 0.1 to 1 for n.

3.34 LEMTA Spray Test for Radiation Attenuation

Lechene et al. [212] measured the attenuation of thermal radiation passing through a water spray using a
heat flux gauge. The radiation was produced by a 30 cm by 35 cm heat panel whose emission was close to a
black body at 500 ◦ C. The horizontal distance from the radiation panel to the spray nozzle was 1.5 m and to
the measurement point 3 m. The heat flux gauge was positioned at the line passing through the center of the
panel. Seven nozzles were arranged in a row, 10 cm apart. They were positioned 1.5 m high. The heat panel
was translated vertically during the experiment, the distance between the panel upper edge and the nozzle
row varying between 20 cm and 100 cm. The attenuation of radiation is defined as previously described
for the BRE Spray experiments. The purpose of the simulations is to compare the measured and simulated
attenuation of radiation at different heights. The water mist nozzle has been characterized by Lechene by
measuring the spray angles and the water flow rate. The droplet size is set by using a PDPA measurement
in a single position, 20 cm below the injection point.

48
3.35 LLNL Enclosure Experiments
Sixty-four compartment experiments were conducted at Lawrence Livermore National Laboratory (LLNL)
in 1986 to study the effects of ventilation on enclosure fires [213]. These experiments are the basis of the
Foote, Pagni, Alvares compartment temperature correlation [214].
The test enclosure was 6 m long, 4 m wide, and 4.5 m high (Fig. 3.14) with a methane rock burner in
the center of the space positioned at various elevations. For most of the experiments the burner was placed
on the floor. The fires varied in size, Q̇, from 50 kW to 400 kW. The burner was 0.57 m in diameter and
0.23 m height. A single door was closed and sealed for most experiments, and air was pulled through the
compartment at rates, ṁ, varying from 100 g/s to 500 g/s. In some tests the enclosure included a plenum
space, where make-up air could be injected from above or below. The test matrix is listed in Table 3.11.

Modeling Notes
The LLNL Enclosure is modeled using a single mesh spanning the interior of the test compartment. The
heat release rate of the methane burner and the thermal properties of the walls, ceiling and floor are specified
based on information provided in the test report.
The test report of the LLNL Enclosure experiments lists the mass flow rate, ṁ, through the exhaust duct
during the experiment. This mass flow rate is specified explicitly in the model. The make-up air into the
compartment is supplied by an inlet duct and compartment leakage, both of which are modeled. The inlet
duct is modeled as a 7 m long, 30 cm diameter circular duct with a loss coefficient of 25.6. The leakage area
is then calculated based on the reported compartment under or over-pressures, ∆p, during the experiment.
The leak area is computed based on the following formulae:
s
|∆p| n−0.5
 
ṁ 2 |∆p|
= AL ; AL = AL,ref (3.5)
ρ ρ |∆pref |

The reference leakage area, AL,ref , is estimated to be 0.0033 m2 , n = 0.6311, ∆pref = 50 Pa.
In some of the experiments, the fire was reported to have self-extinguished, in which case the model
employs the relatively simple Mowrer extinction model along with the one-step fast chemistry model of
combustion. The Mowrer model predicts local flame extinction when the oxygen concentration within a
grid cell is less than that required to raise the cell temperature to the critical flame temperature, which is
1507 ◦ C for methane [136].

49
 Table 3.11: Summary of LLNL Enclosure Experiments.

Test Room h0 Q̇ ṁ T∞ tend Test Room h0 Q̇ ṁ T∞ tend

No. Config. m kW g/s ◦C s No. Config. m kW g/s ◦C s
1 TL 0 200 0 23 560 33 PH 0 100 200 23 5100
2 TL 0 200 0 27 545 34 PH 0 100 300 34 4280
3 TL 0 400 0 27 300 35 PH 0 100 400 22 4110
4 TL 0 300 0 24 385 36 PH 0 100 500 29 4060
5 TL 0 50 0 28 2770 37 PH 0 200 100 20 520
6 TL 0 100 0 29 1295 38 PH 0 200 300 29 4100
7 TL 0 100 0 35 1240 39 PH 0 250 100 18 430
8 TL 0 200 0 35 555 40 PH 0 200 400 28 4290
9 TL 0 200 500 33 4220 41 PH 0 150 100 20 970
10 TL 0 200 100 28 6050 42 PHE 2 200 180 30 5120
11 TL 0 200 200 18 4780 43 PHE 2 200 0 32 570
12 TL 0 200 300 21 5440 44 PHE 1 200 180 19 2670
13 TL 0 200 400 28 5150 45 PHE 1 200 0 30 810
14 TL 0 200 400 28 5090 46 PHE 0.6 200 180 19 960
15 TL 0 100 300 24 4070 47 PHE 0.6 200 0 19 730
16 TL 0 200 300 21 6560+ 48 PHE 0.3 200 0 21 520
17 PL 0 200 500 26 3980 49 PHE 0.3 200 180 26 970
18 PL 0 200 400 21 4840 50 PHE 1 200 180 21 4730
19 PL 0 200 300 18 5110 51 PNE 1 200 NAT 33 3360
20 PL 0 200 200 16 6570 52 PN 0 200 NAT 23 4680
21 PL 0 200 100 23 6570 53 PHGS 0 200 185 33 1540
22 PH 0 200 190 30 950 54 PHGS 0 200 215 21 4180
23 PH 0 200 215 28 4260 55 PN 0 100 NAT 31 4120
24 PH 0 200 205 26 1480 56 PHGW 0 200 190 20 1240
25 PH 0 200 205 25 2050 57 PHGW 0 200 215 29 5390
26 PH 0 200 500 24 4100 58 PHX 0 200 190 18 4090
27 PH 0 200 100 23 540 59 PHXE 1 200 190 24 4090
28 PH 0 150 150 31 1870 60 PN 0 400 NAT 22 2680
29 PH 0 250 250 28 1520 61 TN 0 200 NAT 31 2730
30 PH 0 250 300 34 4080 62 TN 0 400 NAT 22 2660
31 PH 0 250 500 36 4160 63 TN 0 50 NAT 28 3240
32 PH 0 100 100 33 4110 64 TN 0 100 NAT 17 3570

T full compartment N natural ventilation (door open)

P plenum configuration X 3 ft extension on inlet opening
L low inlet duct GS grate on inlet, north/south configuration
H high inlet duct GW grate on inlet, east/west configuration
E elevated fire, h0

50
Figure 3.14: Geometry of the LLNL Enclosure Experiments.

51
3.36 LNG Dispersion Experiments
In 2006, the Fire Protection Research Foundation (FPRF) undertook a research project for the National
Fire Protection Association (NFPA) Liquefied Natural Gas (LNG) Technical Committee to develop tools for
evaluating LNG dispersion models. The work was carried out by the Health and Safety Laboratory (HSL),
a directorate of the UK Health and Safety Executive (HSE). HSL developed the LNG Model Evaluation
Protocol (MEP), which contained a structure for complete evaluation of LNG dispersion models [215]. The
experiments are described in Ref. [216].

Modeling Notes
The simulations of liquefied natural gas (LNG) dispersion experiments that are described in this report were
originally designed by Jeffrey Engerer and Anay Luketa of Sandia National Laboratories on behalf of the
Pipeline and Hazardous Materials Safety Administration of the U.S. Department of Transportation.
Parameters for the LNG dispersion experiments are given in Table 3.12. In some cases, values of the
Monin-Obukhov parameters are taken directly from the test reports. However, for some of the experiments,
these parameters were not derived using the same similarity functions as those presented above, in which
case the parameters have been recomputed to best fit the measured velocity and temperature profiles. In
the table, u∗ is the friction velocity, κ = 0.41 is the Von Kármán constant, z0 is the aerodynamic roughness
length, θ∗ is the scaling potential temperature, θ0 is the ground level potential temperature, L is the Monin-
Obukhov length, and the similarity functions are those proposed by Dyer [217] and discussed in the report
of the Falcon field experiments [218].
In the experiments, a fixed mass, m, of LNG was spilled onto water, forming a pool of increasing radius.
For modeling purposes, it is assumed that the mass flux of natural gas from the circular pool is fixed at
ṁ00max = 0.167 kg/(m2 ·s), and the temperature of the gas is −162 ◦ C, as suggested in the testing protocols.
The diameter of the pool, D, is calculated using the assumed mass flux per unit area, the reported mass of
LNG, m, and the spill duration, ∆t. s
4m
D= (3.6)
π ṁ00max ∆t
The values of D are given in Table 3.12.

52
 Table 3.12: Summary of LNG Dispersion Experiments.

Series Burro Coyote Falcon Maplin Sands

Number 3 7 8 9 3 5 6 1 3 4 27 34 35
Parameters supplied by test reports
Fuel Mass, m (kg) 14712 17289 12453 10730 6532 12676 10139 28074 21435 18984 3714 2094 3658
Spill Duration, ∆t (s) 167 174 107 79 65 98 82 131 154 301 160 95 135
p0 (mbar) 948 940 941 940 936 939 942 908.9 900.8 906.3 — — —
T0 (◦ C) 34.5 33.8 32.9 35.4 39.6 29.3 24.1 32.2 35.0 30.8 14.9 15.2 16.1
RH (%) 5.2 7.4 4.5 14.4 11.3 22.1 22.8 — 4.0 12.0 53 90 77

53
Computed parameters
L (m) -9.49 -111 16.2 -142 -8.56 -33.2 82.5 4.96 -422 69.4 -14.4 -75.5 -81.2
u∗ (m/s) 0.255 0.372 0.074 0.252 0.310 0.480 0.210 0.061 0.305 0.369 0.190 0.280 0.315
z0 (m) 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.0002 0.008 0.008 0.008 0.0003‡ 0.0003‡ 0.0003‡
θ∗ (K) -0.532 -0.097 0.026 -0.035 -0.890 -0.520 0.039 0.058 -0.018 0.152 -0.180 -0.075 -0.088
q̇00 (W/m2 ) -154 -41 2 -10 -314 -284 9 4 -5 58 -39 -24 -32
D (m) 25.9 27.5 29.9 32.2 27.7 31.4 30.6 19.5† 16.0† 10.8† 13.3 12.8 14.4

‡ The roughness length was changed to 0.00002 m to better match the measured velocity and temperature profiles
† The Falcon experiments involved 4 separated spills
3.37 Loughborough Jet Fire Experiments
Researchers at Loughborough University, UK, conducted a series of six large-scale, high pressure jet fire
experiments using natural gas and natural gas/hydrogen mixtures at the GL Noble Denton Spadeadam Test
Site in Cumbria, UK [219]. For each fuel, the gas was released horizontally at high pressure (approximately
60 bar) through 20 mm, 35 mm and 50 mm diameter holes at the end of a 15 cm diameter pipe. The
jet fires engulfed a 0.9 m diameter, 16 m long pipe section perpendicular to the flow direction. Heat flux
measurements were made at various locations on the pipe and further afield. A typical jet fire experiment at
the facility is shown in Fig. 3.15.

Figure 3.15: Photograph of a jet fire experiment at the Spadeadam Test Site.

Table 3.13 lists the key parameters for the natural gas experiments which have been chosen for this
study. Note that the direction of the jet was nominally to the east, parallel to the prevailing wind. The wind
deviated slightly in each experiment, as indicated in the table.

Modeling Notes
FDS is a low Mach number code and cannot model directly the supersonic flow at the pipe orifice. Instead,
cold (-160 ◦ C) droplets with a median volumetric diameter of 1000 µm are injected wtih an initial velocity of
1000 m/s and spray angle of 10◦ . These droplets evaporate readily to form methane gas. No attempt is made
to model the stand-off distance because there is no mechanism in FDS to account for flame suppression due
to high shear.

54
 Table 3.13: Summary of the Loughborough Jet Fire Experiments.

Test Fuel Hole Dist. Wind Wind Mass Heat Rel. Flame Stand-Off Rad.
No. Type Diam. to Pipe Dir. Speed Flow Rate Length Distance Frac.
(mm) (m) (◦ ) (m/s) (kg/s) (MW) (m) (m) (%)
1 Nat. Gas 20 9.45 271 6.3 2.9 140 19.8 6.0 13.7
2 Nat. Gas 35 15.45 297 6.2 9.6 462 37.8 7.5 17.9
3 Nat. Gas 50 21.61 267 3.6 19.5 939 49.9 8.7 20.2

The grid resolution is 20 cm; thus, the circular pipe is modeled as a collection of 20 cm square rods with
a cross section that is 0.8 m by 0.8 m, but with the corners removed. The velocity boundary condition is
assumed to be free-slip because otherwise the polygonally-shaped obstruction would exert a fictitiously high
drag force on the flow. The empirical heat transfer coefficient for the pipe is calculated using parameters
appropriate for a cylindrical rather than a flat plate. The Nusselt number is taken as

ρDkut k
Nu = 0.027 Re0.805 Pr1/3 ; Re = ; Pr = 0.7 (3.7)
µ
This correlation is appropriate for 40, 000 < Re < 400, 000 [220].
The values of radiative fraction in the model are based on the measured values reported in Table 3.13.
To resolve the radiation field at the far-field radiometers, 600 angles are used in solving the radiation trans-
port equation rather than the default 100. The radiation absorption coefficients are calculated by RadCal
assuming a path length of 100 m rather than the default value of 0.1 m.
The wind profile is based on measurements made 10.85 m above the relatively flat terrain. The aero-
dynamic roughness length, z0 , is set to 0.03 m, appropriate for relatively flat grasslands, prairies, farms,
etc. The Obukhov length, L, is set to 100,000 m, typical of a neutral atmosphere. Synthetic turbulence is
generated at the upstream boundary of the computational domain, with a characteristic eddy length scale of
1 m and root-mean-square velocity fluctuation of 0.1 m/s.

Flame Length Results: Section 6.2.3

Heat Flux Results: Section 12.2.4

3.38 McCaffrey Plume Experiments

In 1979, at the National Bureau of Standards (now NIST), Bernard McCaffrey measured centerline tem-
perature and velocity profiles above a porous, refractory burner. There were five distinct heat release rates,
ranging from 14 kW to 57 kW. The fuel was natural gas (35 kJ/L [45 MJ/kg assuming 19 kg/kgmol as mole
weight for natural gas]). The burner was square, 0.3 m on each side. The results of the experiments are
reported in Reference [221]. Along the centerline of the burner, velocity and temperature were measured
using bi-directional probes and thermocouples, respectively. The centerline data collapses when scaled by
the Froude number as shown in Fig. 3.16. Radiant fraction measurements for natural gas were made in
[222]. For convenience, we have extracted the data from that report for the heat release rates reported in
[221]. See Table 3.14. The burner surface temperatures are extrapolated to the surface location from a least
squares fit of of the temperature data below z/Q2/5 = 0.05 m · kW−2/5 . The extrapolations for each power
are shown in Fig. 3.17.

55
 3
10 3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature Correlation 2.5 McCaffrey Centerline Velocity Correlation

1.5

10 2 0.5
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 -2 10 -1 10 0

Figure 3.16: McCaffrey Plume Centerline Temperature and Velocity Correlations (dashed lines) and raw data (sym-
bols).

Table 3.14: Summary of McCaffrey Plume Experiments, 1979.

Q (kW) Q∗ D∗ (m) HRRPUA (kW/m2 ) χr Tsurf (◦C)

14.4 0.270 0.178 160 0.17 750
21.7 0.407 0.209 241 0.21 716
33.0 0.618 0.248 367 0.25 630
44.9 0.841 0.280 499 0.27 608
57.5 1.07 0.309 639 0.27 534

56
10 3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature Data, 14.4 kW 10 3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature Data, 21.7 kW

10 2 10 2
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 -2 10 -1 10 0

10 3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature Data, 33.0 kW 10 3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature Data, 44.9 kW

10 2 10 2
-2 -1 0 -2 -1 0
10 10 10 10 10 10

10 3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature Data, 57.5 kW

10 2
10 -2 10 -1 10 0

Figure 3.17: McCaffrey Plume Burner Surface Temperatures.

57
3.39 Montoir LNG Fires
In 1987, British Gas, British Petroleum, Shell, Elf Aquitaine, Total CFP, and Gaz de France conducted 35 m
diameter LNG pool fire experiments [223]. The construction of the test facility was carried out by Gaz de
France near the Montoir de Bretagne methane terminal. Three fire experiments were performed under differ-
ent wind conditions. The Montoir site was selected because the ground is level and obstruction free. Wide
angle radiation measurements were made at various locations around the fires, extending outwards approx-
imately 300 m. A bund constructed of lightweight concrete and sand, approximately 1 m tall, surrounded
the 35 m pool.
A summary of the key test parameters is given in Table 3.15. Note that results were compiled for specific
time intervals during each experiment.

Table 3.15: Summary of the Montoir LNG Fire Experiments.

Time Burning Wind 9 m Wind Amb. Rel. Atm.

Test Interval Rate Direction Speed Temp. Hum. Pres.
(s) (kg/m2 /s) (deg) (m/s) (◦ C) (%) (mbar)
60-100 0.12 59 2.5
1 25 53 1022
130-170 0.13 70 4.8
35-50 0.14 268 6.8
65-85 0.15 263 9.8
2 21 54 1015
100-130 0.16 260 10.3
165-185 0.15 257 9.1
57-70 0.11 87 1.9
3 90-120 0.13 79 3.5 14 85 1009
130-160 0.13 82 4.2

Modeling Notes
The experiments are simulated using the specified fuel burning rates for the several time periods during
each experiment. The fuel is assumed to be methane. The atmosphere is assumed to be unstable with
an Obukhov length, L = −350, and the ground surface is roughly open with an assumed aerodynamic
roughness, z0 = 0.1 m. The relative humidity, ambient temperature and pressure, and wind speed at 9 m are
specified in Table 3.15.
The radiative fraction is assumed to 0.14 based on field estimates and the radiative path length is assumed
to be 300 m; that is, the effective absorption coefficients of the various gas mixtures are evaluated over a
distance of 300 m. 600 solid angles, rather than the default 100, are used to solve the radiative transport
equation. The soot yield is assumed to be 0.01.

Flame Height Results: Section 6.2.3

Flame Tilt Results: Section 6.3

Heat Flux Results: Section 12.2.5

58
3.40 NBS Multi-Room Experiments
The National Bureau of Standards (NBS, which is now called the National Institute of Standards and Tech-
nology, NIST) Multi-Room Experiments consisted of 45 fire tests representing 9 different sets of conditions
were conducted in a three-room suite (see Fig. 3.18). The experiments were conducted in 1985 and are de-
scribed in detail in Ref. [224]. The suite consisted of two relatively small rooms, connected via a relatively
long corridor. The fire source, a gas burner, was located against the rear wall of one of the small compart-
ments. Fire tests of 100 kW, 300 kW and 500 kW were conducted. For the current study, only three 100 kW
fire experiments have been used, including Test 100A from Set 1, Test 100O from Set 2, and Test 100Z from
Set 4. These tests were selected because they had been used in prior validation studies, and because these
tests had the steadiest values of measured heat release rate during the steady-burn period.
Following is additional information provided by the test director, Richard Peacock of NIST:

Heat Release Rate: In the two tests for which the door was open, the HRR during the steady-burn period
measured via oxygen consumption calorimetry was 110 kW with an uncertainty of about 15 %, consis-
tent with the replicate measurements made during the experimental series and the uncertainty typical of
oxygen consumption calorimetry. It was assumed that the closed door test (Test 100O) had the same
HRR as the open door tests.

Radiative Fraction: Natural gas was used as the fuel in Test 100A. In Tests 100O and 100Z, acetylene was
added to the natural gas to increase the smoke yield, and as a consequence, the radiative fraction in-
creased. The radiative fraction of natural gas has been studied previously, whereas the radiative fraction
of the acetylene/natural gas mixture has not been studied. The radiative fraction for the natural gas fire
was assigned a value of 0.20, whereas a value of 0.30 was assigned for the natural gas/acetylene fires.

Measurements: Only two types of measurements conducted during the NBS test series were used in the
evaluation considered here, because there was less confidence in the other measurements. The mea-
surements considered here were the HGL temperature and depth, in which bare bead TCs were used to
make these measurements. Single point measurements of temperature within the burn room were not
used in the evaluation of plume or ceiling jet algorithms. This is because the geometry was not consis-
tent in either case with the assumptions used in the model algorithms of plumes or jets. Specifically, the
burner was mounted against a wall, and the room width-to-height ratio was less than that assumed by
the various ceiling jet correlations.

59
Figure 3.18: Geometry of the NBS Multi-Room Experiments.

60
3.41 NIST Composite Beam Experiments
A set of experiments was conducted in the Large Fire Laboratory at NIST to study the behavior of long-
span steel-concrete composite floor beams designed and constructed following U.S. building codes and
standards [225]. The composite beam consisted of a 12.8 m long W18×35 steel beam and an 16 cm thick
lightweight concrete slab cast on top of 7.6 cm deep ribbed steel decking. Drawings of the compartment are
shown in Figs. 3.19 through 3.21.
Simultaneous mechanical and fire loading was applied to the specimens. The measurements focused on
evaluation of the characteristics of the fire loading, temperatures, and structural responses of the specimens
to fires.

Modeling Notes
The simulations of the NIST Composite Beam experiments are performed with 5 cm grid cells and 32
meshes. The calculations are sped up by a factor of 10 using TIME_SHRINK_FACTOR=10, whereby a
60 min experiment is simulated in 6 min of real time because the heat release rate is held steady for most
of the experiment. The specific heats of all solid materials are reduced by a factor of 10 automatically to
account for the change in time scale.
Because these experiments involve a global equivalence ratio of approximately 1, the two-step simple
chemistry model is used, where soot and CO are produced when the fire becomes under-ventilated.

61
 62
Figure 3.19: Elevation view of NIST Composite Beam experiments.
63
Figure 3.20: Plan view of NIST Composite Beam experiments.
 64
Figure 3.21: Side view of NIST Composite Beam experiments.
3.42 NIST E119 Compartment Experiments
In December 2018, three fire experiments were conducted in a compartment approximately 10.8 m wide,
7.0 m deep and 3.8 m high, constructed in the Large Fire Laboratory of NIST [226]. The experiments were
designed to test different types of floor assemblies. Two experiments, designed as replicates, lasted 15 min,
and the third lasted 75 min. Four natural gas burners generated a peak heat release rate of approximately
10 MW in the 75 min experiments. The measured average upper layer gas temperature was comparable with
that prescribed in the ASTM E119 standard [227]. Drawings of the compartment are shown in Figs. 3.22
through 3.24.

65
 66
Figure 3.22: Plan view of NIST E119 Compartment experiment.
67
Figure 3.23: Elevation view of NIST E119 Compartment experiment.
 68
Figure 3.24: Elevation view of NIST E119 Compartment experiment.
3.43 NIST Douglas Firs
In 2009, Mell et al. measured the burning rate and heat fluxes from individual Douglas fir trees of various
sizes and moisture contents [228]. Nine of the trees were approximately 2 m tall, and three were approxi-
mately 5 m tall. The results were presented as averages: the three 5 m trees had an average moisture content
of 26 %, three of the 2 m trees had an average moisture content of 49 %, and the remaining six 2 m trees
had a moisture content of 14 %. The 2 m trees were ignited with a natural gas ring burner with a diameter
of 80 cm and a heat release rate of 30 kW. The trees with a moisture content of 14 % were exposed to the
burner for 10 s and the 49 % trees were exposed for 30 s. The 5 m trees were exposed to a hexagonal burner
with a span of 122 cm and HRR of 130 kW for 30 s.

Modeling Notes
The trees are modeled as a collection of cylindrical Lagrangian particles. Mell et al. [228] group the particles
into three size classes. The pyrolysis model applied to the particles is based on TGA measurements of
longleaf pine needles described in the FDS Verification Guide [229], chapter “Pyrolysis,” Section “TGA for
a Charring Sample (Needle_TGA).”
Measured properties of the trees are listed in Table 3.16, and assumed properties are listed in Table 3.17.
These assumed properties are typically for wood or cellulosic fuels. The moisture is modeled as water. The
vegetation is assumed to be composed primarily of cellulose. Reference [228] provides an estimate of the
distribution of mass for the foliage, roundwood less than 3 mm in diameter, roundwood 3 mm to 6 mm, and
roundwood 6 mm to 10 mm. For the 2 m trees, the distribution is approximately 64 %, 11 %, 10 %, and
15 %, respectively. For the 5 m trees, it is 60 %, 17 %, 12 %, and 11 %, respectively.

Table 3.16: Measured properties for the NIST Douglas Fir Experiments [228].

Property Units Case 1 Case 2 Case 3

Replicate Experiments – 6 3 3
Avg. Crown Height m 1.9 1.9 4.2
Avg. Base Height m 0.15 0.15 0.3
Avg. Base Width m 1.7 1.7 2.9
Foliage Surface Area to Volume Ratio m−1 3940 3940 3940
Avg. Initial Mass kg 9.7 13.5 57.9
Avg. Moisture Fraction % 14 49 26
Assumed Bulk Mass per Unit Volume kg/m3 3.2 4.6 2.7

69
 Table 3.17: Assumed properties for the NIST Douglas Fir Experiments.

Property Units Value Reference

Chemical Composition – C3.4 H6.2 O2.5 [66]
Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 17700 [161]
Soot Yield kg/kg 0.02 [228]
Char Yield kg/kg 0.26 [161]
Specific Heat kJ/(kg·K) 1.1 + 0.0037 T [230]
Conductivity W/(m·K) 0.2 Assumption
Density kg/m3 514 [158]
Heat of Pyrolysis kJ/kg 416 [160]

3.44 NIST Enclosure Experiments

A variety of reduced-scale and full-scale compartment fire experiments have been performed at NIST over
the past few decades. The main objective of each series is to measure the concentrations of oxygen, carbon
dioxide, carbon monoxide, soot, and unburned hydrocarbons in an under-ventilated compartment. These
data sets also provide extreme temperature and heat flux measurements.

3.44.1 NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure Experiments, 1994

The NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure (RSE) was a 40 % scale version of the ISO 9705 compartment [231].
It measured 0.98 m wide by 1.46 m deep by 0.98 m tall. A door, centered on the smaller wall, was 0.48 m
wide by 0.81 m tall. A 15 cm diameter natural gas burner was positioned in the center of the compartment.
The burner was on a stand so that its top was 15 cm above the floor. The fires ranged from 50 kW to 600 kW.
Species measurements, including CO concentration, were made near the ceiling in the front and back of the
compartment.

3.44.2 NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure Experiments, 2007

Another set of reduced-scale compartment experiments was conducted in 2007 at NIST [232]. The com-
partment was similar in dimension: 0.95 m wide by 1.42 m deep by 0.98 m tall with the exact same door
dimensions. Four different burner types were used: a 13 cm square sand burner, a 25 cm square liquid fuel
burner, a spray nozzle into 0.4 m diameter circular pan, and a 60 cm diameter circular pan. Six different
fuels were used: natural gas; heptane, methanol, ethanol and toluene liquids; and solid polystyrene beads.
The fires ranged from 15 kW to 425 kW, but only fires greater than 190 kW were used for comparison
because the smaller fires produced no significant CO. Measurements of O2 , CO2 , CO, soot, and unburned
hydrocarbon concentration were made near the ceiling in the front and back of the compartment.

3.44.3 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure Experiments, 2008

The NIST FSE (2008) Experiments were conducted in an ISO 9705 compartment [233]. The compartment
was 2.4 m wide by 3.6 m long by 2.4 m high with a 2 m high door at one end (Fig. 3.25). The door width
varied between 0.1 m and 0.8 m. The experiments were designed to study the effects of fuel type, fuel
distribution, and vent size on under-ventilated compartment fires. Twenty-seven of the thirty experiments

70
 Table 3.18: Summary of NIST Reduced-Scale Experiments, 2007.

Test Fuel Fuel Peak Burner Doorway

No. Type Formula HRR (kW) Size (m2 ) Opening (cm)
1 Natural Gas CH4 190 0.017 48
2 Natural Gas CH4 395 0.017 48
3 Natural Gas CH4 410 0.017 48
4 Heptane C7 H16 375 0.063 48
5 Heptane C7 H16 220 0.063 24
6 Natural Gas CH4 420 0.063 24
7 Heptane C7 H16 340 0.063 48
10 Toluene C7 H8 340 0.063 48
11 Ethanol C2 H6 O 335 0.126 48
12 Methanol CH4 O 305 0.126 48
15 Heptane C7 H16 375 0.126 48
16 Polystyrene C8 H8 360 0.283 48

were simulated, which included 7 different fuels, 3 fuel sources, and 4 ventilation openings. The three
experiments not simulated had several malfunctions of equipment such that the data could not be trusted.
Peak heat release rates ranged from approximately 100 kW to 2.5 MW. Table 3.19 provides a summary
of the experiments. Species concentrations and temperature measurements were made at the front and rear
of the compartment.

3.44.4 Modeling Notes

In the simulations of all of the NIST enclosure experiments, it is assumed that the combustion can be
simplified to two fast reactions, the first converting fuel to CO and soot, and the second converting CO and
soot to CO2 . By default, 2/3 of the carbon in the fuel is converted to CO in the first step, the remaining
1/3 to soot. The heats of combustion for the reactions are calculated directly from the heats of formation
of the individual molecules. For cases where the fuel molecule is not pre-defined in FDS (e.g., styrene),
the fuel’s enthalpy of formation is specified. For cases where the fuel’s enthalpy of formation is not known
(e.g. nylon), the heat of combustion that is reported for complete combustion is specified in a single reaction
test case, from which an effective enthalpy of formation is reported3 and then used in the actual two-step
reaction scheme.
In the experiments, the heat release rate was measured via oxygen consumption calorimetry. In the
simulations, the mass loss rate of fuel was specified by taking the measured HRR and dividing by the heats
of combustion listed in Ref. [135].
In all simulations, the model geometry included the compartment interior plus a comparable volume at
the exterior to allow for a natural flow into and out of the compartment.
Also, in all simulations, the fire suppression algorithm has been turned off (SUPPRESSION=.FALSE.).
The reason for this is that the suppression algorithm is not able to distinguish viability of a fire that is close
3 The FDS diagnostic output (.out) file contains detailed information about the reaction stoichiometry, heats of combustion, and
enthalpies of formation.

71
 Insulation (2 layers, each 2.5 cm thick)

20 gauge steel studs

20 gauge steel sheet (0.89 mm thick)

Interior Dimensions:
3.6 m by 2.4 m by 2.4 m

Burner

The burner is either geometrically centered

or against the back wall, or both. Burners are square Compartment floor is
with sides of 50 cm, 71 cm, or 100 cm (shown here). 35 cm above the lab floor
All burners are 10 cm deep. Concrete floor

The door is 2 m tall, with widths of 80 cm (shown), 40 cm,

20 cm, or 10 cm.

Figure 3.25: Geometry of the compartment used in the NIST Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE) experiments.

to the point of extinction. Research continues in this area.

72
 Table 3.19: Summary of NIST FSE Experiments selected for model validation.

Test Fuel Fuel Fuel No. of Burner Doorway

Name Type Formula Mass (kg) Burners Size (m2 ) Opening (cm)
ISONG3 Natural Gas CH4 1 1.0 80
ISOHept4 Heptane C7 H16 Pool Fed 1 1.0 80
ISOHept5 Heptane C7 H16 Pool Fed 1 1.0 40
ISOHept8 Heptane C7 H16 10 1 0.5 20
ISOHept9 Heptane C7 H16 20 1 0.5 20
ISONylon10 Nylon C6 H11 NO 10 1 0.5 20
ISOPP11 Propylene C3 H6 10 1 0.5 20
ISOHeptD12 Heptane C7 H16 20 2 0.25 20
ISOHeptD13 Heptane C7 H16 20 2 0.25 20
ISOPropD14 Propanol C3 H8 O 24 2 0.25 20
ISOProp15 Propanol C3 H8 O 24 1 0.5 20
ISOStyrene16 Styrene C8 H8 10 1 0.5 20
ISOStyrene17 Styrene C8 H8 30 1 1.0 20
ISOPP18 Propylene C3 H6 20 2 0.5 20
ISOHept19 Heptane C7 H16 20 1 0.5 20
ISOToluene20 Toluene C7 H8 17 1 0.5 20
ISOStyrene21 Styrene C8 H8 15 1 0.5 20
ISOHept22 Heptane C7 H16 Spray 1 0.5 20
ISOHept23 Heptane C7 H16 Spray 1 0.5 10
ISOHept24 Heptane C7 H16 Spray 1 0.5 10
ISOHept25 Heptane C7 H16 Spray 1 0.5 40
ISOHept26 Heptane C7 H16 Spray 1 0.5 40
ISOHept27 Heptane C7 H16 Spray 1 0.5 10
ISOHept28 Heptane C7 H16 Spray 1 0.5 20
ISOToluene29 Toluene C7 H8 Spray 1 0.5 20
ISOPropanol30 Propanol C3 H8 O Spray 1 0.5 20
ISONG32 Natural Gas CH4 1 0.28 20

3.45 NIST Helium Experiments

Eighteen experiments were conducted at NIST in which helium was released over a lengthy time period
inside of a 1.5 m by 1.5 m by 0.75 m plexiglass box with one or two small leakage holes [234]. The
experiments were intended to represent the release of hydrogen from passenger vehicle fuel cell inside of
a residential garage. Test parameters included the release rate and length, the location of the release, and
the size and location of the leakage. Measurements were made of the helium concentration in a rake at
seven locations over the height of the compartment during the release and for a period of up to 11 hours
post-release.
Test variables included all permutations of the leak rate and time (14.8 L/min over 3600 s or 3.71 L/min
over 14400 s), leak location (on the floor at the center of the compartment, on the floor at the center of
the rear wall, and 2.5 cm below the ceiling at the center of the compartment), and the leak area (2.4 cm
by 2.4 cm at the center of the front wall, 3.05 cm by 3.05 cm at the center of the front wall, and a pair of

73
2.15 cm by 2.15 cm centered on the front wall 2.5 cm from the floor and ceiling).
Leakage areas were square holes under 10 cm2 in area. Attempting to resolve flows through these holes
would have required very small grid cells in the vicinity of the holes. Instead, the FDS HVAC model was
used. For each leakage hole a pair of HVAC ducts was defined over a height of two grid cells (one grid cell
height for each vent). Each duct was assigned one-half the leakage area and the experimentally determined
orifice flow coefficient. This approach enabled bi-directional flow to occur at the leakage vent as occurred
during each test following the termination of the helium release.

3.46 NIST/NRC Compartment Experiments

These experiments, sponsored by the US NRC and conducted at NIST, consisted of 15 large-scale ex-
periments performed in June 2003. All 15 tests were included in the validation study. The experiments are
documented in Ref. [116]. The fire sizes ranged from 350 kW to 2.2 MW in a compartment with dimensions
21.7 m by 7.1 m by 3.8 m high, designed to represent a compartment in a nuclear power plant containing
power and control cables. A diagram of the test structure is displayed in Figure 3.26.
The walls and ceiling were covered with two layers of marinate boards, each layer 0.0125 m thick. The
floor was covered with one layer of gypsum board on top of a layer of plywood. Thermo-physical and optical
properties of the marinate and other materials used in the compartment are given in Ref. [116]. The room
had one door and a mechanical air injection and extraction system. Ventilation conditions, the fire size, and
fire location were varied. Numerous measurements (approximately 350 per test) were made including gas
and surface temperatures, heat fluxes and gas velocities.
Following are some notes provided by Anthony Hamins, who conducted the experiments:

Natural Ventilation: The compartment had a 2 m by 2 m door in the middle of the west wall. Some of
the tests had a closed door and no mechanical ventilation (Tests 2, 7, 8, 13, and 17), and in those tests
the measured compartment leakage was an important consideration. The test report lists leakage areas
based on measurements performed prior to Tests 1, 2, 7, 8, and 13. For the closed door tests, the leakage
area used in the simulations was based on the last available measurement. The chronological order of
the tests differed from the numerical order. For Test 4, the leakage area measured before Test 2 was
used. For Tests 10 and 16, the leakage area measured before Test 7 was used.

Mechanical Ventilation: The mechanical ventilation and exhaust was used during Tests 4, 5, 10, and 16,
providing about 5 air changes per hour. The door was closed during Test 4 and open during Tests 5, 10,
and 16. The supply duct was positioned on the south wall, about 2 m off the floor. An exhaust duct of
equal area to the supply duct was positioned on the opposite wall at a comparable location. The flow
rates through the supply and exhaust ducts were measured in detail during breaks in the testing, in the
absence of a fire. During the tests, the flows were monitored with single bi-directional probes during
the tests themselves.

Heat Release Rate: A single nozzle was used to spray liquid hydrocarbon fuels onto a 1 m by 2 m fire
pan that was about 0.1 m deep. The test plan originally called for the use of two nozzles to provide the
fuel spray. Experimental observation suggested that the fire was less unsteady with the use of a single
nozzle. In addition, it was observed that the actual extent of the liquid pool was well-approximated by a
1 m circle in the center of the pan. For safety reasons, the fuel flow was terminated when the lower-layer
oxygen concentration dropped to approximately 15 % by volume. The fuel used in 14 of the tests was
heptane, while toluene was used for one test. The HRR was determined using oxygen consumption
calorimetry. The recommended uncertainty values were 17 % for all of the tests.

74
Figure 3.26: Geometry of the NIST/NRC Experiments.

75
Radiative Fraction: The values of radiative fraction and its uncertainty were reported as 0.44 ± 0.07 and
0.40 ± 0.09 for heptane and toluene, respectively.

Soot Yield: The values of the soot yield and its uncertainty were reported as 0.0149 kg/kg ± 0.0033 kg/kg
and 0.195 kg/kg ± 0.052 kg/kg for heptane and toluene, respectively.

3.47 NIST/NRC Corner, Wall, and Cabinet Experiments

In the summer of 2017, experiments were conducted in a large compartment in the NIST large fire laboratory
on behalf of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. There were two sets of experiments. In the first set,
conducted in July, 2017, a natural gas burner was positioned either in a corner or against a wall, and gradually
moved outward. In the second set of experiments, conducted in September, 2017, a natural gas burner was
placed inside one of two steel cabinets meant to represent typical industrial-scale electrical enclosures.
The compartment for all experiments was 11 m long, 7 m wide, and 3.8 m high. The long dimension of
the compartment ran east-west. A 1.8 m wide, 2.4 m high door was centered on the east (short) wall.
All of the fires were fueled by one or more 30.5 cm (1 ft) square natural gas burners. Each burner was
essentially a steel box, 30.5 cm square in plan and 15 cm deep, fueled from below. The lip of the burner was
2.5 cm (1 in) wide. A 2.5 cm thick piece of Kaowool insulation was placed under a steel mesh to form the
surface of the burner.

3.47.1 Wall and Corner Effects

Six large compartment experiments [235] were conducted in July, 2017, where four natural gas burners were
positioned (1) in a corner and (2) against a wall, and then moved outward in stages until the corner or wall
effect became negligible. The quad burner was 60 cm by 60 cm and the burner surface was 54 cm above
the floor. The corner fire was located in the southwest corner of the large compartment. The wall fire was
centered on the south (long) wall.
The experiments began with the quad burner in the corner or against the wall for the first 30 min. At
30 min, the burner was moved so that its edge(s) was 10 cm away from the wall(s). It remained for 15 min,
after which it was moved to 20 cm, 30 cm, 50 cm, 100 cm, and 160 cm, each time remaining 15 min for a
total experiment time of 2 h.
A three-dimensional array of thermocouples was positioned on a track mounted to the ceiling above
the burner. The purpose of this array was to measure maximum plume temperatures at heights of 2.1 m,
2.7 m, and 3.4 m above the floor. As the burner moved, the thermocouple array moved with it. For the
corner fire experiments, when the burner was at the 0 cm, 10 cm, and 20 cm positions, the thermocouple
array overhead remained at its original location in the corner. As the burner moved beyond 20 cm, the
thermocouple array was moved the same amount so that the burner was always below the array in the same
position. In other words, for the corner fire experiments, after the center point of the burner reached the
point directly below the position 18 on the diagram below, the burner and array moved together, maintaining
their relative position.
The experimental data consists primarily of thermocouple measurements. The key to the column names
are as follows:

• TC-AG-01 through TC-AG-29 are the thermocouples at the top of the cage, 46 cm below the ceiling
(see pattern below).

• TC-BG-01 through TC-BG-29 are the thermocouples at the mid-level of the cage, 107 cm below the
ceiling (see pattern below).

76
• TC-CG-01 through TC-CG-29 are the thermocouples at the bottom of the cage, 168 cm below the ceiling
(see pattern below).

• TC-WT-01 through TC-WT-13 are the thermocouples of the vertical array called the West Tree. The
array was 2.75 m from the west (short) wall and 3.5 m from the south (long) wall. TC-WT-01 was
located 2 cm below the ceiling, and the rest were spaced 30 cm apart.

• TC-ET-01 through TC-ET-13 are the thermocouples of the East Tree. The array was 2.75 m from the
east (short) wall and 3.5 m from the south (long) wall. TC-ET-01 was located 2 cm below the ceiling,
and the rest were spaced 30 cm apart.

• TC-C-01 through TC-C-11 are the thermocouples 2 cm from the corner above the corner fire. TC-C-01
was located 2 cm below the ceiling, and the rest were spaced 30 cm apart.

• TC-W-01 through TC-W-11 are the thermocouples 2 cm from the wall above the wall fire. TC-W-01
was located 2 cm below the ceiling, and the rest were spaced 30 cm apart.

• HRR (cal) is the heat release rate of the fire as measured using oxygen consumption calorimetry. HRR
(NG) is the heat release rate determined from the mass flow rate of natural gas.

6
25 26 27 28 29
t t t t t

24
t

19 20 21 22 23
t t t t t

18
t

0.91 m (36 in)

13 14 15 16 17
t t t t t

12
t

7 8 9 10 11
t t t t t

6
t

1 2 3 4 5
t t t t t ?

South Wall

Figure 3.27: Diagram of thermocouple layout for NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments.

77
 The East and West Tree thermocouples were used to estimate the height of the hot gas layer (HGL), and
the average temperatures of the upper and lower layers. Also, the three horizontal arrays of thermocouples
above the burner were processed by first taking a 2 min running average of each TC, and then choosing
the maximum value for each of the three elevations above the fire. These were taken as approximate cen-
terline plume temperatures at each height. These experimental files are labelled with “HGL” and “Plume”,
respectively.

3.47.2 Cabinet Effects

In this second series of experiments, conducted in September, 2017, two different mock steel cabinets were
used. Each cabinet was constructed of 12 gauge (2.8 mm or 7/64 in) steel plate with openings as shown in
Figs. 3.28 and 3.29. The large cabinet was nominally 0.9 m by 0.9 m by 2.1 m and the medium size cabinet
was 0.6 m by 0.6 m by 2.1 m. The openings near the top of each cabinet were sometimes covered with a
steel grill, shown in Fig. 3.30.
For the first set of experiments (1-6), the large cabinet was positioned with its front opening facing
eastward towards the opening of the test compartment. Its left side was 1.8 m from the south wall and its
front side was 5.8 m from the east wall. Two 0.3 m by 0.3 m natural gas burners were placed side by side
in the cabinet from the perspective of the cabinet front opening. The top of the burner was 50 cm above
the floor of the cabinet. For Tests 1-4, the front door of the cabinet was closed, and the heat release rate
was initially set to 50 kW for 30 min, then it was increased to 100 kW for 15 min, 200 kW for 15 min, and
400 kW for 15 min. For Tests 5-6, the front door was opened, and the heat release rate was set to 200 kW,
400 kW, and 700 kW for 15 min each, and then 1000 kW for 5 min, a total of 50 min.
In the second set of experiments (7-10), the medium-sized cabinet was positioned so that its front was
the same distance from the east wall as the large cabinet, and its left side was 2.0 m (6.5 ft) from the south
wall. A single 30 cm by 30 cm gas burner was centered within. For the closed door tests, the heat release
rate was 25 kW, 50 kW, 100 kW, and 200 kW, each for 15 min. For the open door tests, the heat release rate
was 40 kW, 80 kW, 200 kW, and 325 kW, each for 15 min.
In the third set of experiments (11-12), the cabinet was removed, and two 30 cm by 30 cm burners were
spaced 0.9 m (3 ft) apart, side to side. One of the burners was centered under the array of thermocouples.
Both burners were 2.0 m from the south wall. These experiments used the same heat release rate sequence
as the open and closed door large cabinet experiments.
The data files for these experiments are labelled, NIST_NRC_Cabinet_Test_n.csv. These files con-
tain the same measurement positions as the corner and wall experiments, with the following additional
measurements:
• PT-1 through PT-8 are plate thermometers positioned 0.6 m (2 ft) from each side of the cabinet at heights
of 0.8 m (2.5 ft) and 1.4 m (4.5 ft). PT-1 is the upper plate on the left side. PT-2 is lower left. PT-3 is
upper back. PT-4 is lower back. PT-5 is upper front. PT-6 is lower front. PT-7 is upper right. PT-8 is
lower right.

• STC-1 through STC-6 are sheathed thermocouples within the cabinet, 15 cm (6 in) from the left side,
centered. STC-1 is 6 cm (2.5 in) from the top. STC-2 through STC-6 are 30 cm, 60 cm, 90 cm, 120 cm,
and 150 cm from the top, respectively.

• TC-Cab is a single 24 gauge Type K thermocouple welded to the center of the back side on the outside
of the cabinet. For Test 11, this TC was placed just under the Kaowool surface of the burner, and for
Test 12, it was placed just above the surface.

78
Figure 3.28: Large cabinet drawing, NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments.

79
Figure 3.29: Medium-sized cabinet drawing, NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments.

80
 Figure 3.30: Cabinet grill, NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments.

The three dimensional array of thermocouples used in the wall and corner experiments was positioned over
the front of the cabinet, such that TC positions 1, 7, 13, 19, and 25 in Fig. 3.27 were just above the upper
front edge of the cabinet.
The test matrix is as follows:
Table 3.20: Summary of NIST/NRC Cabinet Experiments.

Test Cabinet Front Door Top Vents Upper Side Vents HRR (kW)
1 Large Closed Closed Grill 50, 100, 200, 400
2 Large Closed All open Grill 50, 100, 200, 400
3 Large Closed Closed Front open, all others closed 50, 100, 200, 400
4 Large Closed Closed Front and back open, others closed 50, 100, 200, 400
5 Large Open Closed Front and back open, others closed 200, 400, 700, 1000
6 Large Open Open All open 200, 400, 700, 1000
7 Medium Closed Closed Grill 25, 50, 100, 200
8 Medium Closed Closed Open 25, 50, 100, 200
9 Medium Open Closed Open 40, 80, 200, 325
10 Medium Open Closed Closed 40, 80, 200, 325
11 None N/A N/A N/A 200, 400, 700, 1000
12 None N/A N/A N/A 50, 100, 200, 400

3.48 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire Experiments

In March, 2022, experiments were conducted at NIST to determine the maximum heat release rate that a fire
can reach within steel electrical enclosures [236]. OLIVE is an acronym for Oxygen-Limited Fires Inside

81
Under-Ventilated Enclosures. Photographs of the enclosures are shown in Fig. 3.31. The enclosures were
pressure-tested before and after the experiments to determine the leakage and vent opening areas. These
opening areas are a key parameter in the numerical modeling.
Thirty-two experiments were conducted; twenty-one of which were fueled by a natural gas burner. The
others involved a variety of plastics and electrical cables. Eighteen of the natural gas experiments were
chosen for simulation. The natural gas cases not chosen had unexpectedly large gaps between the steel
panels open up during the experiment. The leakage throught these gaps could not be measured.

Modeling Notes
The simulations are performed with a spatial resolution of 4 cm. The enclosures are modeled simply as
rectangular steel boxes with no internal partitions included. Both leakage and vents are modeled in the same
way by using the “localized leakage” methodology in FDS where the volume flow rate, V̇ , through a vent or
a crack is a function of the pressure difference, ∆p:
 0.5  0.1
2∆p ∆p
V̇ = C A (3.8)
ρ0 ∆pref

The discharge coefficient, C = 0.61, is recommended by the manufacturer of the calibrated fan used for
determining the leakage area, A. The extra pressure term in the expression represents a weak relationship
between the discharge coefficient and the pressure rise. The pressure exponent of 0.6 best fits the leakage
data. The reference pressure, ∆pref , is taken as 1 Pa to maintain unit consistency.

82
Figure 3.31: Photographs of the eight electrical enclosures used for the NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire experiments. The
enclosures are numbered 1 through 8 in sequence. Enclosure #1 and #2 (top row) have the same exterior design.

83
3.49 NIST/NRC Parallel Panel Experiments
As part of a Nuclear Regulatory Commission (NRC) research project to assess fire behavior in electrical
enclosures, rate of spread and heat release rate measurements were made on various plastics lining a parallel
panel apparatus. The panels were 0.6 m (2 ft) wide, 2.4 m (8 ft) tall, and separated by 0.3 m (1 ft). A 60 kW
propane sand burner was positioned at the base of the two panels. Plastics tested to date include PMMA,
PVC, and PBT, cut into 6.4 mm (0.25 in) thick panels. A sketch of the apparatus, originally developed by
Factory Mutual, is shown in Fig. 3.11.

3.50 NIST/NRC Transient Combustibles Experiments

In December, 2019 and February, 2020, 40 calorimetry experiments were conducted at the National Fire
Research Laboratory at NIST on behalf of the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory Commission. The experiments were
conducted under a 6.1 m (20 ft) by 6.1 m hood with a nominal capacity of 3 MW. The full report on the
experiments can be found in Ref. [237].
The items burned are described briefly in Fig. 3.32. These consist of commercially available materials
constructed mainly of wood and paper. Each item was weighed before and after the experiment on a load
cell accurate to 10 g.
The fires were all ignited using one or more 7.5 cm (3 in) segments of approximately 1 cm (0.5 in)
diameter cotton rope soaked in approximately 10 mL of acetone. For some items like the wood cribs and
pallets, a small amount of shredded craft or “crinkle” paper was used to sustain the ignition until steady
burning was achieved.
The floor beneath the burning item was protected with a single layer of gypsum board covered by a
single layer of concrete board.
The heats of combustion and product yields of the various items burned are given in Table 3.21. These
values are derived from the measured initial and final mass, and an assumed value of 13.61 MJ/kg for the
energy released per unit mass of oxygen consumed.

Table 3.21: Average heat and product yields of the various test items.

Item ∆H (MJ/kg) CO Yield CO2 Yield Soot Yield Residue Yield

Box #1 14.8 ± 0.5 0.039 ± 0.001 1.48 ± 0.05 0.0014 ± 0.0003 0.031 ± 0.016
Pallet 17.2 ± 0.5 0.031 ± 0.001 1.66 ± 0.06 0.0033 ± 0.0006 0.059 ± 0.024
Crib 16.7 ± 0.5 0.023 ± 0.001 1.63 ± 0.06 0.0020 ± 0.0003 0.053 ± 0.034

Modeling Notes
The combustible items are modeled as collections of Lagrangian particles that undergo a three-step decom-
position process consisting of moisture evaporation, pyrolysis, and char oxidation. The moisture content,
M, of the conditioned materials was less than the 0.05 lower limit of the moisture meter, and this value is
used in the calculations.
In the model, all of the wood and paper materials are assumed to be made up of cellulose, C6 H10 O5 ,
with a net heat of combustion of 16.12 MJ/kg [238]. It is also assumed that the materials have a char yield
of 20 %, meaning that 20 % of the dry mass is converted into char that undergoes an exothermic oxidation
reaction generating 32.12 MJ/kg of char consumed. The decomposition reactions are as follows:

84
 Box #1: Single-wall corrugated box with
nominal dimensions 61 cm by 61 cm by
46 cm (24 in by 24 in by 18 in) filled with
“crinkle paper,” a common packing mate-
rial made by shredding craft paper. The
box alone had a mass of approximately
1.6 kg (3.5 lb), and the box and paper com-
bined had a mass of 8.0 kg (18 lb). The box
top flaps were closed, end over end, but not
sealed with tape.

Pallet: Pine wood pallet with dimensions

122 cm by 102 cm by 12 cm (48 in by 40 in
by 4.75 in). Its mass was approximately
16.0 kg (35 lb). Its moisture content was
less than 5 %. Shown at right are two pal-
lets, which were ignited with 1 kg (2.2 lb)
of crinkle paper distributed evenly through-
out the lower pallet.

Crib: Pine wood crib with dimensions

56 cm by 56 cm by 46 cm (22 in by 22 in
by 18 in) constructed of slats with a cross-
section 3.8 cm (1.5 in) square. Its mass
was approximately 39 kg (86 lb). Its mois-
ture content was less than 5 %. It was ig-
nited with 0.75 kg (1.7 lb) of crinkle paper
stuffed in the space below the first row of
slats.

Figure 3.32: Description of test items.

1. Endothermic moisture evaporation

M
Wet Vegetation → νH2 O H2 O + (1 − νH2 O ) Dry Vegetation ; νH2 O = (3.9)
1+M
2. Endothermic pyrolysis of dry vegetation
Dry Vegetation → 0.2 Char + 0.8 C3.3 H10 O5 (3.10)
3. Exothermic char oxidation
Char + 1.65 O2 → 2.4 CO2 + 0.25 Ash (3.11)
Note that the fuel gas is taken as cellulose with 20 % of its molecular mass decreased to account for the
residual char, which is assumed to be pure carbon. The heat of combustion of this modified fuel gas is
12120 MJ/kg. The yield of residual Ash is based on the measured residual mass.

85
 The crinkle paper is assumed to consist of 3 cm long, 4 mm wide strips with a surface area to volume
ratio of 10000 m−1 (approximately 0.2 mm thick). The length and width are important only in defining the
mass and volume of each particle. The thermal and kinetic properties of the paper are assumed to be similar
to those of corrugated cardboard given in Table 14.11. The cardboard that makes up the box that holds the
crinkle paper has a mass of 0.62 kg/m2 and the box itself has a mass of 1.6 kg. The corrugated paper has an
assumed dry density of 350 kg/m3 , yielding an effective thickness of 1.8 mm. In the model, the box does
not undergo char oxidation but rather “burns away” to expose the crinkle paper inside.
The wood crib is made up of 104 56 cm (22 in) long, 3.8 cm (1.5 in) square interlacing pine wood strips.
The particles used to model the crib are assumed to be cylindrical in shape but with a surface area to volume
ratio of 69 m−1 based on a direct measurement of the actual crib geometry. The dry density of the wood has
been measured to be 463 kg/m3 , its peak pyrolysis temperature is taken to be 320 ◦ C [239], its char yield
assumed to be 20 %, and its heat of reaction is taken to be 418 kJ/kg [240]. Other property values are based
on the default vegetation pyrolysis model described in the FDS User’s Guide.
The pine wood pallets are constructed of 1.6 cm (5/8 in) thick planks and modeled as a collection of flat
particles with a thickness of 8 mm and the same thermal and kinetic properties as the cribs, except that the
wood making up the pallets has a dry density of 414 kg/m3 .
The drag per unit volume exerted by the particles is given by
ρ
f= Cd κ u|u| ; κ = Cs σ β (3.12)
2
where ρ is the gas density, Cd is a drag coefficient, u is the local velocity vector, Cs is a shape factor, σ is the
surface area to volume ratio, and β is the packing ratio; that is the ratio of particle volume to cell volume.
The shape factor is taken as 0.25 for all particle types. The packing ratio is determined by the measured
mass of the item and the volume it occupies. The drag coefficient for the wood crib is 65, a value obtained
by simulating a finely-resolved wood crib in a wind tunnel and calibrating the drag of the equivalent “crib
particles” accordingly. The drag coefficient of the crinkle paper is taken as 1, and that of the pallet is taken
as 3. These are only order of magnitude estimates and have not been verified.

3.51 NIST Pool Fire Experiments

The NIST Pool Fire Experiments include temperature, species concentration, velocity, and heat flux mea-
surements of 30 cm and 100 cm diameter circular liquid fuel fires, and 37 cm gaseous burner fires.
The 30 cm burner is 15 cm deep and has a wall thickness of 1.6 mm. The burner is fitted with legs
such that the burner rim is positioned 30 cm above the floor. The bottom of the burner is maintained at a
constant temperature by flowing tap water (nominally 20 ◦ C) through a 3 cm section on the bottom of the
fuel pan. The dimensions of the circular burner are similar to Weckman’s methanol experiment described in
Section 3.90.
The 100 cm burner is also 15 cm deep, has a wall thickness of 1.6 mm, and is water-cooled.
The 37 cm burner is actually 38 cm in diameter with an effective diameter of 37 cm. It is water cooled,
and the surface temperature is maintained at approximately 40 ◦ C. The measured fuel flow rate for the
methane fire was 0.69 g/s and its estimated HRR was 34.5 kW. The heat release rates of the two propane
fires were 20 kW and 34 kW.
Details and references with regard to the plume temperature measurements are given in Section 6.1.5.
Details on the heat flux measurements are given in Section 12.2.8. Details on the gas species measurements
is given in Section 9.5.6. Details on the velocity measuremnts is given in Section 8.7.

86
Modeling Notes
The 30 cm pool fires are modeled at three different grid resolutions—2 cm, 1 cm, and 0.5 cm. The 100 cm
pool fires are modeled at 4 cm, 2 cm, and 1 cm resolution. The mass loss rate of the fuel is specified.
A two-step reaction mechanism is implemented. In the first reaction, fuel is converted to CO, soot, H2 ,
and H2 O. In the second reaction, the CO, soot, and H2 are converted to CO2 and H2 O. Both reactions employ
fast kinetics, but proceed in series, not in parallel. The relative amounts of CO, soot, and H2 produced in
the first step are still subjects of study, and for the moment have been estimated based on measured results.
The fractions of carbon atoms converted to CO in the first step are as follows—0.85 for acetone; 0.95 for
ethanol; 0.97 for methane; 1.0 for methanol; 0.85 for propane. For all fuels, one half of the hydrogen atoms
are converted to H2 in the first step.
The radiative fractions are specified based on measured values—0.31 for acetone; 0.26 for ethanol; 0.15
for methane; 0.21 for 1 m methanol; 0.22 for 30 cm methanol; 0.22 for propane.

3.52 NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments

A series of experiments was conducted by NIST to measure the activation time of ionization and photoelec-
tric smoke alarms in a residential setting [241]. Tests were conducted in actual homes with representative
sizes and floor plans, utilized actual furnishings and household items for fire sources, and tested actual smoke
alarms sold in retail stores at that time. Thirty-six tests were conducted in two homes; 27 in a single-story
manufactured home, and 8 in a two-story home. Eight experiments that were conducted in the single-story
manufactured home were selected for model validation. Only tests that used a flaming ignition source with
a couch or mattress fuel package were considered; the cooking oil fires and tests that used a smoldering
ignition source were not considered. The flaming ignition tests used a moderate flame source to quickly
ignite the fuel package.
The primary partitioning of the single-story floor plan consisted of three bedrooms, one full bathroom,
one kitchen/dining area, one living room, and two hallways (see Fig. 3.33). For testing, the doors to Bed-
room 3 and the bathroom were always closed. The ceiling was peaked on the long axis, reaching a height of
2.4 m. The outside walls were approximately 2.1 m in height. The slope of the ceiling was approximately
8.4◦ . Groups of smoke alarms were located in the room of fire origin, at least one bedroom, and in a central
location. Five stations (Station A through Station E) containing smoke alarm4 arrays were mounted parallel
to the ceiling.
Although a load cell was used in the experiments to measure the mass loss rate of the fuel package,
the mass loss data were not reliable enough to reconstruct the HRR curves for each test. Instead, the HRR
curves were determined by approximating the fire growth using a t-squared ramp, as in Eq. (3.13). The
parameters for the t-squared ramp were calibrated in FDS by using the temperature measured at the highest
thermocouple in the tree (2 cm below the ceiling) in the fire room.
 t 2
Q̇ = Q̇0 (3.13)
τ
A time offset was used to align the predicted ceiling thermocouple temperatures with the measured tem-
peratures. This offset is reported as the time at which the t-squared ramp begins. The t-squared calibration
parameters and time offsets for the HRR ramps are shown in Table 3.22. Additionally, the ignition source
had a small effect on the measured ceiling thermocouple temperatures. Therefore, the size of the ignition
4 Note that, in the FDS Guides, smoke detectors and smoke alarms are collectively referred to as smoke detectors because the

same smoke detection algorithm is used to predict activation of either type of device.

87
source was approximated as either 3 kW or 7 kW, and the time offset of the ignition source was also cali-
brated by using the measured ceiling thermocouple temperatures. The resulting HRR curve was input into
FDS as a fire ramp. A summary of the eight tests selected for model validation is shown in Table 3.22.

Table 3.22: Summary of NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments selected for model validation.

Test No. Fire Source Fire Location Q̇0 (kW) τ (s) Time Offset (s)
SDC02 Chair Living Room 150 180 20
SDC05 Mattress Bedroom 200 180 20
SDC07 Mattress Bedroom 350 180 50
SDC10 Chair Living Room 150 180 40
SDC33 Chair Living Room 100 180 10
SDC35 Chair Living Room 100 180 10
SDC38 Mattress Bedroom 120 180 25
SDC39 Mattress Bedroom 200 180 25

88
Figure 3.33: Geometry of the manufactured home from the NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments.

89
3.53 NIST Soot Deposition Gauge
A series of tests were performed as part of an effort to develop a gauge capable of making real time mea-
surements of soot deposition [242]. The test apparatus consisted of a hot plate and cold plate measuring 8
cm wide by 41 cm long and separated by 1 cm. The hot plate was electrically heated and the cold plate
was water cooled. A laminar diffusion flame burner using propene as the fuel was used to generate soot.
A portion of the effluent from the burner was sent through the test apparatus. In addition to tests using the
new gauge, a series of gravimetric tests were performed using 47 mm diameter pieces of aluminum foil
attached to the cold plate in four locations. Tests with the aluminum foil used nominal flowrates of 2.5, 5.0,
and 10.0 SLPM and nominal temperature differences of 100 ◦ C and 200 ◦ C. The test channel was mounted
vertically to avoid gravitational settling and with the laminar flow speeds the device essentially creates only
thermophoretic deposition. Four replicate tests were performed for the 2.5 and 5.0 SLPM flowrates and
three for the 10.0 SLPM flowrate. A summary of the 22 tests modeled is given in the table below.

Table 3.23: Experiment Details for Gravimetric Measurements of Soot Deposition

Test no. Flow Speed ∆T Inlet Soot Conc.

(SLPM) (K) (mg/m3 )
1 2.5 94 67.6
2 2.5 94 69.2
3 2.5 96 64.2
4 2.5 96 64.2
5 5.0 96 65.5
6 5.0 95 62.7
7 5.0 92 61.9
8 5.0 94 68.4
9 10.0 97 25.9
10 10.0 98 27.4
11 10.0 99 25.5
12 2.5 187 60.2
13 2.5 190 61.5
14 2.5 189 64.2
15 2.5 187 59.1
16 5.0 188 59.7
17 5.0 186 58.5
18 5.0 187 60.7
19 5.0 187 55.5
20 10.0 191 23.5
22 10.0 188 24.4
21 10.0 189 22.6

90
3.54 NIST Vent Study
A series of 15 reduced-scale enclosure experiments were conducted during the summer of 2017 by Summer
Undergraduate Research Fellows (SURF) Fateema Farzana and Cory Schovanec. There is no test report or
paper describing these experiments; only what is included here.

Enclosure Geometry
A drawing of the enclosure is given in Fig. 3.34. The enclosure consisted of two compartments stacked one
on top of the other. The interior lateral dimensions of each compartment were 119 cm by 121 cm. The
height of the lower compartment was 59 cm, and the upper was 61 cm. The enclosure was located within a
vented laboratory space that was approximately 3 m by 3 m by 2.8 m high. The floor of this space was tiled,
but a single sheet of gypsum board served as the lower floor of the test enclosure.
The front door was open in all experiments. For some portion of some of the experiments, the second
floor was completely sealed. The leakage area was approximately 18 cm2 , measured at an over-pressure of
25 Pa.

Material Properties
The walls, ceiling and floor of each compartment was 1.6 cm (5/8 in) Type X gypsum board. Wood studs
formed the exterior frame. Thermo-physical properties of the gypsum board were taken from in Ref. [243]
and manufacturer literature. It was assumed that the specific heat was 1.089 kJ/(kg · K), thermal conductivity
0.15 W/m/K, and density 673 kg/m3 . Additionally, a layer of kaowool, shown in Fig. 3.34 was used to seal
the gap between the removable roof and the second story walls. Aluminum tape was used to seal all other
seams.

Burner
For all experiments, a 10 cm square propane burner fueled at a rate of 1.65 L/min generated a 2.5 kW fire
according to the following calculation:

L 1 min 1 m3 kg kJ
1.65 × × × 1.967 3 × 46, 300 = 2.50 kW (3.14)
min 60 s 1000 L m kg
Note that the mass flow controller (Sierra Instruments SmartTrak 50) assumed standard conditions to be
0 ◦ C and 101325 Pa. For Tests 13-15, a Dwyer flow meter was used in place of the mass flow controller.
The flow meter had a flow range of 4 L/min air.

Thermocouples
Eight Type-K thermocouples were inserted at each level to measure the vertical temperature profile. The
thermocouples formed a vertical array at 84 cm from the left wall of the enclosure, and 17 cm from the front
wall. TC-1 was defined as the uppermost thermocouple, with heights defined as the vertical distance from
the compartment specific floor.

91
 DETAIL C wood stud
PLAN VIEW SCALE 1/3 5
8 in gypsum board
Left Ceiling Vent Right Ceiling Vent
(dimensions vary) 1
2 in kaowool

30 cm 10 cm
10 cm
84 cm
121 cm

10 cm 87 cm
C
10 cm

30 cm 30 cm

84 cm 17 cm

119 cm

Indicates position of both burner

and 2nd floor ceiling vent thermocouples

FRONT VIEW RIGHT VIEW

Indicates position of
identical windows
on either side

10 cm

59 cm 20 cm 79 cm 61 cm

30 cm 30 cm

20 cm
59 cm

30 cm
49 cm

2 cm
Note that door sill begins
above height of floor due
to external wood stud

Figure 3.34: Geometry of the compartment from the NIST Vent Study

92
 Table 3.24: Heights of the thermocouples above the floor of each level of the enclosure

Floor 2 TC’s 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8
Height (cm) 56.5 50.8 45.5 41.0 36.0 29.8 19.8 10.5
Floor 1 TC’s 9 10 11 12 13 14 15 16
Height (cm) 51.8 47.0 40.64 35.6 30.48 25.7 16.5 7.0

Test Procedure
Each experiment lasted 100 min with a 5 min cool down period. Table 3.25 indicates the times when vents
and windows were opened after the start of each experiment. For Test No. 1-4, two trials were performed.
In each case, the difference in temperature remained within 3 percent, a difference of less than 1 ◦ C. For this
reason, no further replicates were conducted.

Table 3.25: Vent State by Experiment: Time Opened

Test Front Left Right Left Right Left Right Right Roof
No. Window Window Window Vent Vent Vent Area Vent Area Vent Vent
(min) (min) (min) (min) (min) (cm2 ) (cm2 ) Shape (min)
1 0 0 0 Closed 0 0 100 Square Closed
2 0 0 0 Closed 20 0 100 Square Closed
3 60 40 Closed Closed 20 0 100 Square Closed
4 0 0 0 Closed 0 0 400 Square Closed
5 0 0 0 Closed 20 0 400 Square Closed
6 60 40 Closed Closed 20 0 400 Square Closed
7 0 0 0 0 0 100 400 Square Closed
8 0 0 0 20 40 100 400 Square Closed
9 80 60 Closed 20 40 100 400 Square Closed
10 0 0 0 Closed 0 0 100 Circle Closed
11 0 0 0 Closed 20 0 100 Circle Closed
12 60 40 Closed Closed 20 0 100 Circle Closed
13 0 0 0 0 0 100 400 Square 0
14 0 0 0 20 40 100 400 Square 60
15 Closed Closed Closed 20 40 100 400 Square 60

3.55 NRCC Facade Heat Flux Measurements

A series of experiments was conducted by the Fire Research Section of the Institute for Research in Con-
struction, National Research Council of Canada (NRCC), to measure the heat flux to a mock exterior build-
ing facade due to a fire within a compartment [244, 245]. The experiments selected for model validation
were conducted using a series of propane line burners within a compartment whose interior dimensions were
5.95 m wide, 4.4 m deep, and 2.75 m high (see Fig. 3.35). There were five different door/window sizes:

93
1. 0.94 m by 2.00 m high

2. 0.94 m by 2.70 m high (door)

3. 2.60 m by 1.37 m high (shown in Fig. 3.35)

4. 2.60 m by 2.00 m high

5. 2.60 m by 2.70 m high (door)

There were four fire sizes: 5.5 MW, 6.9 MW, 8.6 MW, and 10.3 MW. In all, 19 experiments were conducted,
with the exception of the 10.3 MW fire with Window 1. In each experiment, heat flux measurements were
made 0.5 m, 1.5 m, 2.5 m, and 3.5 m above the top of the door/window.

94
Figure 3.35: Geometry of the NRCC Facade Experiments.

95
3.56 NRCC Smoke Tower Experiments
In 2006 and 2007, the National Research Council of Canada (NRCC) conducted 10 fire experiments in a
10 story experimental facility in Almonte, Ontario to study smoke movement through the stair shaft to the
upper floors of the building. Four of these experiments utilized actual commodities as fuel, and six utilized a
propane burner. Four of the six propane fires were intended to reproduce the heat release of the commodity
fires, and these experiments (BK-R, CMP-R, CLC-I-R, and CLC-II-R) have been chosen for this guide.
Details of the experiments are included in a master’s thesis and paper by Yan Wang [246, 247]. A description
of FDS simulations of the propane experiments not included in this guide is given by Hadjisophocleous and
Jia [248]. The analysis of the propane burner experiments discussed in this guide are based on the work of
Paul Tyson at Ulster University as part of his master’s thesis [249].
The tower was designed as a test bed for the center core of a high-rise building. It includes a compart-
ment and corridor on each floor, a stair shaft, elevator shaft and service shafts [250]. Figure 3.36 displays the
geometry of the building as modeled in FDS. All walls and floor slabs are taken to be 0.2 m thick. The first
two floors are 3.4 m high, slab to slab. The upper eight floors are 2.4 m, slab to slab. The propane burner was
located on the second floor and the smoke flowed through open doors to the stair vestibule and stair shaft
itself. In the four experiments considered in this guide, the stair shaft was open on the fourth, sixth, eighth,
and tenth floors. The other floors were closed off to the stair shaft. The ventilation system was turned off.
A single door was opened on the first floor, and there were no other openings to the outside save natural
building leakage. The referenced documents do not explicitly include estimates of leakage areas, but for the
sake of modeling, the leakage for each floor was concentrated at a single 1.5 m by 1.5 m exterior window.
The leakage area was specified based on an estimate of a “loose” building exterior in NFPA 92 [251]. This
is a very important consideration in modeling because it determines the extent to which the smoke rising up
the stair shaft encounters an opposing downward flow.
Thermocouples and gas analyzers were placed at various locations to measure temperature and O2 , CO2
and CO concentrations. A vertical array of TCs was located in the fire compartment and the doorway leading
into the stair shaft on the second floor. TCs were also placed at each floor in the stair shaft. The gas analyzers
were located in the stair shaft at the second floor, just outside the door to the fire compartment.

96
 1. Building Supply Shaft
2. Building Return/Exhaust Shaft
3. Smoke Shaft 1 7 8 9
4. Elevator/Stair Vestibule Supply Shaft Burn
5. Stair Supply Shaft Area
6. Stair Exhaust Shaft 5,6 4 3
2
7. Service Shaft
8. Elevator Shaft
9. Elevator Vestibule
Stair Vestibule

SECTION F-F
9.3 m
C
2.4 m

28.0 m

F F
3.4 m

C
SECTION C-C

Figure 3.36: Geometry of the NRCC Smoke Tower Experiments.

97
3.57 NRL/HAI Wall Heat Flux Measurements
Back, Beyler, DiNenno and Tatem [252] measured the heat flux from 9 different sized propane fires set
up against a wall composed of gypsum board. The experiments were sponsored by the Naval Research
Laboratory and conducted by Hughes Associates, Inc., of Baltimore, Maryland. The square sand burner
ranged in size from 0.28 m to 0.70 m, and the fires ranged in size from 50 kW to 520 kW.

3.58 Phoenix LNG Fires

In 2009, Sandia National Laboratories conducted two large-scale LNG pool fire experiments in a 120 m
diameter pond in its Area III test complex in Albuquerque, New Mexico [253]. The fires were approximately
21 m and 83 m in diameter. Measurements of flame height, smoke production, burn rate, and heat flux were
performed. A photograph of Test 2 is shown in Fig. 3.37.

Modeling Notes
The simulation of Test 1 uses 1 m grid cells, while Test 2 uses 2 m cells. The computational domain for both
simulations forms the shape of a cross that includes the fire and the radiometers to the north, south, east and
west. Methane is the specified fuel, with a soot yield of 0.01 and radiative fraction of 0.25. Both values are
estimates.
There are 1200 solid angles, rather than the default 100, used in the radiative transport equation to
uniformly distribute the fire’s radiative energy outward approximately 250 m. The value of 1200 is based
on an assessment of the contours of the integrated radiative intensity. Also, both wide and narrow-angle
radiometer measurements were made at distances ranging from 100 m to 250 m from the pool center, with
various inclination angles. For the narrow-angle measurements, FDS chooses the nearest discrete radiation
angle to represent the narrow-angle heat flux. At such large distances, it is difficult to “find” an angle that
emanates from the fire to the location of the device.

Flame Height Results: Section 6.2.3

Flame Tilt Results: Section 6.3

Heat Flux Results: Section 12.2.9

98
Figure 3.37: Photograph of Phoenix LNG Fire Test 2 [253].

99
3.59 Pool Fires
The “Pool Fires” cases include a variety of flammable and non-flammable liquid evaporation experiments:

1. A variety of pure liquid pool fires compiled by Gottuk and White [254] based on earlier compilations
such as that by Mudan [255]. The liquids are listed in Table 3.26.

2. A single experiment involving the evaporation of water under a 50 kW/m2 heat flux in the ASTM E2058
fire propagration apparatus, reported in Ref. [135].

3. Two heptane pool fire experiments described in Ref. [256].

Modeling Notes
Because there are few details concerning the burning rates cited by Gottuk and White [254], the pans for
the fuels listed in Table 3.26, with the exception of water, are assumed to be 1 m square with a fuel depth of
10 cm.
The simulations of the VTT heptane pool fires are performed in a 4 m by 4 m by 6 m domain with open
boundaries, and a circular pool with steel (one cell high and thick) lip. The pool surface is 1 m above the
floor.
The burning rate of liquid hydrocarbon fuels has been found to correlate well with the ratio of the heat
of combustion, ∆hc , and the heat of gasification, ∆hg :
Z Tb
∆hc
ṁ00 = 0.001 ; ∆hg = ∆hv + c p dT (3.15)
∆hg T0

where ∆hv is the latent heat of vaporization, T0 is the initial temperature, Tb is the boiling temperature, and
c p is the specific heat of the liquid fuel. The heat of gasification is the amount of energy required to raise
the fuel from its initial temperature to its boiling temperature and evaporate it.
Table 3.26 lists the liquid fuel properties used in the simulations. Note that the heats of vaporization are
evaluated at the liquid boiling temperature. The thermal conductivities, k, are found in Ref. [257], except
for butane, which is found in Ref. [258]. The heats of combustion, ∆hc , are computed in FDS based on the
heats of formation of the reactants and products listed in Ref. [259]. The heats of combustion account for
the presence of products of incomplete combustion, like CO and soot.
The effective absorption coefficients. κ, for benzene and ethanol are based on curve fits to experimen-
tal data as explained in Appendix K of the FDS Technical Reference Guide. The absorption coefficient
for methanol presented in Appendix K is calculated with the assumption that the incoming radiation is
approximately blackbody radiation. The absorption coefficient for ethanol is calculated based on experi-
mentally determined spectrum of an ethanol flame. Since both methanol and ethanol flames are low sooting,
the blackbody radiation assumption is not correct. Instead it is assumed that the absorption coefficient for
methanol should be of similar magnitude as that for ethanol. For heptane, butane and acetone the absorption
coefficients are simple order of magnitude estimates.

100
 Table 3.26: Liquid fuel properties.

ρ cp k ∆hv ∆hc χr yCO ys Tb κ

Fuel kg/m3 kJ/(kg · K) W/(m · K) kJ/kg kJ/kg g/g g/g ◦C m−1
[260] [261] [257] [258] See text [135] [135] [135] [262] See text
Acetone 791 2.13 0.20 501 28555 0.27 0.003 0.014 56.15 100
Benzene 874 1.74 0.14 393 33823 0.60 0.067 0.181 80.15 123
Butane 573 2.28 0.12 385 44680 0.31 0.007 0.029 0 100
Ethanol 794 2.44 0.17 837 27474 0.25 0.001 0.008 78.35 1534.3
Heptane 675 2.24 0.14 317 43580 0.33 0.010 0.037 98.35 187.5
Methanol 796 2.48 0.20 1099 20934 0.16 0.001 0.001 64.65 1500
Water 1000 4.18 0.60 2260 N/A N/A N/A N/A 100.0 140

3.60 PRISME Project

PRISME is the name of a fire test program conducted under the auspices of the Organization for Economic
Cooperation and Development, Nuclear Energy Agency (OECD/NEA). The experiments were conducted
at the French Institut de radioprotection et de sûreté nucléaire (IRSN) at Cadarache. A variety of experi-
ments were conducted to study ventilation effects, electrical cable failure, and leakage. The test reports are
not publicly available, but an entire edition of Fire Safety Journal documented various experimental and
modeling studies [263].
The PRISME DOOR series consisted of six experiments, five of which involving two compartments
connected by an open door (Tests 1-5) and one involving a third compartment (Test 6). The compartments
were 5 m by 6 m by 4 m high. A well-instrumented ventilation system supplied air and exhausted combus-
tion products at specified rates, but the thermal expansion of the gases caused these rates to change, a phe-
nomenon that was intended to test the ventilation capabilities of the models. Wahlqvist and van Hees [264]
modeled these experiments using FDS and contributed the input files for the cases documented in this guide.
The PRISME LEAK series consisted of experiments where smoke and heat flowed through various
types of leaks between the test compartments. Instrumented cables were placed at various locations, and gas
and solid phase temperatures were measured. FDS was used to simulate the heating up of the cables using
the measured gas temperature several centimeters from the cables [265].

3.61 Purdue Flames

A turbulent buoyant diffusion flame is established on a diffuser burner with an exit diameter of 7.1 cm.
The diverging angle of the burner is 7◦ such that the gaseous fuel (methane) is decelerated and forms a
uniform velocity distribution at the burner exit [30]. The methane (CH4) mass flow rate (84.3 mg/s) The
buoyant diffusion flame burns in a quiescent atmospheric pressure environment. The flame is surrounded by
a screened enclosure to minimize flame disturbance. The Froude number of the flame is 0.109 and matches
that of a 7.1 cm diameter liquid toluene pool fire [30, 32]. The total heat release rate of the methane flame
is 4.2 kW under the assumption of complete combustion, and the visible flame height is approximately
36 cm [30]. Measured and computed vertical and horizontal velocity, mixture fraction, and temperature
values for this flame have been reported by Xin et al. [30, 266] and Zhou et al. [32, 267]. The mean
temperatures have been inferred from the measured species concentrations [30] by assuming an adiabatic
flame. The interdependencies between species concentrations, temperature and specific heat have been
ignored for determining the mean temperature.

101
3.62 Ranz Marshall Droplet Experiments
In 1952, Ranz and Marshall performed a set of droplet evaporation experiments that ultimately led to the
development of Nusselt and Schmidt number correlations for droplets [268]. The experiments documented
in Figure 8 and Tables 1-4 in the paper have been modeled with FDS. For Figure 8 of the paper, a 1043 µm
water droplet was suspended in still dry air at an ambient temperature and pressure of 24.9 ◦ C and 98792 Pa,
and its diameter was measured over time. For the experiments in Tables 1-4 in the paper, droplets were
suspended in a dry air stream. Experimental parameters include the fluid type (water or benzene), initial
droplet diameter, ambient temperature, and velocity of the air stream. The evaporation rate in the simulations
is calculated based the time required for the droplet to decrease in size to 350 µm, the minimum reported
diameter. Table 3.27 summarizes the experiments.

Table 3.27: Summary of Ranz and Marshall droplet evaporation experiments.

Table Test Fluid Diameter Air Temperature Pressure Velocity

No. No. (µm) (◦ C) (Pa) (m/s)
1 1 Water 954 19.9 99059 2.46
1 2 Water 954 24.6 98659 2.1
1 3 Water 954 24.9 98659 1.723
1 4 Water 954 25.3 98659 1.532
1 5 Water 954 25.4 98659 1.197
1 6 Water 954 24.3 98392 0.952
1 7 Water 954 24.4 98392 0.762
1 8 Water 954 24.5 98392 0.571
1 9 Water 954 24.5 98392 0.571
1 10 Water 954 24.6 98392 0.285
1 11 Water 954 24.7 98392 0.1513
1 12 Water 954 24.8 98392 0.1718
1 13 Water 954 24.9 98392 0.0841
1 14 Water 954 25.0 98392 0.0337
1 15 Water 954 23.2 98392 2.86
1 16 Water 954 23.6 99459 2.67
1 17 Water 954 23.7 99459 2.28
1 18 Water 954 24.0 99459 3.06
1 19 Water 954 24.9 98792 0
2 1 Water 950 90.0 98792 2.3
2 2 Water 950 77.5 98792 1.1
2 3 Water 950 78.7 98792 1.1
2 4 Water 950 78.7 98792 1.1
2 5 Water 950 84.0 98792 1.83
2 6 Water 950 82.5 98792 1.14
2 7 Water 950 83.0 98792 1.14
2 8 Water 950 66.4 98792 0.55
2 9 Water 950 71.4 98792 0.176
3 1 Water 850 115.0 98792 1.84
3 2 Water 710 115.0 98792 1.84
3 3 Water 560 85.0 98792 0.188
3 4 Water 460 85.0 98792 0.188

102
 Table 3.27: Continued

Table Test Fluid Diameter Air Temperature Pressure Velocity

No. No. (µm) (◦ C) (Pa) (m/s)
3 5 Water 960 221.0 98792 1.84
3 6 Water 580 221.0 98792 1.84
3 7 Water 880 193.0 98792 0.77
3 8 Water 600 193.0 98792 0.77
3 9 Water 1010 125.0 98792 0.21
4 1 Benzene 1100 24.4 97592 0.051
4 2 Benzene 1100 26.4 97592 0.153
4 3 Benzene 1100 27.1 98125 0.289
4 4 Benzene 1100 17.9 98525 0.748
4 5 Benzene 1100 17.5 98525 1.124
4 6 Benzene 1100 17.7 97725 1.5
4 7 Benzene 1100 20.7 97725 0.188
4 8 Benzene 1100 20.4 97725 0.283
4 9 Benzene 1100 19.9 97725 0.755
4 10 Benzene 1100 20.0 97725 1.13
4 11 Benzene 1100 20.2 97725 1.516
4 12 Benzene 1100 20.2 97725 1.9
4 13 Benzene 1100 20.4 97725 2.88

3.63 Restivo Compartment Air Flow Experiment

Velocity measurements for forced airflow within a 9 m by 3 m by 3 m high compartment (Fig. 3.38) were
made by Restivo [269]. These measurements have been widely used to validate CFD models designed
for indoor air quality applications. It was also used to assess early versions of FDS [19, 20, 38]. In the
experiment, air was forced into the compartment through a 16.8 cm vertical slot along the ceiling running
the width of the compartment with a velocity of 0.455 m/s. A passive exhaust was located near the floor on
the opposite wall, with conditions specified such that there was no buildup of pressure in the enclosure. The
component of velocity in the lengthwise direction was measured in four arrays: two vertical arrays located
3 m and 6 m from the inlet along the centerline of the room, and two horizontal arrays located 8.4 cm above
the floor and below the ceiling, respectively. These measurements were taken using hot-wire anemometers.
While data on the specific instrumentation used are not readily available, hot-wire systems tend to have
limitations at low velocities, with typical thresholds of approximately 0.1 m/s.

103
 Figure 3.38: Geometry of Restivo’s compartment.

3.64 Sandia Methane Burner

A series of 3 m diameter methane gas burner experiments were conducted in the Fire Laboratory for Ac-
creditation of Models and Experiments (FLAME) facility in the Thermal Test Complex at Sandia National
Laboratories [253]. The test chamber (Fig. 3.39) is cylindrical with an inner diameter of 18.3 m and a
height of 13.1 m at the perimeter. The ceiling slopes upwards to a height of 15.2 m at the center. The
perimeter walls are made of steel channel sections that are water-cooled. The gas burner is surrounded by a
12.7 m diameter steel spill plate. Beyond the spill plate is steel grating through which air can flow from the
basement.

Modeling Notes
The simulations of the 3 m methane fires are done with 10 cm grid resolution in an open domain. That is,
the walls of the cylindrical test cell are not modeled.
The radiative fraction is specified at 0.35 rather than the default 0.20 for methane because the large fire
is far more sooty and luminous than a small methane flame. 600 solid angles are used to solve the radiative
transport equation rather than the default 100 so as to resolve the radiative flux 9 m from the fire.

Flame Height Results: Section 6.2.3

Heat Flux Results: Section 12.2.10

104
 Figure 3.39: Cutaway view of the Sandia FLAME test cell.

3.65 Sandia Plume Experiments

The Fire Laboratory for Accreditation of Models by Experimentation (FLAME) facility [270, 271] at Sandia
National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, is designed specifically for validating models of buoy-
ant fire plumes. The plume source is 1 m in diameter surrounded by a 0.5 m steel ‘ground plane’. O’Hern
et al. [270] studied a turbulent buoyant helium plume in the FLAME facility. PIV/PLIF techniques are used
to obtain instantaneous joint scalar and velocity fields and thus obtain Favre averaged velocity fields. Ear-
lier work to model this experiment has been performed by DesJardin et al. [272]. Tieszen et al. [273, 274]
studied methane and hydrogen pool fires.

Modeling Notes
The data in the experimental repository for the helium plume is Favre averaged. The “helium” was actually
a mixture of 96.4 vol % (0.7075 mass fraction) helium, 1.7 vol % (0.1809 mass fraction) acetone, and 1.9 vol
% (0.1116 mass fraction) oxygen; this mixture is referred to as the “plume fluid” [270]. The data for “mass
fraction” in the experimental repository is for Favre averaged plume fluid mass fraction. To account for any
effect of differential diffusion, we separately transport helium, acetone, and oxygen in the simulations. Then
the plume fluid mass fraction is obtained using the conversion Yplume fluid = Yacetone /0.1809.
Note that the velocity fields in the methane and hydrogen fire plumes were obtained directly from PIV
and are therefore ensemble averaged [273, 274].

105
3.66 SETCOM Wall Condensation Experiments
The Separate Effect Test for Condensation Modeling (SETCOM) facility is located in Jülich, Germany
[275]. The facility is a recirculating duct containing a flow conditioning section for establishing tempera-
ture and humidity and a test section for performing condensation experiments. The condensation section
contains a 4 m or 5 m long, water-cooled, aluminum plate for its floor with the remaining walls adiabatic.
The condensation section can be tilted from horizontal to vertical to investigate the effects of orientation
on condensation. A set of five experiments were performed using the 4 m test section that measured the
condensation heat flux from hot, high humidity air. Temperature, humidity, and flow rate were varied.

Modeling Notes
Prior to running the validation cases, a set of five scoping simulations were run with no condensation. These
simulations used a short length of the test section with PERIODIC boundary conditions. These cases were
used to determine the rms velocity as a function of the mean velocity.
The condensation simulations included a 4 m portion of duct upstream to allow for flow development,
and a 1 m portion of duct downstream to avoid boundary effects on the test section. The upstream boundary
condition was set with the conditions shown in the table below along with synthetic eddy method inputs
using the rms velocity determine from the scoping simulations. The outlet was defined as an OPEN boundary.
The experiments measured temperature 1.5 cm into the aluminum plate along the plate centerline. The test
measured condensation heat transfer was used with the inside plate temperature to derive the plate surface
temperature. The condensation plate TMP_FRONT was set to derived temperature as a function of length
along the plate.

Table 3.28: Summary of SETCOM condensation experiments selected for model validation.

Test Air Speed Temperature Humidity

No. (m/s) (◦ C) (%)
1 0.8 86 69
2 1.8 84 57
3 3.7 79 59
4 4.2 78 71
5 5.2 75 71

3.67 Shell LNG Fireball Experiments

Shell Research Ltd. commissioned four large-scale BLEVE (Boiling Liquid Expanding Vapor Explosion)
experiments using LNG (Liquified Natural Gas) at the DNV (Det Norske Veritas) GL test facility at Spadeadam,
UK [276]. For Experiments 2-4, the cylindrical containment vessel (Fig. 3.40) was constructed of 6 mm
stainless steel plates and had a length of approximately 6.5 m and diameter of approximately 1 m, with a
total volume of 5.055 m3 . The mass of LNG for Experiments 2-4 was approximately 681 kg, 1306 kg, and
1251 kg, respectively. The LNG consisted of 96.7 % methane, 3.0 % ethane, 0.2 % nitrogen, and 0.1 %
propane, by volume. The reservoir pressure for Experiments 2-4 was maintained at 13.01 bar, 6.07 bar, and
13.62 bar; and the temperatures were −115 ◦ C, −131 ◦ C, and −115 ◦ C, respectively.

106
Figure 3.40: (Top) Pressure vessel used in the Shell LNG Fireball experiments. (Bottom) Photographs of Tests 2, 3,
and 4, respectively [276].

The rupture of the vessels was initiated by an explosive cutting charge designed to rip open the vessel
from end to end. Commercial fireworks were ignited just prior to the explosive charge to ensure ignition of
the released gas.
Radiometers and pressure transducers were positioned at various distances from the vessel. Only a
fraction of the data has been made public, including radiometer measurements at distances of 40 m, 70 m,
and 100 m.

Modeling Notes
The FDS simulations of the three BLEVE experiments are performed with 1 m resolution spanning a volume
that is 200 m long, 120 m wide, and 200 m high. The specified mass of LNG is injected uniformly for 0.2 s
at the ground over an area 4 m long and 4 m wide. An inert obstruction that is 1 m long by 1 m wide and 1 m
tall is suspended 1 m above the spill region to represent the remains of the containment vessel. No attempt
is made to model the destuction of the vessel or the subsequent spill of LNG.

107
 Approximately 600 angles are used in the radiative transport solver rather than the default 100. A
radiative fraction of 30 % is used, rather than the default of 20 % for methane.

Heat Flux Results: Section 12.2.11

3.68 Sippola Aerosol Deposition Experiments

Mark Sippola, a doctoral student at the University of California, Berkeley, measured aerosol deposition
velocities for various sizes of monodisperse fluorescent particles and various air velocities in a duct [277,
278]. The experimental facility consisted of a duct loop with a section for injecting fluorescent aerosol
particles. The loop contained four measurement sections with two sections located after a long segment of
straight duct such that fully-developed flow profiles existed. The experiments considered here include tests
with measurements in the fully-developed flow test sections. Tests included 16 test for straight smooth steel
duct and 15 tests in a straight duct lined with insulation. Based upon pressure drop measurements made in
the duct, the roughness of the insulated duct was estimated as 1.5 mm. Both ducts had dimensions of 15 cm
by 15 cm. The particle diameters were nominally 1 µm, 3 µm, 5 µm, 9 µm, and 16 µm. The air velocities
in the duct were nominally 2.2 m/s, 5.3 m/s, and 9.0 m/s. In each test section, a total of twelve panels (20 cm
by 10 cm) were cut from the duct section to measure the amount of particles deposited to the duct surfaces;
four panels each from the duct ceiling, wall, and floor surfaces. Fluorescent measurement techniques and
aerosol concentration measurements were used to calculate the deposition velocities of the particles to duct
surfaces (ceiling, wall, and floor) in each of the two straight duct sections where the turbulent flow profile
was fully developed. The experiments are summarized in Table 3.29.

Modeling Notes
FDS treats smoke particulate and aerosols in a similar way to other gaseous combustion products, basically
a tracer gas whose production rate is a fixed fraction of the fuel consumption rate. However, there is an
option in the model to allow smoke or aerosols to deposit on solid surfaces, thus reducing its concentration
in the product stream. The particle deposition velocity, udep , is calculated by

J1 + J2 + J3 + J4
udep = (3.16)
4 Cavg

where J1 through J4 are the deposition fluxes (kg/(m2 · s)) for duct panels 1 through 4 given by
md
J= (3.17)
Ad ∆t

where md is the mass of particles on the duct panel (kg), Ad is the area of the duct panel (m2 ), and ∆t is the
duration over which the aerosol deposits onto the panel (s). Cavg is the average aerosol concentration in the
duct test section (kg/m3 ) and is given by
Cupstream +Cdownstream
Cavg = (3.18)
2

108
Table 3.29: Summary of Sippola aerosol deposition experiments selected for model validation.

Test Air Speed Particle Diameter Particle Density

No. (m/s) (µm) (kg/m3 )
1 2.2 1.0 1350
2 2.2 2.8 1170
3 2.1 5.2 1210
4 2.2 9.1 1030
5 2.2 16 950
6 5.3 1.0 1350
7 5.2 1.0 1350
8 5.2 3.1 1170
9 5.4 5.2 1210
10 5.3 9.8 1030
11 5.3 16 950
12 9.0 1.0 1350
13 9.0 3.1 1170
14 8.8 5.4 1210
15 9.2 8.7 1030
16 9.1 15 950
17 2.2 1.0 1350
18 2.2 3.0 1170
19 2.2 5.3 1190
20 2.2 8.4 1090
21 2.2 13 960
22 5.3 1.0 1350
23 5.2 2.9 1170
24 5.2 4.9 1190
25 5.3 8.2 1090
26 5.3 13 960
27 8.9 1.0 1350
28 8.7 2.8 1170
29 8.8 5.0 1190
30 8.9 8.4 1090
31 8.9 13 960

109
3.69 Smyth Slot Burner Experiment
Kermit Smyth et al. conducted diffusion flame experiments at NIST using a methane/air Wolfhard-Parker
slot burner. The experiments are described in detail in Refs. [279, 280]. The Wolfhard-Parker slot burner
consists of an 8 mm wide central slot flowing fuel surrounded by two 16 mm wide slots flowing dry air with
1 mm separations between the slots. The slots are 41 mm in length. Measurements were made of all major
species and a number of minor species along with temperature and velocity. Experimental uncertainties
have been reported as 5 % for temperature and 10 % to 20 % for the major species.

Modeling Notes
A two-step combustion scheme (a modified version of the mechanism by Andersen et al. [281]) is used to
simulate the Smyth Slot Burner Experiment. A 2D DNS calculation is run at two different grid resolutions:
0.250 mm and 0.125 mm. In the modified mechanism, the hydrocarbon/oxygen reaction to CO is assumed
to be infinitely fast (mixed is burnt) to avoid complications of modeling ignition. The reversible CO to
CO2 reaction is modeled with Arrhenius kinetics. As discussed by Westbrook and Dryer [282], the kinetic
constants for the reduced CO mechanism may be model dependent. Here, the Arrhenius constant for the
forward CO to CO2 reaction is tuned to match the Smyth experimental data.
A second set of simulations is run at the same two spatial resolutions, but in these cases both the first
and second reactions are infinitely fast. However, the first reaction, where fuel is converted to CO and H2 O,
proceeds before the second, where the CO is converted to CO2 . That is, the reactions are run serially rather
than in parallel to illustrate that while both reactions are relatively fast compared to the mixing time scale, the
first reaction is faster than the second. This assumption breaks down when the mixing time scale drops below
approximately 3 × 10−4 s, which is on the order of δ /sL , the flame thickness divided by the laminar flame
speed. For this reason, a lower limit on the time-scale (TAU_CHEM=3E-4) is imposed. This same modeling
strategy is used in the large eddy simulations of the NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure (RSE) experiments of
1994 (Section 3.44.1), RSE 2007 (Section 3.44.2), Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE) 2008 (Section 3.44.3), UMD
Line Burner experiments 3.80, and Waterloo Methanol Experiments (Section 3.90). Note that in these LES
simulations, the parameter TAU_CHEM is irrelevant—it is only needed when the grid resolution is on the
order of 0.1 mm or less.
Comparisons of the simulations with measurements can be found in Section 9.5.1.

3.70 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments

In 2008, three compartment experiments were performed at SP Technical Research Institute of Sweden un-
der the sponsorship of Brandforsk, the Swedish Fire Research Board [283]. The objective of the experiments
was to demonstrate how plate thermometer measurements in the vicinity of a simple steel beam can be used
to supply the boundary conditions for a multi-dimensional heat conduction calculation for the beam. The
adiabatic surface temperature was derived from the plate temperatures.
The experiments were performed inside a standard compartment designed for corner fire testing (ISO
9705). The compartment is 3.6 m deep, 2.4 m wide and 2.4 m high and includes a door opening 0.8 m by
2.0 m (Fig. 3.41). The room was constructed of 20 cm thick light weight concrete blocks with a density of
600 kg/m3 ± 100 kg/m3 . The heat source was a gas burner run at a constant power of 450 kW. The top of
the burner, with a square opening 30 cm by 30 cm, was placed 65 cm above the floor, 2.5 cm from the walls.
A single steel beam was suspended 20 cm below the ceiling along the centerline of the compartment. There
were three measurement stations along the beam at lengths of 0.9 m (Position A), 1.8 m (Position B), and
2.7 m (Position C) from the far wall where the fire was either positioned in the corner (Tests 1 and 2), or the

110
center (Test 3). The beam in Test 1 was a rectangular steel tube filled with an insulation material. The beam
in Tests 2 and 3 was an I-beam. A diagram of the room used in Test 2 is displayed in Figure 3.41.

Figure 3.41: Geometry of the SP/AST compartment for Test 2.

A second series of experiments involving plate thermometers was carried out in 2011 [284]. A 6 m long,
20 cm diameter vertical steel column was positioned in the center of 1.1 m and 1.9 m diesel fuel and 1.1 m
heptane pool fires. Gas, plate thermometer, and surface temperatures were measured at heights of 1 m, 2 m,
3 m, 4 m, and 5 m above the pool surface. These experiments are notable because the column is partially
engulfed in flames.
A third series of experiments involving plate thermometers was conducted in 2015 [285]. A simple
compartment with a single door was constructed and instrumented primarily with plate thermometers. The
compartment was 2.7 m long, 1.8 m wide, and 1.8 m tall, with a 0.6 m by 1.5 m door centered on one
of the short walls. The PTs were affixed to the walls. The 12 experiments were conducted with four
different wall linings. In Series A, the compartment was lined with a 10 cm thick light concrete block. In
Series B, the compartment was lined with a 5 cm thick layer of insulation backed by a 3 mm thick plate
of steel. In Series C, the compartment was lined with an uninsulated 3 mm thick steel plate. In Series D,

111
the compartment was lined with a 3 mm thick steel plate backed by a 5 cm thick layer of insulation (the
opposite of Series B). The fires were fueled by a 0.3 m by 0.3 m propane burner located in the center of
the room except for Test A3, where it was centered on the back wall. For most of the experiments, the heat
release rate was 1000 kW, except for A2 and C1, which were 500 kW, and A4 and C3, which employed
linear ramp-ups to 1250 kW.

3.71 SP Wood Crib Experiments

Hansen and Ingason burned piles of reduced-scale wood pallets in a reduced-scale wind tunnel to develop a
simple model that predicts the heat release rate of multiple objects separated by varying distances [286, 287].
The tunnel was 10 m long with a rectangular cross section 0.6 m wide by 0.4 m tall. Four piles of 1:4 scale
pallets were placed at various positions in the tunnel. Each pile of 5 pallets was 0.3 m long, 0.2 m wide and
0.18 m tall. The fire was ignited on the windward side of the upwind pile with a 3 cm by 3 cm by 2.4 cm
block of fiberboard soaked in 9 mL of heptane. The HRR was measured, along with temperature, heat flux,
and oxygen concentration at various locations.

Modeling Notes
The FDS simulations of these experiments were originally performed by Janardhan and Hostikka [288, 147]
using a variety of pyrolysis models in which the pallets are partially resolved. Here, however, the piles
of pallets are modeled as an array of Lagrangian particles in lieu of solid obstructions so that a relatively
coarse grid of 4 cm can be used. The modeling strategy is very similar to that used for vegetation in wildfire
simulations. The wood planks are characterized as a homogenous collection of flat disks with a surface area
to volume ratio σ = 460 m−1 and a packing ratio β = 0.42. The packing ratio is the bulk crib mass per unit
volume divided by the density of the wood, m000 /ρwood . The average mass of a pile of pallets is 1.7 kg.
The radiation absorption coefficient is taken as κ = Cs σ β , where the shape factor, or ratio of plate
surface area to projected area, is Cs = 0.25. The absorption coefficient, κ, also appears in the formula
for wind drag, where the pressure drop, ∆p, over a distance, L, is given by ∆p/L = 0.5ρCd κu2 . The drag
coefficient, Cd = 2.8, was measured by Falkenstein-Smith et al. [162] in a study of vegetation. Its application
to wood cribs has not been validated.
The wood is assumed to pyrolyze, forming C3.4 H6.2 O2.5 [66] with a heat of combustion of 18.1 MJ/kg [286],
according to the following reaction scheme [147]:
M 1
Wet Wood → H2 O + Dry Wood (3.19)
1+M 1+M
Dry Wood → νchar Char + (1 − νchar ) Fuel Gas (3.20)

(3.21)
The reaction rates are given by [147]:
 3.31  
ρs,H2 O EH2 O
rH2 O = AH2 O exp − (3.22)
ρs,0 RT
 1.69  
ρs,wood Ewood
rwood = Awood exp − (3.23)
ρs,0 RT
The equation governing the temperature of the solid is
∂T
ρs c = −ρs,0 (∆hH2 O rH2 O + ∆hwood rwood ) + ∇ · q̇00c + ∇ · q̇00r (3.24)
∂t

112
The parameters for the pyrolysis model are listed in Table 3.30.

Table 3.30: Parameters for SP Wood Cribs simulations [147].

Property Units Value

M kg/kg 0.016
ρH2 O kg/m3 1000
cH2 O kJ/kg/K 4.18
kH2 O W/m/K 0.1
AH2 O 9.57 × 1022
EH2 O J/mol 136000
∆hH2 O kJ/kg 2500
ρwood kg/m3 393
cwood kJ/kg/K 0.85 + 0.00241(T − 20)
kwood W/m/K 0.07 + 0.00038(T − 20)
εwood 0.95
Awood 141000
Ewood J/mol 89700
∆hwood kJ/kg 250
ρchar kg/m3 135
cchar kJ/kg/K (see Ref. [147])
kchar W/m/K 0.11 + 0.00031(T − 20)
εchar 1.0
νchar g/g 0.195

3.72 Steckler Compartment Experiments

Steckler, Quintiere and Rinkinen performed a set of 55 compartment fire tests at NBS in 1979. The com-
partment was 2.8 m by 2.8 m by 2.13 m high5 , with a single door of various widths, or alternatively a single
window with various heights. A 30 cm diameter methane burner was used to generate fires with heat re-
lease rates of 31.6 kW, 62.9 kW, 105.3 kW and 158 kW. Vertical profiles of velocity and temperature were
measured in the doorway, along with a single vertical profile of temperature within the compartment. A
full description and results are reported in Reference [289]. The basic test matrix is listed in Table 3.31.
Note that the test report does not include a detailed description of the compartment. However, an internal
report6 by the test sponsor, Armstrong Cork Company, reports that the compartment floor was composed of
19 mm calcium silicate board on top of 12.7 mm plywood on wood joists. The walls and ceiling consisted of
12.7 mm ceramic fiber insulation board over 0.66 mm aluminum sheet attached to wood studs. A diagram
of the compartment is displayed in Fig. 3.42.

5 The
test report gives the height of the compartment as 2.18 m. This is a misprint. The compartment was 2.13 m high.
6 TechnicalResearch Report, Fire Induced Flows Through Room Openings - Flow Coefficients, Project 203005-003, Armstrong
Cork Company, Lancaster, Pennsylvania, May, 1981.

113
 Table 3.31: Summary of Steckler compartment experiments.

Door Door HRR Burner Door Door HRR Burner

Test Width Height Q̇ Location Test Width Height Q̇ Location
(m) (m) (kW) (m) (m) (kW)
10 0.24 1.83 62.9 Center 224 0.74 0.92 62.9 Back Corner
11 0.36 1.83 62.9 Center 324 0.74 0.92 62.9 Back Corner
12 0.49 1.83 62.9 Center 220 0.74 1.83 31.6 Back Corner
612 0.49 1.83 62.9 Center 221 0.74 1.83 105.3 Back Corner
13 0.62 1.83 62.9 Center 514 0.24 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
14 0.74 1.83 62.9 Center 544 0.36 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
18 0.74 1.83 62.9 Center 512 0.49 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
710 0.74 1.83 62.9 Center 542 0.62 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
810 0.74 1.83 62.9 Center 610 0.74 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
16 0.86 1.83 62.9 Center 510 0.74 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
17 0.99 1.83 62.9 Center 540 0.86 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
22 0.74 1.38 62.9 Center 517 0.99 1.83 62.9 Back Wall
23 0.74 0.92 62.9 Center 622 0.74 1.38 62.9 Back Wall
30 0.74 0.92 62.9 Center 522 0.74 1.38 62.9 Back Wall
41 0.74 0.46 62.9 Center 524 0.74 0.92 62.9 Back Wall
19 0.74 1.83 31.6 Center 541 0.74 0.46 62.9 Back Wall
20 0.74 1.83 105.3 Center 520 0.74 1.83 31.6 Back Wall
21 0.74 1.83 158.0 Center 521 0.74 1.83 105.3 Back Wall
114 0.24 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 513 0.74 1.83 158.0 Back Wall
144 0.36 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 160 0.74 1.83 62.9 Center∗
212 0.49 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 163 0.74 1.83 62.9 Back Corner∗
242 0.62 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 164 0.74 1.83 62.9 Back Wall∗
410 0.74 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 165 0.74 1.83 62.9 Left Wall∗
210 0.74 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 162 0.74 1.83 62.9 Right Wall∗
310 0.74 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 167 0.74 1.83 62.9 Front Center∗
240 0.86 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 161 0.74 1.83 62.9 Doorway∗
116 0.99 1.83 62.9 Back Corner 166 0.74 1.83 62.9 Front Corner∗
122 0.74 1.38 62.9 Back Corner ∗ Raised burner

114
Figure 3.42: Geometry of the Steckler Compartment Experiments.

115
3.73 SWJTU Tunnel Experiments
Fires fueled by methanol and propane ranging from 5.6 kW to 16.8 kW were conducted in a 1:20 reduced-
scale tunnel at Southwest Jiaotong University, Chengdu, China [290]. The tunnel was 0.45 m wide, 0.23 m
high and 20.8 m long. The burner was located at the center of the tunnel and both ends were open. Tempera-
tures and gas concentrations (i.e., O2 , CO and CO2 ) were measured. The results showed that both methanol
and propane fires self-extinguished in the 20.8 m long tunnel within approximately 10 min, except for the
5.6 kW methanol fire. The larger the heat release rate, the faster the self-extinction of the fire. The oxygen
concentrations in the 20.8 m long tunnel decreased to approximately 12 % except for the 5.6 kW methanol
fire, which remained well above the limiting oxygen concentration. Self-extinction was not observed for
fires of the same heat release rates in a 10 m long tunnel of the same cross section. The oxygen concentra-
tions in the 10 m long tunnel decreased to approximately 17 %. In the long tunnel with large fire sizes, the
smoke layer descended to the floor, inhibiting the supply of fresh air reaching the fire.

3.74 Wu Bakar Tunnel Experiments

An important issue in road tunnel design with respect to fire safety is back-layering. In the event of a fire
in a tunnel, a common strategy is to blow the smoke in one direction to allow occupants to escape and first
responders to find the fire. The extent to which smoke from the fire spreads against imposed ventilation
is known as back-layering. Experiments to quantify back-layering have been conducted at both small and
full-scale. One important set of small-scale experiments was performed by Wu and Bakar [291]. The
experiments were conducted in 15 m long tunnels with 5 different cross sections. Tunnels A, B, C, and D
were rectangular in cross section with a height of 25 cm and widths of 13.6 cm, 25 cm, 50 cm, and 100 cm,
respectively. Tunnel E was 24.4 cm high, 27.4 cm wide at the base, with walls slanted inwards 7◦ from the
vertical leading to a circular arch ceiling.
A 12 cm diameter circular propane burner was placed flush with the floor at a distance of approximately
6 m from the upstream opening. For a range of fire sizes, the air velocity through the tunnel was ramped
up until the back-layer length was reduced to zero; that is, the upstream extent of the smoke layer coincided
with the upstream edge of the burner. These results were then used to develop an empirical correlation
relating the critical velocity, tunnel cross section, and heat release rate.

Modeling Notes
Five simulations are conducted; one for each tunnel type. In each, the heat release rate is stepped over
from the lowest to highest reported value in 20 s increments. During each steady period, the near-ceiling
temperatures are recorded and used to infer the location of the back-layer; that is, the back-layer extent
coincides with a drop in the ceiling jet temperature to within 10 ◦ C of ambient. The surface roughness of
the tunnel walls is estimated to be 1 mm. The wall material is taken as generic steel.

3.75 UL/NIST Vent Experiments

In 2012, the Fire Fighting Technology Group at NIST conducted experiments at Underwriters Laboratories
(UL) in Northbrook, Illinois, to assess the change in compartment temperature due to the opening of one
or two 1.2 m square ceiling vents [292]. Four experiments were conducted using a natural gas burner
in a 6.1 m by 4.3 m by 2.4 m compartment with a single door opening. The fires ranged in size from
500 kW to 2 MW, and the vents were opened and closed such that during the four experiments there were
31 discrete time intervals in which model predictions could be compared to quasi-steady conditions. The

116
compartment contained two vertical arrays of thermocouples, and the door and vents were instrumented
with thermocouples and bi-directional velocity probes. Only the thermocouple data has been used in the
validation study. A diagram of the compartment is displayed in Figure 3.43. The major test parameters are
listed in Table 3.32.

Figure 3.43: Geometry of the UL/NIST Experiments.

117
Table 3.32: Summary of UL/NIST Vent experiments. Note that the 31 “experiments” are actually discrete
time intervals during the course of four separate fires.

Exp. End Time HRR No. of Exp. End Time HRR No. of
No. (s) (kW) Vents No. (s) (kW) Vents
Fire 1 Fire 3
1 1215 430 0 14 453 476 0
2 1840 430 1 15 816 476 1
3 2168 430 2 16 1153 476 2
4 2474 430 0 17 1640 1002 0
5 2955 1011 0 18 1936 1002 1
6 3170 1011 1 19 2233 1002 2
7 3604 1011 2 Fire 4
8 3840 1011 0 20 519 1011 0
9 4153 2188 0 21 967 1011 1
10 4284 2188 1 22 1325 1011 2
Fire 2 23 1559 470 2
11 565 2144 0 24 1653 470 1
12 833 2144 1 25 2013 470 0
13 931 2144 2 26 2411 470 1
27 2910 470 2
28 3399 2188 2
29 3586 2188 0
30 3803 2188 1
31 4035 2188 2

3.76 UL/NFPRF Sprinkler, Vent, and Draft Curtain Study

In 1997, thirty-four heptane spray burner and five racked commodity experiments were conducted at the
Large Scale Fire Test Facility at Underwriters Laboratories (UL) in Northbrook, Illinois [293, 79]. The spray
burner experiments were divided into two test series. Series I consisted of 22 4.4 MW experiments. Series II
consisted of 12 10 MW experiments. The objective of the spray burner experiments was to characterize the
temperature and flow field for fire scenarios with a controlled heat release rate in the presence of sprinklers,
draft curtains, and smoke & heat vents.
The Large Scale Fire Test Facility at UL contains a 37 m by 37 m (120 ft by 120 ft) main fire test
cell, equipped with a 30.5 m by 30.5 m (100 ft by 100 ft) adjustable height ceiling. The UL/NFPRF test
results (Series I) are summarized in Table 3.33. The UL/NFPRF test results (Series II) are summarized in
Table 3.34. The layout of the experiments is shown in Figs. 3.44, 3.45, and 3.46.

Ceiling: The ceiling was raised to a height of 7.6 m and instrumented with thermocouples and other mea-
surement devices. The ceiling was constructed of 0.6 m by 1.2 m by 1.6 cm UL fire-rated Armstrong

118
 North Wall 6

6 Adjustable Height Ceiling 6

260

 200 1100 - 670 100 - 120 -

?
6 Draft Curtains

r104 r97 r90 r65 r61 r57 r53

70 B 71 1200
r103 r96 r89 r64 r60 r56 r52
pp 43
p
Appp
44
69 C 45 1000
p 46
47
r102 r95 r88 r63 r59 r55 r51 48
49

68 67 66

r101 r94 r87 r62 r58 r54 r50

710 200
D
r100 r93 r86 r83 r80 r77 r74

r99 r92 r85 r82 r79 r

76 r73
100 - 
20 1100
r98 r91 r84
? r81 r78 r75 r72
?
6 ?
6 20 1000 20

Figure 3.44: Plan view of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments, Series I. The sprinklers are indicated by the solid
circles and are spaced exactly 10 ft apart. The number beside each sprinkler location indicates the channel number
of the nearest thermocouple. The vent dimensions are 4 ft by 8 ft. The boxed letters A, B, C and D indicate burner
positions. Corresponding to each burner position is a vertical array of thermocouples. Thermocouples 1–9 hang 7,
22, 36, 50, 64, 78, 92, 106 and 120 in from the ceiling, respectively, above Position A. Thermocouples 10 and 11 are
positioned above and below the ceiling tile directly above Position B, followed by 12–20 that hang at the same levels
below the ceiling as 1–9. The same pattern is followed at Positions C and D, with thermocouples 21–31 at C and
32–42 at D.

119
 North Wall 6

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

F
r r r r B r r r r r r

r r r r A r r r r r r
1200

r r r r r C r r r r r
1000
E
r r r r r r D r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r ?

South Wall ?

Figure 3.45: Plan view of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments, Series II. The boxed letters A, B, C, D, E and
F indicate burner positions. The sprinklers are indicated by the solid circles and are spaced exactly 10 ft apart. The
vents are 4 ft by 8 ft.

120
 North Wall

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

r r r r r r r r r r

South Wall

Figure 3.46: Plan view of the UL Large Scale Fire Test Facility with the layout of plastic commodity Test P-3. Tests
P-1 and P-2 did not include the draft curtains (dashed lines). The sprinklers (dots) were separated by exactly 10 ft. The
racks were located 30 ft south and 20 ft east of the position shown in Tests P-1, P-4, and P-5. The racks were located
10 ft south of the position shown in Test P-2. Each pallet load of boxed plastic commodity is represented by a square
subdivided into four smaller squares to depict the individual boxes. Pallets containing empty boxes are represented by
empty squares. Roof vents are represented by rectangles.

121
 Heptane Spray Burner Test Series I
Test Burner Vent First Total Draft Heat Release Rate
No. Pos. Operation Actuation (s) Actuations Curtains MW @ s
I-1 B Closed 65 11 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-2 B Manual (0:40) 66 12 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-3 B Manual (1:30) 64 12 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-4 C Closed 60 10 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-5 C Manual (0:40) 72 9 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-6 C Manual (1:30) 62 8 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-7 C 74◦ C link (DNO) 70 10 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-8 B ◦
74 C link (9:26) 60 11 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-9 D 74◦ C link (DNO) 70 12 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-10 D Manual (0:40) 72 13 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-11 D 74◦ C link (4:48) N/A N/A Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-12 A Closed 68 14 Yes 4.4 @ 50
I-13 A 74◦ C link (1:04) 69 5 Yes 6.0 @ 60
I-14 A Manual (0:40) 74 7 Yes 5.8 @ 60
I-15 A Manual (1:30) 64 5 Yes 5.8 @ 60
I-16 A ◦
74 C link (1:46) 106 4 Yes 5.0 @ 110
I-17 B ◦
100 C link (DNO) 58 4 No 4.6 @ 50
I-18 C 100◦ C link (DNO) 58 4 No 3.7 @ 50
I-19 A ◦
100 C link (10:00) 56 10 No 4.6 @ 50
I-20 A 74◦ C link (1:20) 54 4 No 4.2 @ 50
I-21 C ◦
74 C link (7:00) 58 10 No 4.6 @ 50
I-22 D 100◦ C link (DNO) 60 6 No 4.6 @ 50

Table 3.33: Results of Series I of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments. Note that DNO means “Did
Not Open”. Also note, the fires grew at a rate proportional to the square of the time until a certain flow rate
of fuel was achieved at which time the flow rate was held steady. Thus, the “Heat Release Rate” was the
size of the fire at the time when the fuel supply was leveled off.

Ceramaguard (Item 602B) ceiling tiles. The manufacturer reported the thermal properties of the material
to be: specific heat 753 J/(kg·K), thermal conductivity 0.0611 W/(m·K), and density 313 kg/m3 .

Draft Curtains: Sheet metal, 1.2 mm thick and 1.8 m deep, was suspended from the ceiling for 16 of the
22 Series I tests, enclosing an area of about 450 m2 and 49 sprinklers. The curtains were in place for all
of the Series II tests.

Sprinklers: Central ELO-231 (Extra Large Orifice) uprights were used for all the tests. The orifice diameter
of this sprinkler is reported by the manufacturer to be nominally 1.6 cm (0.64 in), the reference actuation
temperature is reported by the manufacturer to be 74◦ C (165◦ F). The RTI (Response Time Index) and
1 1
C-factor (Conductivity factor) were reported by UL to be 148 (m·s) 2 and 0.7 (m/s) 2 , respectively [293].
When installed, the sprinkler deflector was located 8 cm below the ceiling. The thermal element of the
sprinkler was located 11 cm below the ceiling. The sprinklers were installed with nominal 3 m by 3 m
(exact 10 ft by 10 ft) spacing in a system designed to deliver a constant 0.34 L/(s·m2 ) (0.50 gpm/ft2 )
discharge density when supplied by a 131 kPa (19 psi) discharge pressure

122
 Heptane Spray Burner Test Series II (10 MW Fires)
Test Burner Vent Sprinklers First Last Avg. Peak Temp.
No. Position Operation Opened Activation Activation ◦C ◦F

II-1 D 74◦ C link (DNO) 27 1:15 6:13 129.4 264.9

II-2 D All Open at Start 28 1:05 5:53 128.8 263.8
II-3 A ◦
74 C link (1:15) 12 1:08 4:00 101.8 215.2
II-4 B 74◦ C link (1:48) 16 1:03 5:54 108.8 227.8
II-5 D 74◦ C link (DNO) 28 1:10 7:07 130.0 266.0
II-6 D All Open at Start 27 1:10 5:21 127.5 261.5
II-7 A Closed 18 1:09 4:11 117.2 243.0
II-8 B ◦
74 C link (1:12) 13 1:10 3:34 107.7 225.9
II-9 E 74◦ C link (DNO) 23 1:07 3:28 115.8 240.4
II-10 F ◦
74 C link (3:20) 19 1:14 3:01 108.4 227.1
II-11 C 74◦ C link (DNO) 23 1:02 3:56 123.4 254.1
II-12 C All Open at Start 23 0:58 4:55 119.0 246.2

Table 3.34: Results of the UL/NFPRF heptane spray experiments, Series II. Note that all fires were ramped
up to 10 MW in 75 s following a t-squared curve.

Vent: UL-listed double leaf fire vents with steel covers and steel curb were installed in the adjustable
height ceiling in the position shown in Figs. 3.44 and 3.45. The vent is designed to open manually or
automatically. The vent doors were recessed into the ceiling about 0.3 m (1 ft).

Heptane Spray Burner: The heptane spray burner consisted of a 1 m by 1 m square of 1.3 cm pipe sup-
ported by four cement blocks 0.6 m off the floor. Four atomizing spray nozzles were used to provide a
free spray of heptane that was then ignited. For all but one of the Series I tests, the total heat release rate
from the fire was manually ramped up following a “t-squared” curve to a steady-state in 75 s (150 s was
used in Test I-16). The fire was ramped to 10 MW in 75 s for the Series II tests. The fire growth curve
was followed until a specified fire size was reached or the first sprinkler activated. After either of these
events, the fire size was maintained at that level until conditions reached roughly a steady state, i.e.,
the temperatures recorded near the ceilings remained steady and no more sprinkler activations occurred.
The heat release rate from the burner was confirmed by placing it under the large product calorimeter
at UL, ramping up the flow of heptane in the same manner as in the tests, and measuring the total and
convective heat release rates. It was found that the convective heat release rate was 0.65 ± 0.02 of the
total.

Plastic Commodity: The Factory Mutual Research Corporation (FMRC) standard “Group A Plastic” test
commodity served as the fuel for the rack storage experiments [294]. The cartoned plastic commodity
consists of rigid crystalline polystyrene cups packaged in compartmented, single-wall, corrugated paper
cartons. Each carton is a cube 0.53 m (21 in) on a side. Eight boxes comprise a pallet load. Two-way,
slatted deck hardwood pallets support the loads. A pallet load weighs approximately 80 kg (170 lb),
of which about 36 % is plastic, 35 % is wood, and 29 % is corrugated paper [294]. Each storage array
consisted of a main (ignition) double-row rack at the center, flanked on two sides by single row target
racks. The rows were separated by 8 ft wide aisles. Each of the two rows of the main array consisted of
four 2.4 m (8 ft) long bays; a 0.15 m (6 in) flue separated the rows. Longitudinal flues of 0.2 m (7.5 in)
were used to separate the pallets within a row. The overall loaded area of the double-row rack measured
approximately 2.3 m (7.5 ft) wide by 10 m (33 ft) long. The racks were divided vertically into 4 tiers;

123
 the overall loaded height was 5.8 m (19 ft). The fire was ignited with 2 standard igniters which consisted
of 8 cm (3 in) long by 8 cm diameter cylinders of rolled cotton material, each soaked in 120 mL (4 oz)
of gasoline and enclosed in a polyethylene bag. The rolls were placed against the carton surfaces in the
first tier, just above the pallet. The igniters were lit with a flaming propane torch at the start of each test.

Instrumentation: The instrumentation for the tests consisted of thermocouples, gas analysis equipment,
and pressure transducers. The locations of the instrumentation are referenced in the plan view of the
facility (Fig. 3.44). Temperature measurements were recorded at 104 locations. Type K 0.0625 in
diameter Inconel sheathed thermocouples were positioned to measure (i) temperatures near the ceiling,
(ii) temperatures of the ceiling jet, and (iii) temperatures near the vent.

3.77 UL/NIJ House Experiments

The Firefighter Safety Research Institute (FSRI) of Underwriters Laboratory (UL), with support from the
National Institute of Justice (NIJ), conducted fire experiments in a one-story ranch-style house and a two-
story colonial-style house in the large fire facility at Northbrook, Illinois, in 2016 and 2017 [295]. In
addition to this validation guide, modeling of the experiments is also reported in [296]. The goal of the
experiments was to determine the effect of ventilation on fire patterns in fully-furnished homes. As part
of the project, a natural gas burner was positioned within the unfurnished structures to evaluate changes in
flow patterns as various doors and windows were opened and closed. The test structures were instrumented
with thermocouple trees, pressure transducers, and bi-directional probes. The floor plan for the single story
ranch-style house is included in Fig. 3.47, and plans for the two story colonial-style house in Fig. 3.48. The
ceiling was 2.4 m above the floor in the ranch-style house. The colonial-style house featured an atrium with
a 5.6 m ceiling height. The first story ceiling in the colonial-style house was 2.5 m above the floor, and the
second story ceiling was 2.8 m above the floor.
The leakage area in the single story structure was measured to be 0.08 m2 at 10 Pa. The leakage area in
the two story structure was measured to be 0.18 m2 at 10 Pa.
The natural gas burner in each set of experiments had dimensions of 0.6 m by 0.6 m, and the surface of
the burner was approximately 0.6 m above the floor. The heat release rate for the single story ranch house
was 250 kW, and 500 kW for the two story colonial. The locations of the burner in each house are indicated
in the floor plans. The labels for the measurement devices in the one and two story houses are listed in
Tables 3.35 and 3.36, respectively. Three experiments with unique sequences of events (e.g. opening doors
and windows) were conducted in each style of house. All experiments began with all exterior doors and
windows closed and the times at which each door and window was opened are listed Table 3.37 and 3.38.

124
 0.38 m 1.78 m 2.32 m 0.85 m 1.07 m 0.79 m 0.86 m 1.07 m 0.94 m 0.86 m 0.94 m

A B 0.30 m 0.30 m C
Back

Instrumentation
1.83 m 1.83 m Bedroom 3 Bedroom 2
Kitchen

3.58 m 1.37 m 3.92 m

2.13 m 2.13 m 1.45 m

0.10 m 0.41 m
1.42 m
0.76 m 1.26 m 1.30 m
1.75 m 0.47 m

0.30 m 1.98 m 1.98 m 1.37 m

Instrumentation
0.84 m Bedroom 1
3.96 m
1.35 m 2.74 m D 0.86 m

Living Room
Dining Room
1.78 m
1.40 m
G Front F 0.30 m
E

0.47 m 1.78 m 0.47 m 0.89 m 1.01 m 2.67 m 0.84 m 1.49 m 0.85 m 1.45 m

Icon Instrumentation
Thermocouple Array
Gas Velocity
Pressure Tap

Figure 3.47: Layout of the one story ranch-style house in the UL/NIJ experiments.

125
 0.21 m 0.85 m 3.11 m 1.78 m 1.77 m 0.91 m 1.77 m 0.62 m 1.08 m 0.85 m 1.09 m

0.20 m
A Back 0.51 m B C D
0.85 m 0.30 m
H 0.30 m 0.30 m
Kitchen 2.39 m 2.03 m 2.39 m
Family Room

4.85 m
3.05 m
3.80 m 1.52 m
2.44 m

Den
0.30 m

5.84 m
0.76 m
Living Room
Dining Room Foyer
1.60 m
0.46 m 5.13 m

Laundry Room
1.42 m 1.85 m

2.39 m 1.83 m
2.18 m
0.30 m 0.30 m 1.73 m
1.22 m
G F Front E

1.01 m 0.85 m 1.00 m 0.65 m 1.77 m 0.88 m 0.60 m 0.81 m 1.77 m 1.18 m

1.07 m 1.77 m 1.09 m 1.08 m 0.85 m 1.09 m

I J
Bedroom 2
Master Bedroom Open To Below
3.05 m

4.57 m

1.75 m
1.91 m
1.06 m 0.30 m

10.13 m 2.62 m

0.30 m 3.33 m
1.83 m 0.75 m Hallway Instrumentation
0.84 m 1.07 m 0.46 m

0.30 m
0.84 m
0.30 m
Open To
1.65 m Below
1.75 m

3.33 m 3.02 m
Bedroom 4
1.19 m Bedroom 3
M L K

1.00 m 0.85 m 1.00 m 0.66 m 1.77 m 0.60 m 4.05 m 0.81 m 1.77 m 1.18 m

Figure 3.48: Geometry of UL NIJ Colonial-style House

126

Icon Instrumentation
Thermocouple Array
 Temp. Location Pressure Location Velocity Location
1TC Bedroom 1 1PT Bedroom 1 1BDP Window E
2TC Bedroom 2 2PT Bedroom 2 2BDP Window D
3TC Bedroom 3 3PT Bedroom 3 3BDP Window B
4TC Hallway 4PT Living Room 4BDP Hallway
5TC Living Room 5PT Kitchen 5BDP Window F
6TC Dining Room 6PT Dining Room 6BDP Front Door
7TC Kitchen (East) 7BDP Window A
8TC Kitchen (West)

Table 3.35: Locations of measurement devices in the UL/NIJ ranch-style house.

Temp. Location Pressure Location Velocity Location

1TC Master Bedroom 1PT Master Bedroom 1BDP Front Door
2TC Bedroom 2 2PT Bedroom 2 2BDP Window J
3TC Bedroom 3 3PT Bedroom 3 3BDP Window K
4TC Bedroom 4 4PT Bedroom 4 4BDP Window L
5TC 2nd Floor Hallway (East) 5PT Front Corridor 5BDP Window E
6TC 2nd Floor Hallway (Middle) 6PT Living Room 6BDP Window A
7TC Family Room (West Corner) 8PT Den
8TC Family Room (Center) 9PT Family Room
9TC Den 10PT Kitchen
10TC Living Room
11TC Under 2nd Floor Hallway
12TC Foyer
13TC Dining Room
14TC Laundry Room
15TC Kitchen

Table 3.36: Locations of measurement devices in the UL/NIJ colonial-style house.

Event Test 1 Test 2 Test 5

Front Door Open 300 s 1200 s 1290 s
Back Door Open 1275 s 1860 s 300 s
Window A Open 1260 s 1845 s -
Window B Open 1245 s 1830 s -
Window C Open 1230 s 900 s -
Window D Open 1215 s - 600 s
Window E Open 600 s 600 s -
Window F Open 1200 s 1815 s 1200 s
Window G Open 1300 s 1875 s -
Burner Off 900 s 1500 s 900 s

Table 3.37: Sequence of events for the one story ranch-style house in the UL/NIJ experiments.

127
 Event Test 1 Test 4 Test 6
Front Door Open 600 s 600 s 1200 s
Back Door Open - - -
Window A Open - - 900 s
Window B Open - 900 s -
Window C Open - - -
Window D Open - - -
Window E Open - - -
Window F Open - - -
Window G Open - - -
Window H Open - - -
Window I Open - - -
Window J Open - - -
Window K Open 900 s 1260 s 600 s
Window L Open 1200 s 1320 s -
Window M Open - - -
Burner Off 1500 s 1200 s 1500 s

Table 3.38: Sequence of events for the two story colonial-style house in the UL/NIJ experiments.

128
3.78 Ulster SBI Corner Heat Flux Measurements
Zhang et al. [297] measured the heat flux and flame heights from fires in the single burning item (SBI)
enclosure at the University of Ulster, Northern Ireland. Thin steel plate probes were used to measure the
surface heat flux, and flame heights were determined by analyzing the instantaneous images extracted from
the videos of the experiments by a CCD camera. Three heat release rates were used – 30 kW, 45 kW, and
60 kW.

3.79 UMD Polymers

Stoliarov et al. conducted measurements of the thermal properties of charring and non-charring polymers
with the specific purpose of providing input data for numerical pyrolysis models [298, 299, 300, 301]. The
study aimed to determine whether a one-dimensional conduction/reaction model could be used as a practi-
cal tool for prediction and/or extrapolation of the results of fire calorimetry tests. The non-charring poly-
mers included poly(methyl methacrylate) (PMMA), high-impact polystyrene (HIPS), and polyoxymethy-
lene (POM). The charring polymers included acrylonitrile butadiene styrene (ABS), polyethylene tereph-
thalate (PET), Kydex, and polyethylenimine (PEI).

3.80 UMD Line Burner

James P. White, University of Maryland, College Park

The University of Maryland (UMD) Line Burner experimental facility provides for the study of a low-strain,
buoyancy-driven, fully-turbulent diffusion flame in a canonical line-fire configuration. This facility provides
well-controlled inlet and boundary conditions while introducing the complicating effects of buoyancy and
turbulence characteristic of large-scale accidental fires. A variety of non-intrusive diagnostics are employed
to measure local and integral flame characteristics. The facility comprises a slot burner centrally located
within a surrounding, uniform co-flowing oxidizer. Controlled suppression of the flame is achieved via the
introduction of either excess nitrogen gas or a fine water mist into the oxidizer stream. A detailed description
of this facility is presented in White et al. [302].
A plan view illustration of the burner and oxidizer assembly is presented in Fig. 3.49. The burner
features a sand-filled, stainless-steel fuel port, measuring 5 cm wide by 50 cm long, with 1.5 mm thick side
walls. Methane gas (99.5 % purity) or propane gas (99.5 % purity) are the primary burner fuels. A methane
flow rate of 1.00 ±0.02 g/s (nominal 5.4 cm/s) or a propane flow rate of 1.08 ±0.02 g/s (nominal 2.1 cm/s)
is utilized, measured using a mass flow controller. Assuming complete combustion, the total heat-release
rate is roughly 50 kW for either fuel.
The burner is centrally located at the mouth of a surrounding oxidizer port, measuring 50 cm wide by
75 cm long, with 10 cm thick side walls. Flow conditioning elements ensure that the oxidizer is well-mixed
and exits the oxidizer port with a uniform, flat velocity profile. The co-flowing oxidizer is provided at a
fixed flow rate of 75±5 g/s (total, including variable suppressant flow, nominal 22 cm/s), measured using a
calibrated pitot-static probe.
Sitting on top of the oxidizer port and surrounding the fuel port is a thin, 5 mm tall, 5 cm wide annulus
of ceramic fiberboard, positioned so the top of the board is 10 mm below the lip of the fuel port (and 5 mm
above the oxidizer port). This board serves as a flow blockage to reduce the oxidizer velocity near the flame
base, forcing the onset of buoyancy-generated turbulence upstream toward the fuel port and reducing the
tendency to form laminar structures at the base of the flame.

129
 For nitrogen-dilution suppression experiments, the flame is suppressed via the introduction of a variable
flow of gaseous nitrogen into the oxidizer. Suppression potential is characterized by the oxygen mole-
fraction in the oxidizer, XO2 . This quantity is measured using a paramagnetic oxygen analyzer via a probe
located in the oxidizer port. The analyzer provides a measurement accuracy of ±0.125 in the volume per-
centage of O2 and a response time of 5 s. An additional transport delay of approximately 20 s is compensated
to provide synchronous data collection with other measurements.
Visible flame height is measured using a video camera, defined based on a 50 % intermittent flame height
[302]. These image-based measurements rely on visible flame emissions, including the incandescence of
soot particles, and do not strictly locate the stoichiometric flame sheet. The uncertainty in each flame height
measurement is less than ±1.5 cm.
Infrared radiative emissions are measured using a water-cooled Schmidt-Boelter heat-flux transducer.
The sensor is positioned 100 cm radially outward from the burner centroid, 18 cm above the fuel port,
facing perpendicular to the long axis of the burner. This device has a hemispherical absorptance of 0.94 for
a spectral range between 0.6-15.0 µm, a maximum viewing angle of 90°, and a response time of 0.25 s.
Measurement accuracy is ±3 %. The convective portion of the measured heat flux is neglected and sans-
flame measurements are applied to correct for background irradiation.
Heat flux data are converted to radiative loss fraction, χr , using a weighted multi-point radiation source
model, whereby the measured heat flux is assumed to be received from an array of isotropic point sources
uniformly distributed over a two-dimensional plane oriented across the visible flame surface. The uncer-
tainty in each χr measurement is less than ±4.5 %.
Mean and RMS (root mean square) temperature data are recorded using an array of R-Type thermocou-
ple probes positioned at selected locations along the centerline of the flame. These probes are constructed
using 50 um diameter wires with exposed, bead-welded junctions. Combustion products are collected in
an exhaust evacuation system, wherein a gas sampling system provides measurement of the molar concen-
trations of oxygen (±0.25 mol % O2 ), carbon dioxide (±1000 ppm CO2 ), carbon monoxide (±100 ppm
CO), water vapor (±3 % RH), and total hydrocarbons (±10 ppm THC) in the exhaust stream. From these
measurements, integral heat release rate and combustion efficiency measurements are derived using species-
based calorimetry techniques.

Modeling Notes
The simulations of the UMD Line Burner experiments are performed for a duration of 80 s. The first
10 s allow the flame to stabilize at ambient conditions. At 10 s, nitrogen is introduced in the co-flow air
stream and linearly increased so that the oxygen concentration decreases to 10 % at 80 s. When the oxygen
concentration drops to 18 %, the nitrogen ramp up is delayed for 10 s in order to collect steady-state profiles
of oxygen and temperature at heights of 12.5 cm and 25 cm above the burner.
The calculations are performed at three grid resolutions: 12.5 mm, 6.25 mm, and 3.125 mm, using 24,
164, and 204 meshes respectively.
The combustion and extinction are modeled using a two-step reaction scheme. In the first step, fuel is
converted to CO, soot, and water vapor, and in the second step, the CO and soot are oxidized to form CO2 .
Both reactions are fast, but the oxidation step follows the first reaction. That is, in a given time step, all
available oxygen first forms CO and soot. Any leftover oxygen is then used to oxidize existing CO and soot.
The methane reaction is written in terms of “lumped” species as follows:

(CH4 ) + 1.333 (O2 + (0.79/0.21) N2 ) −→ (2/3 CO + 2 H2 O + 1/3 C + 1.333(0.79/0.21) N2 ) (3.25)

| {z } | {z } | {z }
Fuel Air Products 1

130
 Figure 3.49: UMD Line Burner isometric view of burner and oxidizer assembly.

(Products 1) + 0.667 (Air) −→ (CO2 + 2 H2 O + 2(0.79/0.21) N2 ) (3.26)

| {z }
Products 2

The propane reaction is:

(C3 H8 ) + 2.2065 (O2 + (0.79/0.21) N2 ) −→ (0.413 CO + 4 H2 O + 2.587 C + 2.2065(0.79/0.21) N2 )

| {z } | {z } | {z }
Fuel Air Products 1
(3.27)
(Products 1) + 2.7935 (Air) −→ (3 CO2 + 4 H2 O + 5(0.79/0.21) N2 ) (3.28)
| {z }
Products 2

The stoichiometry is dictated by the composition of the fuel molecule except for the stoichiometric coeffi-
cients of CO and soot in the first step. By default, 2/3 of the carbon in the fuel molecule is converted to CO,
and 1/3 to soot. No better strategy has yet emerged for determining this. For both methane and propane,
soot is generated in the first step, and as the co-flow is diluted with nitrogen, the flame color changes from
yellow to blue as the in-flame soot volume fraction decreases. The simple two-step reaction scheme cannot
predict the distribution of soot and CO in the first step; thus, the stoichiometric coefficients for CO and soot

131
(C) in Eq. (3.25) are chosen somewhat arbitrarily. The choice does affect the predicted radiative fraction of
the fire and the heat flux to the radiometer.
Extinction of the fire is achieved using the critical flame temperature concept, which is the default
extinction model in FDS. The CFT is 1507 ◦ C for methane and 1447 ◦ C for propane [136]. In addition,
combustion is suppressed below the auto-ignition temperatures of 540 ◦ C and 450 ◦ C for methane and
propane, respectively, except in a small volume just above the burner where the fuel is allowed to burn on
contact with oxygen. This is a simple way to simulate the effect of a spark igniter.

3.81 USCG/HAI Water Mist Suppression Tests

The U.S. Coast Guard sponsored a series of experiments to assess the fire suppression capabilities of a
variety of water mist systems in a variety of ship board configurations. The experiments were conducted in
1999 by Hughes Associates, Inc., in a simulated machinery space aboard the test vessel State of Maine at
the USCG Fire and Safety Test Detachment, Mobile, Alabama [303]. The space had nominal dimensions of
7 m by 5 m by 3 m, containing two steel engine mock-ups each measuring 3 m by 1 m by 1.5 m. The space
was equipped with a door for natural ventilation and a forced ventilation system providing approximately
15 air changes per hour. Five commercially available water mist systems were evaluated. The obstructed
heptane spray fires ranged in size from approximately 250 kW to 1 MW.

3.82 USFS/Catchpole Experiments

The U.S. Forest Service and collaborators from the University of New South Wales, Australia, conducted
354 fire experiments in a wind tunnel with a cross section of 3 m by 3 m [304]. The tunnel is part of
the Intermountain Fire Sciences Laboratory in Missoula, Montana. The fires involved four different fuel
species, a range of fuel bed depths, packing ratios, moisture contents and wind speeds. The fuels were
regular and coarse excelsior (Populus tranulos), and pine needles and heartwood sticks (Pinus ponderosa).
The vegetation was placed in a 1 m wide and 8 m long tray. An approximately 5 cm wide tray of ethanol
liquid was positioned at one end, and the fire spread rate was measured using photocells and video analysis.

Modeling Notes
The vegetation is modeled as a collection of cylindrical Lagrangian particles. The pyrolysis model assigned
to the particles is described in the FDS User’s Guide [1], chapter “Earth, Wind and Fire,” Section 19.1,
“Thermal Degradation Model for Vegetation.” The parameters for each experiment are listed in a table in
Ref. [304].

3.83 USFS/Corsica Experiments

Perez-Ramirez et al. at the University of Corsica, France, and Mell at the U.S. Forest Service’s Pacific
Wildland Fire Science Laboratory in Seattle, Washington, simulated six bench-scale fires spreading over
a 1 m wide by 2 m long bed of pine needles [157]. The heat release rates from the spreading fires were
measured in a furniture calorimeter. The fuel beds were made up of Pinus pinaster needles, and three
different fuel loadings (0.6, 0.9 and 1.2 kg/m2 ) were tested under no-slope and up-slope conditions (20◦ ).

132
Modeling Notes
The pine needles are modeled as a collection of cylindrical Lagrangian particles. The pyrolysis model as-
signed to the particles is described in the FDS User’s Guide [1], chapter “Earth, Wind and Fire,” Section 19.1
“Thermal Degradation Model for Vegetation.”
The test parameters for these experiments are given in Table 3.39.

Exp. Dry Fuel Loading Slope Dry Mass per Volume Packing Bed Depth
No. (kg/m2 ) (deg.) (kg/m3 ) Ratio (cm)
1_0 0.6 0 17 0.033 3.5
2_0 0.9 0 16 0.031 5.5
3_0 1.2 0 18 0.035 6.5
1_20 0.6 20 17 0.033 3.5
2_20 0.9 20 16 0.031 5.5
3_20 1.2 20 18 0.035 7.5

Table 3.39: Test matrix for the USFS/Corsica Experiments.

3.84 USN High Bay Hangar Experiments

The U.S. Navy sponsored a series of 33 tests within two hangars examining fire detection and sprinkler
activation in response to spill fires in large enclosures. Experiments were conducted using JP-5 and JP-8
fuels in two Navy high bay aircraft hangars located in Naval Air Stations in Barber’s Point, Hawaii and
Keflavik, Iceland [305].
The Hawaii tests were conducted in a 15 m high hangar measuring 97.8 m in length and 73.8 m in width.
Of the 13 tests conducted in the facility 11 were conducted in pans ranging from .09 m2 to 4.9 m2 in area
with heat release rates varying from 100 kW to 7.7 MW. The burner was placed in the center of the room on
a scale that continuously recorded the pans weight. The facility was equipped with a number of detection
devices including thermocouples, electronic smoke and spot heat detectors, projected beam smoke detectors,
combination UV/IR optical flame detectors, line-type heat detectors, as well as sprinklers. Measurements
were recorded at a large number of locations allowing for a thorough profile of compartment behavior.
It was suspected that fire plume behavior and response of detection devices in a cold building may not
have been well replicated by the experiments held in the warm hangar in Hawaii. The Iceland tests were
conducted under a 22 m barrel vaulted ceiling in a hangar measuring 45.7 m by 73.8 m. 22 tests in total
were conducted. The majority of these tests fires burned JP-5 fuel with the remainder burning JP-8. The
jet fuel fires ranged in size from .06 m2 to 20.9 m2 and in heat release rate from 100 kW to approximately
33 MW. The facility was equipped similarly to the Hawaii hangar.

3.85 UWO Wind Tunnel Experiments

Wind tunnel measurements were conducted at the University of Western Ontario (UWO) [306] on a 1:100
scale model of the Texas Tech Wind Engineering Field Research Laboratory (WERFL) building which has
approximate dimensions of 9.1 m by 13.7 m by 4 m and a slightly pitched roof. In the test report, this
experiment is referred to as Test 7. Pressure measurements were made for 22 wind directions for this scale
model.

133
Modeling Notes
The 1:100 scale model of the building is approximately 14 cm long, 9 cm wide, and 4 cm tall. The simula-
tions use 5.0 mm, 2.5 mm, and 1.25 mm cubic grid cells, uniformly spanning the computational domain of
dimensions 1.12 m × 0.56 m × 0.28 m. The 4 cm height of the scale model is spanned by 8, 16, and 32 grid
cells. The grid resolution was assessed by checking that the values of y+ , a non-dimensional distance, never
exceed 150 for any mesh resolution. y+ values are dependent on turbulence model wall laws and a value of
150 means that the first grid point is well within the logarithmic region.
Only two wind directions are chosen for validation, 180° and 270°, representing right angles formed
with the long and short sides of the building. For each angle, 3 lines of pressure measurements running up
the windward side, along the roof, and down the leeward side are used for comparison to the simulation.
One line of pressure measurements along the side of the scale model is also used.
The incoming flow assigned at the inflow boundary is characterized by its mean wind speed profile
and turbulent fluctuations. For consistency with the UWO experiments, the mean wind speed profile was
modeled by the power law:  z p
U(z) = 9.144 (3.29)
0.0396
where 9.144 m/s is the reference wind speed at the 0.0396 m roof height of the scale model and the power
law exponent p = 0.1173 was fit to the experimental data.
Fluctuations at the inlet boundary are generated by the Synthetic Eddy Method (SEM) of Jarrin [307].
The desired value of N_EDDY (the number of eddies generated at the inlet) is the largest possible value
that does not slow down the simulation. This value is determined by running a number of simulations
for the same time while varying the N_EDDY input and recording the total run time. The other turbulence
parameters, L_EDDY (characteristic eddy length) and REYNOLDS_STRESS, are set based on the turbulence
intensity data from the UWO experiments. The Reynolds stresses are found by multiplying the turbulence
intensity in each direction by the wind velocity at roof height to determine the root mean square of the
velocity fluctuations, and then squaring the root mean square values.
The side walls and roof of the wind tunnel are set to free-slip. The roughness length at the ground is
specified to be 0.0001 m, 1/100 the full-scale value of 0.01 m. The outlet of the wind tunnel is set to an
“open” boundary condition, where pressure is set to the ambient pressure.

3.86 Vettori Flat Ceiling Experiments

Vettori [77] analyzed a series of 45 experiments conducted at NIST that were intended to compare the effects
of different ceiling configurations on the activation times of quick response residential pendent sprinklers.
The two ceiling configurations used consisted of an obstructed ceiling, with parallel beams 0.038 m wide by
0.24 m deep placed 0.41 m on center, and a smooth ceiling configuration, in which the beams were covered
by a sheet of gypsum board. In addition to the two ceiling configurations, there were also three fire growth
rates and three burner locations used – a total of 18 test configurations. The fire growth rate was provided
by a computer controlled methane gas burner to mimic a standard t-squared7 fire growth rate with either a
slow, medium, or fast ramp up. The burner was placed in a corner of the room, then against an adjacent
wall, and then in a location removed from any wall. Measurements were taken to record sprinkler activation
time, temperatures at varying heights and locations within the room, and the ceiling jet velocities at several
other locations. A diagram of the test structure is displayed in Figure 3.50.

7 The actual heat release rate are presented in Table 3.40.

134
Figure 3.50: Geometry of the Vettori Flat Ceiling compartment.

135
Table 3.40: Heat release rate profiles for the Vettori experiments.

Time Slow Medium Fast

(s) (kW) (kW) (kW)
0 0 0 0
10 9 20 75
20 16 34 127
30 23 51 173
40 30 67 196
50 35 83 271
60 42 104 379
70 52 125 515
80 62 143 673
90 68 162 852
100 78 174 1053
110 85 192
120 94 239
130 100 279
140 109 325
150 115 373
160 125 424
170 137 479
180 148 537
190 163 599
200 179 663
210 195
220 213
230 231
240 250
250 269
260 290
270 311
280 333
290 354
300 378
310 402
320 427
330 453
340 479
350 506
360 534
370 562

136
3.87 Vettori Sloped Ceiling Experiments
Vettori [78] performed a series of 72 compartment experiments to measure the activation times of quick-
response residential pendent sprinklers mounted under a ceiling with an adjustable slope. There were 36
unique configurations (2 replicates of each) combining the following parameters:

• Flat, 13◦ , or 24◦ Ceiling Slope

• Smooth or Obstructed Ceiling Surface

• Fast or Slow Growth Fire

• Corner, Wall, or Detached Burner Location

Note that the Slow and Fast fire growth profiles were the same as those reported in Table 3.40.

3.88 VTT Large Hall Tests

The experiments are described in Ref. [308]. The series consisted of 8 experiments, but because of replicates
only three unique fire scenarios. The experiments were undertaken to study the movement of smoke in a
large hall with a sloped ceiling. The tests were conducted inside the VTT Fire Test Hall, with dimensions of
19 m high by 27 m long by 14 m wide. Each test involved a single heptane pool fire, ranging from 2 MW
to 4 MW. Four types of predicted output were used in the present evaluation – the HGL temperature and
depth, average flame height and the plume temperature. Three vertical arrays of thermocouples (TC), plus
two thermocouples in the plume, were compared to FDS predictions. The HGL temperature and height were
reduced from an average of the three TC arrays using the standard algorithm described in Chapter 5. The
ceiling jet temperature was not considered, because the ceiling in the test hall is not flat, and the standard
model algorithm is not appropriate for this geometry.
The VTT test report lacks some information needed to model the experiments, which is why some
information was based on private communications with the principal investigator, Simo Hostikka.

Surface Materials: The walls and ceiling of the test hall consist of a 1 mm thick layer of sheet metal on
top of a 5 cm layer of mineral wool. The floor was constructed of concrete. The report does not provide
thermal properties of these materials.

Natural Ventilation: In Cases 1 and 2, all doors were closed, and ventilation was restricted to infiltration
through the building envelope. Precise information on air infiltration during these tests is not available.
The scientists who conducted the experiments recommend a leakage area of about 2 m2 , distributed
uniformly throughout the enclosure. By contrast, in Case 3, the doors located in each end wall (Doors
1 and 2, respectively) were open to the external ambient environment. These doors are each 0.8 m wide
by 4 m high, and are located such that their centers are 9.3 m from the south wall.

Mechanical Ventilation: The test hall has a single mechanical exhaust duct, located in the roof space,
running along the center of the building. This duct had a circular section with a diameter of 1 m, and
opened horizontally to the hall at a distance of 12 m from the floor and 10.5 m from the west wall.
Mechanical exhaust ventilation was operational for Case 3, with a constant volume flow rate of 11 m3 /s
drawn through the exhaust duct.

Heat Release Rate: Each test used a single liquid fuel pan with its center located 16 m from the west
wall and 7.4 m from the south wall. For all tests, the fuel was heptane in a circular steel pan that was
partially filled with water. The pan had a diameter of 1.17 m for Case 1 and 1.6 m for Cases 2 and 3. In

137
 each case, the fuel surface was 1 m above the floor. The trays were placed on load cells, and the HRR
was calculated from the mass loss rate. For the three cases, the fuel mass loss rate was averaged from
individual replicate tests. In the HRR estimation, the heat of combustion (taken as 44,600 kJ/kg) and
the combustion efficiency for n-heptane was used. Hostikka suggests a value of 0.8 for the combustion
efficiency. Tewarson reports a value of 0.93 for a 10 cm pool fire [135]. For the calculations reported
in the current study, a combustion efficiency of 0.85 is assumed. In general, an uncertainty of 15 % has
been assumed for the reported HRR of most of the large scale fire experiments used.

Radiative Fraction: The radiative fraction was assumed to be 0.35, similar to many smoky hydrocarbons.

A diagram of the test structure is displayed in Figure 3.51.

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Figure 3.51: Geometry of the VTT Large Fire Test Hall.

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3.89 VTT Water Spray Experiments
The spray from a single water mist nozzle was measured at Tampere University of Technology using a
direct imaging technique [309]. The model number of the nozzle is LN-2, manufactured by the Spraying
Systems Company. It is a fine spray hydraulic atomizing nozzle of the standard spray, small capacity type.
Measurements were made 40 cm and 62 cm below the nozzle. Measured quantities include the average
droplet velocity, droplet flux, and median diameter.

3.90 Waterloo Methanol Pool Fire Experiment

Beth Weckman measured near-field temperatures and velocities of a 30.5 cm diameter methanol pool fire at
the University of Waterloo, Ontario, Canada [310]. The methanol fuel flow rate was maintained at 1.35 cm3 /s
to maintain a burner rim height of 1 cm. Assuming complete combustion, the heat release rate was approxi-
mately 24.6 kW.
The burner was mounted on a traversing stand that allowed for radial and axial traverses of the fire flow
field. The vapor core, continuous flame zone and fluctuating regions of the fire plume were characterized
via profiles of axial and radial velocity and temperature taken at 2 cm intervals from the pool centerline to
16 cm from the centerline in the radial direction, and at heights from 2 cm to 20 cm above the fuel surface.
A final radial profile was taken at a height of 30 cm. Measurements were made by moving the burner while
the velocity and temperature transducers were held at a fixed point. To shield the fire from drafts, the entire
system was enclosed by panels of wire mesh that was covered with an aluminum window screen.
Time resolved velocity measurements were performed using a two component laser doppler anemome-
ter. Time resolved temperature data was measured using 50 µm diameter, bare-wire thermocouples (Pt vs Pt-
10% Rh) with known bead diameters in the range of 75 µm to 100 µm.
Additional measurements of a 30.5 cm diameter methanol pool fire were made by Hamins et al., in-
cluding the heat flux to the pool surface [311], centerline profiles of temperature and species concentra-
tions [312], and an additional radial profile of temperature 60 cm above the pool surface [312].

Modeling Notes
The methanol pool fire is modeled at three different grid resolutions—2 cm, 1 cm, and 0.5 cm. Two sets
of simulations are performed, one in which the mass loss rate of fuel is specified, and one in which it is
predicted. The gas phase measurements are compared with the simulations for which the burning rate is
specified.
Because measurements of CO were made within the flame envelop, a two-step reaction mechanism is
implemented. In the first reaction, fuel is converted to CO and H2 O, and in the second reaction, CO is
converted to CO2 . Both reactions employ fast kinetics and performed serially. It is assumed that no soot is
formed in either reaction.
Physical properties of methanol are taken from a data sheet published by the Methanol Institute [313]:
boiling temperature, 64.6 ◦ C, heat of vaporization at 64.6 ◦ C, 1098.3 kJ/kg, thermal conductivity, 0.2 W/(m·K),
specific heat at 25 ◦ C, 2.53 kJ/(kg·K), density at 20 ◦ C, 792 kg/m3 . The heat of combustion is given as
19.9 kJ/g, but this value is not input directly, but rather calculated based on the heats of formation of the
reactants and products of combustion.
The radiative fraction is predicted by the model, not specified by the user, for all cases. The path length
used by RadCal to compute the table of effective radiative absorption coefficients for the gas mixture is set
to 10 cm, the default value. The absorption coefficient of the liquid methanol is given as 1140 m−1 .
The modeled thermocouple has a bead diameter of 100 µm to match the experiments.

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 For the simulations where the burning rate is not specified, a liquid fuel evaporation model is used with
a boiling temperature of 64.6 ◦ C.

3.91 WTC Spray Burner Experiments

As part of its investigation of the World Trade Center disaster, the Building and Fire Research Laboratory
at NIST conducted several series of fire experiments to both gain insight into the observed fire behavior and
also to validate FDS for use in reconstructing the fires. The first series of experiments involved a relatively
simple compartment with a liquid spray burner and various structural elements with varying amounts of
sprayed fire-resistive materials (SFRM). A diagram of the compartment is shown in Fig. 3.52. A complete
description of the experiments can be found in the NIST WTC report NCSTAR 1-5B [69]. The overall en-
closure was rectangular, as were the vents and most of the obstructions. The compartment walls and ceiling
were made of 2.54 cm thick marinite. The manufacturer provided the thermal properties of the material
used in the calculation. The density was 737 kg/m3 , conductivity 0.12 W/m/K. The specific heat ranged
from 1.17 kJ/kg/K at 93 ◦ C to 1.42 kJ/kg/K at 425 ◦ C. This value was assumed for higher temperatures. The
steel used to construct the column and truss flanges was 0.64 cm thick. The density of the steel was assumed
to be 7,860 kg/m3 ; its specific heat 0.45 kJ/kg/K.
Two fuels were used in the tests. The properties of the fuels were obtained from measurements made
on a series of unconfined burns that are referenced in the test report. The first fuel was a blend of heptane
isomers, C7 H16 . Its soot yield was set at a constant 1.5 %. The second fuel was a mixture (40 % - 60 % by
mass) of toluene, C7 H8 , and heptane. Because FDS only considers the burning of a single hydrocarbon fuel,
the mixture was taken to be C7 H12 with a soot yield of 11.4 %. The radiative fraction for the heptane blend
was 0.44; for the heptane/toluene mixture it was 0.39. The heat release rate of the simulated burner was set
to that which was measured in the experiments. The spray burner was modeled using reported properties of
the nozzle and liquid fuel droplets.

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Figure 3.52: Geometry of the compartment used for the WTC Experiments.

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3.92 Summary of Experiments
Table 3.41 presents a summary of all the experiments described in this chapter in terms of parameters
commonly used in fire protection engineering. This “parameter space” outlines the range of applicability
of the validation studies performed to date. In other words, if this guide is to be cited as justification for
using FDS to simulate a given fire scenario, that scenario must be similar to these experiments in the sense
of having comparable physical parameters. These parameters are explained below:

Heat Release Rate, Q̇, is the range of peak heat release rates of the fires in the test series.
p
Fire Diameter, D, is the equivalent diameter of the base of the fire, calculated D = 4A/π, where A is the
area of the base.

Ceiling Height, H, is the distance from floor to ceiling.

Fire Froude Number, Q̇∗ , is a useful non-dimensional quantity for plume correlations and flame height
estimates.
Q̇
Q̇∗ = √ (3.30)
ρ∞ c p T∞ gDD2
It is essentially the ratio of the fuel gas exit velocity and the buoyancy-induced plume velocity. Jet fires
are characterized by large Froude numbers. Typical accidental fires have a Froude number near unity.

Flame Height relative to Ceiling Height, Lf /H, is a convenient way to express the physical size of the
fire relative to the size of the room. The height of the visible flame, based on Heskestad’s correlation, is
estimated by:  
Lf = D 3.7 (Q̇∗ )2/5 − 1.02 (3.31)

Global Equivalence Ratio, φ , is the ratio of the mass flux of fuel to the mass flux of oxygen into the
compartment, divided by the stoichiometric ratio.
 1 √
ṁf Q̇ (kW) 2 0.23 A0 H0 : Natural Ventilation
φ= ≡ ; ṁO2 = (3.32)
r ṁO2 13, 100 (kJ/kg) ṁO2 0.23 ρ V̇ : Mechanical Ventilation

Here, r is the stoichiometric ratio, A0 is the area of the compartment opening, H0 is the height of the
opening, ρ is the density of air, and V̇ is the volume flow of air into the compartment. If φ < 1,
the compartment is considered “well-ventilated” and if φ > 1, the compartment is considered “under-
ventilated.”

Compartment Aspect Ratios, W /H and L/H, indicate if the compartment is shaped like a hallway, typi-
cal room, or vertical shaft.

Relative Distance along the Ceiling, rcj /H, indicates the distance from the fire plume of a sprinkler, smoke
detector, etc., relative to the compartment height, H.

Relative Distance from the Fire, rrad /D, indicates whether a “target” is near or far from the fire.

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 Table 3.41: Summary of important experimental parameters.

Q̇ D H
Test Series Q̇∗ Lf /H φ W /H L/H rcj /H rrad /D
(kW) (m) (m)
Arup Tunnel 5344 1.6 7 1.5 0.8 0.0 1.1 43 0.0 – 1.1 N/A
ATF Corridors 50 – 500 0.5 2.4 0.3 – 3.3 0.3 – 0.9 0.0 – 0.1 0.8 7.1 0.8 – 6.0 N/A
Beyler Hood 8 – 30 0.2 0.5 0.5 – 1.1 0.7 – 1.3 0.2 – 1.7 2.0 2.0 N/A N/A
Bittern Sprinklers 150 0.5 2.4 0.8 0.5 0.04 1.7 3.3 0.8 N/A
Bryant Doorway 34 – 511 0.3 2.4 0.5 – 6.9 0.2 – 1.0 0.0 – 0.2 1.0 2.1 0.6 – 0.8 N/A
DelCo Trainers 440 – 1190 0.7 – 1.2 2.4 0.7 – 1.0 0.8 – 1.1 0.1 – 0.3 1.5 2.5 0.4 – 3.8 N/A
FAA Cargo 5 0.1 1.4 1.4 0.2 0.2 2.3 4.8 0.1 – 4.8 N/A
Fleury Heat Flux 100 – 300 0.3 – 0.6 Open 0.3 – 5.5 Open Open Open Open Open 1.7 – 3.3
FM Panels 30 – 100 0.5 Open 0.2 – 0.5 Open Open Open Open Open 0
FM/SNL 470 – 516 0.9 6.1 0.6 – 2.4 0.3 – 0.6 0.0 – 0.2 2.0 3.0 0.2 – 0.3 N/A
Hamins CH4 0.4 – 162 0.1 – 1.0 Open 0.1 Open Open Open Open N/A 0.1 – 12
Harrison Plumes 5 – 15 0.16 0.5 0.5 – 1.4 0.5 – 1.0 Open Open Open N/A N/A
Heskestad 102 − 107 1.1 Open 10−1 − 104 Open Open Open Open N/A N/A

144
LLNL Enclosure 50 – 400 0.6 4.5 0.2 – 1.5 0.1 – 0.4 0.1 – 0.4 0.9 1.3 0.3 – 1.0 N/A
McCaffrey Plume 14 – 57 0.3 Open 0.2 – 0.8 Open Open Open Open N/A N/A
NBS Multi-Room 110 0.3 2.4 1.5 0.5 0.0 1.0 5.1 N/A N/A
NIST Composite Beam 4000 1.4 3.7 0.5 0.7 0.6 0.5 3.5 N/A N/A
NIST FSE 100 – 2500 0.6 – 1.1 2.4 0.5 – 1.8 0.4 – 1.7 0.2 – 5.9 1.0 1.5 0.4 – 0.8 N/A
NIST/NRC 350 – 2200 1.0 3.8 0.3 – 2.0 0.3 – 1.0 0.0 – 0.3 1.9 5.7 0.3 – 2.1 2.0 – 4.0
NIST/NRC Cabinet 200 – 400 0.3 – 0.5 2.1 0.3 – 3.7 0.2 – 0.9 1.3 – 12 0.3 0.4 N/A 1.2 – 2.0
NIST/NRC Corner 200 – 400 0.7 3.8 0.4 – 0.9 0.3 – 0.5 <0.1 1.8 2.9 0.5 – 2.3 N/A
NIST RSE 50 – 600 0.15 1.0 5.2 – 63 0.9 – 2.8 0.1 – 1.1 1.0 1.5 N/A N/A
NIST Smoke Alarms 100 – 350 1.0 2.4 0.2 – 0.3 0.2 – 0.5 N/A 1.7 8.3 1.3 – 8.3 N/A
NIST Vent Study 2.5 0.1 0.6 0.7 0.4 0.05 2.0 2.0 1.0 N/A
NRCC Facade 5000 – 10300 4.3 2.8 0.1 – 0.2 0.9 – 1.7 0.6 – 1.2 1.6 2.2 N/A 0
NRCC Smoke Tower 3000 2.2 3.4 0.4 1.0 0.7 0.1 0.2 1.2 N/A
NRL/HAI 50 – 520 0.3 – 0.7 Open 1.1 – 1.2 Open Open Open Open N/A 0
PRISME 480 – 1600 0.7 – 1.1 4.0 1.1 0.5 – 0.8 0.5 1.3 1.5 0.0 – 0.5 2.3 – 5.7
Sandia Plume 2025 – 5450 1.0 Open 1.8 – 5.0 Open Open Open Open N/A N/A
 Table 3.41: Summary of important experimental parameters (continued).

Q̇ D H
Test Series Q̇∗ Lf /H φ W /H L/H rcj /H rrad /D
(kW) (m) (m)
SP AST 450 0.3 2.4 6.1 1.1 0.1 1.0 1.5 N/A N/A
Steckler 31.6 – 158 0.3 2.1 0.8 – 3.8 0.3 – 0.7 0.0 – 0.6 1.3 1.3 N/A N/A
UL/NFPRF 4400 – 10000 1.0 7.6 4.0 – 9.1 0.7 – 1.0 Open 4.9 4.9 0.6 – 3.9 N/A
UL/NIST Vents 500 – 2000 0.9 2.4 0.7 – 2.6 0.8 – 1.6 0.2 – 0.6 1.8 2.5 1.0 – 2.3 N/A
Ulster SBI 30 – 60 0.2 Open 1.5 – 3.0 Open Open Open Open N/A 0
USCG/HAI 250 – 1000 0.3 3.0 6.0 – 24 0.6 – 1.1 0.3 – 1.0 1.7 2.3 N/A N/A
USN Hawaii 100 – 7700 0.3 – 2.5 15 0.7 – 1.3 0.1 – 0.4 Open 4.9 6.5 0 – 1.2 N/A
USN Iceland 100 – 15700 0.3 – 3.4 22 0.7 – 1.3 0.0 – 0.3 Open 2.1 3.4 0 – 1.0 N/A
Vettori Flat 1055 0.7 2.6 2.5 1.1 0.3 2.1 3.5 0.8 – 2.9 N/A
Vettori Sloped 1055 0.7 2.5 2.5 1.2 0.3 2.2 2.9 N/A N/A
VTT Large Hall 1860 – 3640 1.4 – 1.8 19 0.7 0.2 0 1.0 1.4 0 – 0.6 N/A
WTC 1970 – 3240 1.6 3.8 0.6 – 0.9 0.8 – 1.1 0.3 – 0.5 0.9 1.8 0.0 – 0.8 0.3 – 1.3

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 Table 3.42 lists a few important parameters related to the numerical resolution of the calculation.

Characteristic Fire Diameter, D∗ , is a useful length scale that incorporates the heat release rate of the fire.
 2/5
∗ Q̇
D = √ (3.33)
ρ∞ c p T∞ g

Plume Resolution Index, D∗ /δ x, is the number of grid cells of length δ x that span the characteristic diam-
eter of the fire. The greater its value, the more “resolved” are the fire dynamics.

Ceiling Height relative to Fire Diameter, H/D∗ , is the non-dimensional height of the smoke plume.

Note that the calculations performed for the various validation studies described in this Guide use a wide
range of values of the Plume Resolution Index, D∗ /δ x. There are several reasons for this. First, typical
applications of FDS often involve relatively small fires in relatively large spaces, and it is impractical to
use a very fine grid that captures the detailed fire dynamics. Second, for some applications the accuracy of
calculation is highly dependent on resolving the plume well, but for others, it is less important. For those
citing the validation studies in this Guide, it is important that both the physical and numerical parameters
are comparable to the given application.

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 Table 3.42: Summary of important numerical parameters.

Test Series D∗ (m) D∗ /δ x H/D∗

Arup Tunnel 1.8 9 3.8

ATF Corridors 0.3 – 0.7 3–7 3.4 – 8.5
Beyler Hood 0.1 – 0.2 5–8 2.1 – 3.5
Bryant Doorway 0.2 – 0.7 5 – 14 3.4 – 9.9
DelCo Trainers 0.7 – 1.0 6.9 – 10 2.3 – 3.5
FAA Cargo 0.1 5.6 12
Fleury Heat Flux 0.4 – 0.6 8 – 12 Open
FM Panels 0.2 – 0.4 12 – 19 Open
FM/SNL 0.7 7 8.5 – 8.8
Hamins Burner 0.04 – 0.5 6 Open
Harrison Plumes 0.1 – 0.2 5–7 2.8 – 4.4
Heskestad 0.4 – 44 5 – 20 Open
LLNL Enclosure 0.3 – 0.6 1–3 6.9 – 15.9
McCaffrey Plume 0.2 – 0.3 5 – 20 Open
NBS Multi-Room 0.4 4 6.2
NIST FSE 0.4 – 1.4 3.8 – 14 1.7 – 6.3
NIST/NRC 0.6 – 1.3 5 – 11 3.1 – 6.5
NIST/NRC Cabinets 0.2 – 0.7 2.2 – 6.7 3.1 – 9.5
NIST/NRC Corner 0.5 – 0.7 5.1 – 6.7 5.7 – 7.5
NIST RSE 0.3 – 0.8 12 – 32 1.3 – 3.5
NIST Smoke Alarms 0.4 – 0.6 3.8 – 6.3 3.8 – 6.3
NIST Vent Study 0.1 3.5 6.8
NRCC Facade 1.8 – 2.4 18 – 24 1.2 – 1.5
NRCC Smoke Tower 1.5 15 18.6
NRL/HAI 0.3 – 0.7 9 – 10 Open
PRISME 0.7 – 1.2 7 – 12 3.4 – 5.6
Sandia Plume 1.2 – 1.8 20 – 118 Open
SP AST 0.7 14 3.5
Steckler 0.2 – 0.4 5–9 4.8 – 9.1
UL/NFPRF 1.7 – 2.4 8 – 12 3.2 – 4.5
UL/NIST 0.7 – 1.2 7 – 12 1.9 – 3.4
Ulster SBI 0.2 – 0.3 12 – 15 Open
USCG/HAI 0.5 – 0.9 5–9 3.2 – 5.6
USN Hawaii 0.4 – 2.1 2 – 11 7.1 – 40.3
USN Iceland 0.4 – 2.8 2 – 14 7.8 – 59
Vettori Flat 1.0 12 2.8
Vettori Sloped 1.0 10 2.6
VTT Large Hall 1.2 – 1.6 5–6 12.1 – 15.8
WTC 0.9 – 1.1 9 – 11 3.5 – 4.1

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Chapter 4

Quantifying Model Uncertainty

This chapter describes a method to estimate the model uncertainty using comparisons of model predictions
with experimental measurements whose uncertainty has been quantified. The method is ideal for complex
numerical models like FDS for which a systematic analysis of sub-components is impractical, but for which
there exists a relatively large amount of experimental data with which to evaluate the accuracy of the model
predictions. If the uncertainty in the experiments can be quantified, the uncertainty in the model can then be
expressed in the form of a normal distribution whose mean and standard deviation are estimated from the
relative difference between the predicted and measured values.
This method only addresses model uncertainty. It does not account for the uncertainty associated with
the model input parameters. How the parameter uncertainty is treated depends greatly on the type of ap-
plication. Regardless of how the parameter uncertainty is calculated, the model uncertainty needs to be
addressed independently. In fact, it is incumbent on the model developers to express the uncertainty of the
model in as simple a form as possible to enable the end user to assess the impact of parameter uncertainty
and then combine the two forms of uncertainty into a final result.

4.1 Introduction
The most effective way of introducing the subject of uncertainty in fire modeling is by way of an example.
Suppose that a fire model is used to estimate the likelihood that an electrical control cable could be damaged
by a fire. It is assumed that the cable loses functionality when its surface temperature reaches 200 ◦ C, and
the model predicts that the cable temperature could reach as high as 175 ◦ C. Does this mean that there is no
chance of damage? The answer is no, because the input parameters, like the heat release rate of the fire, and
the model assumptions, like the way the cables are modeled, are uncertain. The combination of the two –
the parameter uncertainty and the model uncertainty – leave open the possibility that the cable temperature
could exceed 200 ◦ C.
This chapter addresses model uncertainty only and suggests a simple method to quantify it. While pa-
rameter uncertainty is certainly an important consideration in fire modeling, its treatment varies considerably
depending on the particular application. For example, in what is often referred to as a “bounding analysis,”
the model input parameters are chosen so as to simulate a “maximum credible” or “worst case” fire. In other
cases, mean values of the input parameters constitute a “50th percentile” design scenario. Sometimes entire
statistical distributions, rather than individual values, of the input parameters are “propagated” through the
model in a variety of ways, leading to a statistical distribution of the model output. Notarianni and Parry
survey these techniques in the SFPE Handbook [314]. Regardless of the method that is chosen for assessing
the impact of the input parameters on the model prediction, there needs to be a way of quantifying the un-
certainty of the model itself. In other words, how good is the prediction for a given set of input parameters?

149
 The issue of model uncertainty has been around as long as the models themselves. The scenario above,
for example, was considered by Siu and Apostolakis in the early 1980s [315] as part of their development of
risk models for nuclear power plants. The fire models at the time were relatively simple. In fact, many were
engineering correlations in the form of simple formulae. This made the methods for quantifying their uncer-
tainty reasonably tractable because each formula consisted of only a handful of physical parameters. Over
the past thirty years, however, both fire modeling and the corresponding methods of uncertainty analysis
have become far more complex. The current generation of computational fluid dynamics (CFD) based fire
models require such a large number of physical and numerical parameters that it is considered too cumber-
some to estimate model uncertainty by systematically assessing their combined effect on the final prediction.
The more practical approach is to compare model predictions with actual fire experiments in a validation
study, the conclusions of which typically come in the form of statements like: “The model generally over-
predicts the measured temperatures by about 10 %,” or “The model predictions are within about 20 % of
the measured heat fluxes.” This information is helpful, at the very least to demonstrate that the model is
appropriate for the given application. However, even the statement that the model over-predicts measured
temperatures by 10 % is useful not only to gain acceptance of the model but also to provide a better sense
of the model’s accuracy, and a greater level of assurance in answering the question posed above. Knowing
that the model not only predicted a temperature of 175 ◦ C, but also that the model tends to over-predict
temperatures by a certain amount, increases the confidence that the postulated fire would not cause the cable
to fail. The probability of cable failure could be quantified further via a statistical distribution like the one
shown in Fig. 4.1. The area indicated by the shaded region is the probability that the temperature will exceed
200 ◦ C, even though the model has predicted a peak temperature of only 175 ◦ C.

Figure 4.1: Plot showing a possible way of expressing the uncertainty of the model prediction.

This chapter describes a method for expressing model uncertainty by way of a distribution like the
one shown in Fig. 4.1. The procedure is not a dramatic departure from the current practice of fire model
validation in that it relies entirely on comparisons of model predictions and experimental measurements.
The advantage of the approach is that it does not demand advanced knowledge of statistics or details of
the numerical model. The parameters of the distribution shown in Fig. 4.1, namely the mean and standard
deviation, are not generated by the model user. Rather, they are reported as the results of the validation
study. The calculation of the probability of exceeding some critical threshold (i.e., the area under the curve)
is a simple table look-up or function call in data analysis software like Microsoft Excel®.

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4.2 Sources of Model Uncertainty
A deterministic fire model is based on fundamental conservation laws of mass, momentum and energy, ap-
plied either to entire compartments or smaller control volumes that make up the compartments. A CFD
model may use millions of control volumes to compute the solution of the Navier-Stokes equations. How-
ever, it does not actually solve the Navier-Stokes equations, but rather an approximate form of these equa-
tions. The approximation involves simplifying physical assumptions, like the various techniques for treating
subgrid-scale turbulence. One critical approximation is the discretization of the governing equations. For
example, the partial derivative of the density, ρ, with respect to the spatial coordinate, x, can be written in
approximate form as:
∂ρ ρi+1 − ρi−1
= + O(δ x2 ) (4.1)
∂x 2δx
where ρi is the average value of the density in the ith grid cell and δ x is the spacing between cells. The
second term on the right represents all of the terms of order δ x2 and higher in the Taylor series expansion
and are known collectively as the discretization error. These extra terms are simply dropped from the
equation set, the argument being that they become smaller and smaller with decreasing grid cell size, δ x.
The effect of these neglected terms is captured, to some extent, by the subgrid-scale turbulence model, but
that is yet another approximation of the true physics. What effect do these approximations have on the
predicted results? It is very difficult to determine based on an analysis of the discretized equations. One
possibility for estimating the magnitude of the discretization error is to perform a detailed convergence
analysis, but this still does not answer a question like, “What is the uncertainty of the model prediction of
the gas temperature at a particular location in the room at a particular point in time?”
To make matters worse, there are literally dozens of subroutines that make up a CFD-based fire model,
from its transport equations, radiation solver, solid phase heat transfer routines, pyrolysis model, empirical
mass, momentum and energy transfer routines at the wall, and so on. It has been suggested by some that
a means to quantify the model uncertainty is to combine the uncertainties of all the model components.
However, such an exercise is very difficult, especially for a CFD model, for a number of reasons. First, fire
involves a complicated interaction of gas and solid phase phenomena that are closely coupled. Second, grid
sensitivity in a CFD model or the error associated with a two-layer assumption in a zone model are dependent
on the particular fire scenario. Third, fire is an inherently transient phenomenon in which relatively small
changes in events, like a door opening or sprinkler actuation, can lead to significant changes in outcome.
Rather than attempt to decompose the model into its constituent parts and assess the uncertainty of
each, the strategy adopted here is to compare model predictions to as many experiments as possible. This
has been the traditional approach for quantifying model uncertainty in fire protection engineering because
of the relative abundance of test data. Consider, for example, the plot shown in Fig. 4.2. This is the typical
outcome of a validation study, where in this case a series of heat flux measurements are compared with
model predictions. The diagonal line indicates where the prediction and measurement agree. But because
there is uncertainty associated with each, it cannot be said that the model is perfect if its predictions agree
exactly with measurements. There needs to be a way of quantifying the uncertainties of each before any
conclusions can be drawn. Such an exercise would result in the uncertainty bars1 shown in the figure. The
horizontal bar associated with each point represents the uncertainty in the measurement itself. For example,
the heat flux gauge is subject to uncertainty due to its design and fabrication. Because the horizontal bar
represents the experimental uncertainty, it is assumed that the vertical bar represents the model uncertainty.
This is only partially true. In fact the vertical bar represents the total uncertainty of the prediction, which
is a combination of the model and parameter uncertainties. The physical input parameters, like the heat
release rate and material properties, are based on measurements that are reported in the documentation of
1 The data in Fig. 4.2 was extracted from Ref. [316]. The uncertainty bars are for demonstration only.

151
the experiment. The total experimental uncertainty is represented by all of the horizontal bar and part of the
vertical. If the experimental uncertainty can be quantified, then the model uncertainty can be obtained as a
result.

Figure 4.2: Example of a typical scatter plot of model predictions and experimental measurements.

4.3 Experimental Uncertainty

The difference between a model prediction and an experimental measurement is a combination of three
components: (1) uncertainty in the measurement of the predicted quantity, (2) uncertainty in the model in-
put parameters, and (3) uncertainty in the model physics and numerics. The first two components are related
to uncertainty in the measured input and output quantities. For example, consider the hot gas layer (HGL)
temperature. First, the thermocouple measurements used to calculate the HGL temperature have uncertainty.
Second, the measurement of the heat release rate of the fire has uncertainty, and this uncertainty affects the
predicted HGL temperature. Third, the model itself, including its physical assumptions and numerical ap-
proximations, has uncertainty. The objective of the validation study is to quantify this third component, the
model uncertainty. To do this, the first two components of uncertainty related to the experimental measure-
ments must be quantified. The combination of these two, the experimental uncertainty, is the objective of
this section.
For many of the experiments considered in this guide, the uncertainty of the measurements was not
documented. Instead, estimates of measurement uncertainty are made based on those few experiments that
do include uncertainty estimates, and this information is supplemented by engineering judgment. In the
following two subsections, each component of the experimental uncertainty is considered separately. First,
the uncertainty in the measurement of the predicted quantity of interest, like the surface temperature of the
compartment. Second, the uncertainties of the most important input parameters are propagated through
simple models to quantify their effect on the predicted quantity. Then, the uncertainties are combined via
simple quadrature to estimate the total experimental uncertainty.
Note that in this guide, all uncertainties are expressed in relative form, as a percentage. The uncertainty

152
of a measurement is a combination of the systematic uncertainty associated with the various underlying mea-
surements and assumptions; and the random uncertainty associated with the conduct of the experiment. Fol-
lowing the recommended guidelines for evaluating and expressing the uncertainty of measurements [317],
the systematic and random uncertainty values are combined via quadrature resulting in a combined relative
standard uncertainty.

4.3.1 Uncertainty of Common Fire Measurements

Because most of the experiments described in this guide have little or no information about the uncertainty
of the measurements, much of this section is based on the uncertainty analysis contained in the test report
of the NIST/NRC Experiments2 . The types of measurements described in this report are the ones most
commonly used in large scale fire experiments. They include thermocouples for gas and surface temperature
measurements, heat flux gauges, smoke and gas analyzers, and pressure sensors.

Thermocouples
Thermocouples are used to measure both gas and surface temperatures. They come in a variety of sizes
and are constructed of different types of metals. Some are shielded or aspirated to limit the influence of
thermal radiation from remote sources. In Ref. [116], Hamins et al. estimate the uncertainty of the various
thermocouple measurements. Estimates of the combined relative standard uncertainty fall in a range between
2.5 % and 7.5 %. Because it is not possible to analyze the thousands of thermocouple measurements made
in the experiments, the relative standard uncertainty applied to all thermocouple measurements is 5 %.

Heat Flux Gauges

For the NIST/NRC experiments, four types of heat flux gauges were used, some of which measured the
total heat flux, and some of which measured only the radiation heat flux. The uncertainty associated with a
heat flux measurement depends on many factors, including gauge characteristics, the calibration conditions
and accuracy, as well as the incident flux modes (convective, radiative, conductive). Typically, the reported
relative standard uncertainty of heat flux gauges varies from about 2.5 % to 5 %, with the measurement un-
certainty dominated by uncertainty in the calibration and repeatability of the measurement. Repeatability of
the various heat flux measurements in the NIST/NRC experiments was determined by examining measure-
ments by the same instruments for different pairs of repeat tests. The difference between the measurements
was about 3.5 %, on average, for both the radiative flux measurements and the total flux measurements.
For all of the experiments described in this guide, a combined relative standard uncertainty of 5 % is sug-
gested based on the measurement repeatability and calibration uncertainties reported for the NIST/NRC
experiments.

Gas Analyzers
Gas concentrations were measured in two sets of experiments conducted at NIST, the NIST/NRC and the
WTC experiments. The volume fractions of the combustion products, carbon monoxide (CO) and carbon
dioxide (CO2 ), were measured using gas sampling in conjunction with non-dispersive infrared analyzers,
while the oxygen (O2 ) volume fraction was typically measured using a paramagnetic analyzer. Gases were
extracted through stainless steel or other types of lines and were pumped from the compartment and passed
2 Note that the uncertainties in Ref. [116] are reported in the form of 95 % confidence intervals, or “2-sigma”. This is referred

to as the expanded uncertainty with a coverage factor of 2. To avoid confusion, in this report the uncertainty of all measurements
and model predictions shall be reported in terms of a relative standard uncertainty; that is, the estimated standard deviation of the
measured or predicted quantity.

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through the analyzers. For several reasons, water in the sample was typically filtered, so the reported results
are denoted as “dry”. Analyzers were calibrated through the use of standard gas mixtures, with low relative
uncertainties. Problems with the technique may involve instrument drift, analyzer response, incomplete and
partial drying of sample gases, or (in the case when drying is not used) undetermined amounts of water
vapor in the oxygen cell, which result in inaccurate readings.
For the NIST/NRC experiments, the species were measured in both the upper and lower layers. The
relative standard uncertainty in the measured values was about 1.5 % for both the O2 depletion and the CO2
measurements. The largest contributors were the uncertainty in the composition of the calibration gas and
the possibility of an undetermined amount of water vapor in the sample. The difference between the repeat
measurements was about 1 %, on average, for both the O2 depletion and the CO2 measurements. Therefore,
the combined relative standard uncertainty is estimated to be 2 % for measurements of both the O2 decrease
and the CO2 increase.

Smoke Light Extinction Calculations

The smoke concentration was measured in the NIST/NRC experiments using laser transmission at 632.8 nm.
The reported mass concentration of smoke, m000
s , was computed using the following expression:

ln(I0 /I)
m000
s = (4.2)
φs L
where L is the path length, I and I0 are the laser signal and reference signal, respectively, and φs is the
specific extinction coefficient, which has a nearly universal value of 8.7 m2 /g ± 5 % for hydrocarbons [318].
The systematic relative standard uncertainty of this measurement was reported to be 9 % in Ref. [116], with
the dominant contribution to the uncertainty coming from drift in the laser measurement. Repeatability of
the smoke measurement was investigated for the NIST/NRC experiments. The mean difference between
replicate measurements was about 11 %. Therefore, a combined relative standard uncertainty of 14 % is
suggested.

Pressure Gauges
The uncertainty in pressure measurements is typically small, but depends on the sensor type and calibration.
In the NIST/NRC experiments, the differential pressure gauge used was temperature compensated, highly
linear, and very stable. The estimated relative standard uncertainty is 0.5 %.

Bi-Directional Probes
Gas velocity is typically measured in fire experiments using bi-directional probes. These devices work like
pitot tubes but have much larger openings. Bryant [143] estimates that the standard relative uncertainty of
this measurement, assuming that the probe is aligned well with the flow, is approximately 7 %.

Oxygen Consumption Calorimeters

For all of the experiments described in this guide, the heat release rate (HRR) is determined either via
oxygen consumption calorimetry or via the mass loss rate multiplied by the fuel heat of combustion. The
accuracy of each method varies roughly between 2.5 %, where the fire is small and the fuel stoichiometry
is well understood, and 13 %, where the fire is large or the smoke is not completely captured or the fuel
stoichiometry is not well understood. In Ref. [116], the relative standard uncertainty of a 2 MW heptane
spray fire is estimated to be 7.5 %. It is assumed that the uncertainty of the HRR for the other experiments
is comparable.

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Device Activation or Failure Time
Fire models are often used to predict the time to activation of devices like sprinklers and smoke detectors,
and time to failure of critical equipment like electrical cables. Measuring activation or failure times in
experiments is fairly precise, and, thus, the uncertainty of such measurements is essentially zero. Almost all
of the uncertainty associated with these times is in the measurement or characterization of the mechanism
of activation or failure. For example, the activation of a sprinkler is based on its measured RTI (Response
Time Index) and activation temperature. Estimates of the uncertainty of these parameters are discussed in
the next section.

4.3.2 Propagation of Input Parameter Uncertainty

Empirical correlations for basic fire phenomena provide a convenient way to assess the propagation of the
uncertainty of the model input parameters. The more complex fire models may require dozens of physical
and numerical input parameters for a given fire scenario. However, only a few of these parameters, when
varied over their plausible range of values, significantly impact the results. For example, the thermal con-
ductivity of the compartment walls does not significantly affect a predicted cable surface temperature, but
the HRR of the fire does. The relatively simple empirical models identify the key parameters that impact the
predicted quantity, and they provide the means to quantify the functional relationship between model inputs
and outputs.

Gas and Surface Temperatures

According to the McCaffrey, Quintiere, and Harkleroad (MQH) correlation, the HGL temperature rise,
T − T0 , in compartment fire is proportional to the HRR, Q̇, raised to the two-thirds power:
2
T − T0 = C Q̇ 3 (4.3)

The constant, C, involves a number of geometric and thermo-physical parameters that are unique to the
given fire scenario. By way of differentials, this empirical relationship can be expressed in the form:

∆T 2 ∆Q̇
≈ (4.4)
T − T0 3 Q̇

This is a simple formula with which one can readily estimate the relative change in the temperature rise due
to the relative change in the HRR. The uncertainty in the HRR of the validation experiments was estimated
to be 7.5 %. Equation (4.4) indicates that a 7.5 % increase in the HRR should lead to a 5 % increase in the
HGL temperature.

HGL Depth
Most of the experiments for which the HGL depth was predicted had at least one open door or window that
effectively determined the steady-state HGL depth. Unlike all of the other predicted quantities, the HGL
depth is relatively insensitive to the fire’s HRR. It is largely determined by the height of the opening, and for
this reason there is essentially no uncertainty associated with the model inputs that affect the layer depth.

Gas and Smoke Concentration

Most fire models assume that combustion product gases and soot, once beyond the flaming region of the
fire, are passively transported throughout the compartment. The major products of combustion, like CO2

155
and water vapor, plus the major reactant, O2 , are generated, or consumed, in direct proportion to the burning
rate of the fuel, which is directly proportional to the HRR. The mass fraction of any species in the HGL is
directly proportional to the product of its yield and the HRR.
For many of the experiments described in this guide, the yields of the major product gases like O2 and
CO2 from pure fuels like methane gas and heptane liquid are known from the basic stoichiometry to a high
level of accuracy. Thus, the relative uncertainty in the concentration of major products gases is the same
as that of the HRR, 7.5 %. The uncertainty in the smoke concentration, however, is a combination of the
uncertainty of the HRR and the soot yield. The relative standard uncertainty of the soot yield of heptane
reported in Ref. [116] is 11 %. The uncertainties for HRR and soot yield are combined via quadrature and
the resulting expanded relative uncertainty is 13 %.

Pressure
In a closed, ventilated compartment, the average pressure, p, is governed by the following equation:
dp γ − 1
γp

= Q̇ − Q̇loss + V̇ − V̇leak (4.5)
dt V V
where γ is the ratio of specific heats (about 1.4), V is the compartment volume, Q̇ is the HRR, Q̇loss is the
sum of all heat losses to the walls, V̇ is the net ventilation rate into the compartment, and V̇leak is the leakage
rate out of the compartment. The leakage rate is a function of the compartment over-pressure:
s
2(p − p∞ )
V̇leak = Aleak (4.6)
ρ∞

The maximum compartment pressure is achieved when the pressure rise term in Eq. (4.5) is set to zero.
Rearranging terms yields an estimate for the maximum pressure:

!2
ρ∞ (γ − 1) Q̇ − Q̇loss + γ p∞V̇
(p − p∞ )max ≈ (4.7)
2 γ p∞ Aleak

The test report for the NIST/NRC experiments contains estimates of the uncertainty in the HRR, ventilation
rate and leakage area. To calculate the uncertainty in the maximum pressure rise resulting from the uncer-
tainty in these three parameters, the pressure rise estimate in Eq. (4.7) was calculated using 1000 randomly
selected sets of values of the HRR, ventilation rate, and leakage area. These parameters were assumed to be
randomly distributed with mean values of 1000 kW, 1 m3 /s, and 0.06 m2 and relative standard uncertainties
of 75 kW, 0.1 m3 /s, and 0.0021 m2 . The mean values of these parameters were typical of the NIST/NRC ex-
periments, and the uncertainties were reported in the test report. The resulting relative standard uncertainty
in the pressure of a closed compartment due to the uncertainty in the HRR, ventilation rate, and leakage area
is 21 %.
For an open compartment, in which the ventilation rate and leakage area have much less influence, the
relative standard uncertainty in the pressure is twice that of the HRR, 15 %.

Velocity
Fire-induced velocities, as in a plume or ceiling jet, are roughtly proportional to the HRR to the 1/3
power [319]. Given that the relative standard uncertainty in the HRR is 7.5 %, the uncertainty in gas velocity
due to the propagated effect of the uncertainty in the HRR is 2.5 %.

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Heat Flux
The heat flux to a target or wall is a combination of direct thermal radiation from the fire and convective and
thermal radiation from the HGL. If the heat flux is predominantly due to the thermal radiation of the fire, it
can be approximated using the point source radiation model:

χr Q̇
q̇00 = (4.8)
4πr2
where χr is the radiative fraction, Q̇ is the HRR, and r is the distance from the fire. The relative standard
uncertainty of the heat flux is a combination of the uncertainty in the radiative fraction and the HRR:

δ q̇00 δ Q̇ δ χr
≈ + (4.9)
q̇00 Q̇ χr

Reference [116] estimates the relative standard uncertainty of the radiative fraction of a heptane pool fire to
be 8 %. Combined with the 7.5 % uncertainty in the HRR (via quadrature) yields a 11 % relative standard
uncertainty in the heat flux directly from a fire.
The heat flux to a cold surface due to the exposure to hot gases and not necessarily the fire itself is the
sum of radiative and convective components:

q̇00 = εσ Tgas
4
− T∞4 + h Tgas − T∞



(4.10)

where ε is the surface emissivity, σ is the Stefan-Boltzmann constant, Tgas is the gas temperature, T∞ is
the ambient temperature, and h is the convective heat transfer coefficient. From the discussion above, the
relative standard uncertainty in the gas temperature rise above ambient is 5 % resulting from an estimated
uncertainty in the HRR of 7.5 %. There is also uncertainty in the convective heat transfer coefficient, but
this is attributed to the model, not the experimental measurements. Thus, the uncertainty in the heat flux
is largely a function of the uncertainty in the gas temperature which is largely a function of the HRR. As
was done for the pressure, 1000 randomly selected values of gas temperature with a mean of 300 ◦ C above
ambient and an relative uncertainty of 5 % resulted in a corresponding uncertainty of 9 % in the heat flux.
In actual compartment fires, the heat flux to surfaces is a combination of direct thermal radiation from
the fire and indirect radiation and convection from the hot gases. Given that the calculation of the former
incurs a 11 % relative standard uncertainty and the latter 9 %, to simplify the analyses, a value of 10 % is
used for all heat flux predictions.

Sprinkler Activation Time

The uncertainty in the reported sprinkler activation times is due mainly to uncertainties in the measured
HRR, RTI (Response Time Index), and activation temperature. There is a negligible uncertainty in the
measured activation time itself, which is typically determined with a pressure transducer. To determine the
effect of the uncertainties in the HRR, RTI and activation temperature, consider the ordinary differential
equation governing the temperature, Tlink , of a conventional glass bulb of fusible link sprinkler:
√
dTlink u

= Tgas − Tlink (4.11)
dt RTI
Here, u and Tgas are the velocity and the temperature of the ceiling jet, respectively. According to Alpert’s
ceiling jet correlation [319], the ceiling jet temperature and velocity are proportional to the HRR raised to
the power of 2/3 and 1/3, respectively. Given the relative standard uncertainty in the HRR of 7.5 %, the
uncertainty in the ceiling jet temperature and velocity are, thus, 5 % and 2.5 %, respectively. As for the RTI

157
and activation temperature, these values are measured experimentally and the uncertainties differ depending
on the test procedure. Vettori [77] reports that the RTI of the sprinklers used in his experiments is 56 (m·s)1/2
with a relative standard uncertainty of 11 %, and that the activation temperature is 68 ◦ C ± 2.4 ◦ C. This latter
uncertainty estimate is assumed to represent one standard deviation. Assuming an ambient temperature of
approximately 20 ◦ C, the relative standard uncertainty in the activation temperature is assumed to be 5 %.
To determine how the uncertainties in the measured parameters affect the sprinkler activation time,
Eq. (4.11) was integrated 1000 times using random selections of the ceiling jet temperature and velocity,
RTI, and activation temperature. The mean ceiling jet temperature was increased linearly at rates varying
from 0.5 ◦ C/s to 2 ◦ C/s, consistent with the variety of growth rates measured by Vettori. The mean ceiling
jet velocity was assumed to be 1 m/s. This procedure yielded a relative standard uncertainty in the sprinkler
activation time of 6 %.
The activation times recorded by Vettori include two or three replicates for each configuration. The
standard deviation of the 45 measured activation times, normalized by the mean of each set of replicates,
was 6 %, consistent with the result obtained above.

Number of Activated Sprinklers

Alpert’s ceiling jet correlation [319] predicts the temperature rise, T − T∞ (◦ C), as a function of the HRR, Q̇
(kW), and radial distance, r (m), from the plume centerline:

Q̇2/3 /H 5/3
T − T∞ = 5.38 ; r/H > 0.18 (4.12)
(r/H)2/3

For a given ceiling height, H, the radial extent of the sprinkler activation temperature is directly propor-
tional to Q̇. The number of activated sprinklers is roughly proportional to the square of this radial distance,
assuming the sprinklers are uniformly spaced on a rectangular grid. Thus, the uncertainty in the number of
activated sprinklers due to the uncertainty in the HRR is 15 %.

Electrical Cable Failure Time

The uncertainty in the reported cable failure times is due mainly to uncertainties in the measured exposing
temperature, cable diameter, and jacket thickness. The uncertainty in the measured mass per unit length
of the cable is assumed to be negligible. To determine the uncertainty in the cable failure time, the heat
conduction equation in the THIEF model was solved numerically using 10,000 random selections of the ex-
posing temperature, cable diameter, and jacket thickness. The cable diameter was varied from 16.25 mm to
16.35 mm, and the jacket thickness was varied from 1.45 mm to 1.55 mm. The uncertainty in the exposing
temperature of the cylindrical heater was assumed to be 2.5 %, the lower bound of the range of uncer-
tainty estimates for thermocouple measurements. The mass per unit length of the cable was assumed to be
0.529 kg/m, and the ambient temperature was assumed to be 20 ◦ C. This procedure yielded an estimated
relative standard uncertainty in the cable failure time of 12 %.

Smoke Detector Activation Time

There is a single set of experiments with which to evaluate model predictions of smoke detector activation
time, the NIST Home Smoke Alarm Experiments. The test report [241] does not include detailed informa-
tion about the alarm mechanism within the various smoke detectors used in the experiments. Thus, from
a modeling standpoint, these devices are “black boxes” and their activation can only be discerned from a
variety of empirical techniques, the most popular of which is to assume that the smoke detector behaves like
a sprinkler or heat detector whose activation is governed by Eq. (4.11) with a low activation temperature and

158
RTI. Bukowski and Averill [320] suggest an activation temperature of 5 ◦ C to be typical of many residential
smoke alarms. The propagated uncertainty of this estimate is difficult to determine because temperature
rise is not particularly well-correlated with smoke concentration within the sensing chamber of the detector.
Nevertheless, the relative standard deviation of the normalized activation times for the NIST Home Smoke
Alarm Experiments is 34 %. Without more detailed information about the activation criteria, the models
cannot predict the activation times more accurately than this value.

4.3.3 Summary of Experimental Uncertainty Estimates

Table 4.1 summarizes the estimated uncertainties of the major output quantities. The right-most column in
the table represents the total experimental uncertainty, denoted as σeE , a combination of the uncertainty in
the measurement of the output quantity itself, along with the propagated uncertainties of the key measured
input quantities. This total experimental uncertainty is obtained by taking the square root of the sum of
the squares of the measurement and propagation uncertainties that have been estimated in the previous two
sections. It is assumed that the two forms of uncertainty are independent.

Table 4.1: Summary of uncertainty estimates. All values are expressed in the form of a standard relative
uncertainty.

Output Measurement Propagated Input Combined

Quantity Uncertainty Uncertainty Uncertainty, σeE
Gas and Solid Temperatures 0.05 0.05 0.07
HGL Depth 0.05 0.00 0.05
Gas Concentrations 0.02 0.08 0.08
Smoke Concentration 0.14 0.13 0.19
Pressure, Closed Compartment 0.01 0.21 0.21
Pressure, Open Compartment 0.01 0.15 0.15
Velocity 0.07 0.03 0.08
Heat Flux 0.05 0.10 0.11
No. Activated Sprinklers 0.00 0.15 0.15
Sprinkler Activation Time 0.00 0.06 0.06
Cable Failure Time 0.00 0.12 0.12
Smoke Alarm Activation Time 0.00 0.34 0.34

4.4 Calculating Model Uncertainty

This section describes a method for calculating the model uncertainty [321]. Specifically, this entails devel-
oping formulae for the mean and standard deviation of a statistical distribution like the one shown in Fig. 4.1.
These formulae are functions solely of the model predictions and the experimental measurements against
which the model is compared. The objective is to characterize the performance of the model in predicting
a given quantity of interest (e.g., the hot gas layer temperature) with two parameters; one that expresses the
tendency for the model to under or over-predict the true value of the quantity and one that expresses the
degree of scatter about the true value.

159
 The predicted and measured values of the quantity of interest are obtained from one or more validation
studies. Figure 4.3 is a typical example of a comparison of model and measurement. Given that usually
dozens of such measurements are made during each experiment, and potentially dozens of experiments are
conducted as part of a test series, hundreds of such plots can be produced for any given quantity of interest.
Usually, the data is condensed into a more tractable form by way of a single metric with which to compare

Figure 4.3: Example of a typical time history comparison of model prediction and experimental measurement.

the two curves, like the ones shown in Fig. 4.3. Peacock et al. [322] discuss various possible metrics.
The metric most often used in the FDS validation process is the difference between the peak values of the
time-averaged predicted and measured time histories. Thus, for each measurement point, i, there is a pair
of Experimental and Modeled values, (Ei , Mi ), where i ranges from 1 to n and both Ei and Mi are positive
numbers expressing the greatest rise in the value of the measured/predicted quantity above its ambient. Here,
n is the total number of measurement points of a particular quantity of interest from all the experiments.
As mentioned above, measurements from full-scale fire experiments often lack uncertainty estimates. In
cases where the uncertainty is reported, it is usually expressed as either a standard deviation or confidence
interval about the measured value. In other words, there is rarely a reported systematic bias in the mea-
surement because if a bias can be quantified, the reported values are adjusted accordingly. For this reason,
assume that a given experimental measurement, Ei , is normally distributed about the “true” value, θi , and
there is no systematic bias:
E | θ ∼ N(θ , σE2 ) (4.13)
The notation3 E | θ means that E is conditional on a particular value of θ . This is the usual way of defining a
likelihood function. It is convenient to use the so-called delta method4 to obtain the approximate distribution
eE2
 
σ 2
ln E | θ ∼ N ln θ − , σE
e (4.14)
2
The purpose of applying the natural log to the random variable is so that its variance can be expressed in
eE = σE /θ . This is the way that experimental uncertainties are reported.
terms of the relative uncertainty, σ
3 Note that the subscript, i, has been dropped merely to reduce the notational clutter.
4 Given the random variable X ∼ N(µ, σ 2 ), the delta method [323] provides a way to estimate the distribution of a function of
X:  
g(X) ∼ N g(µ) + g00 (µ) σ 2 /2 , (g0 (µ) σ )2

160
In addition, the results of past validation exercises, when plotted as shown in Fig. 4.2, form a wedge-shaped
pattern that suggests that the difference between predicted and measured values is roughly proportional to
the magnitude of the measured value.
It cannot be assumed, as in the case of the experimental measurements, that the model predictions have
no systematic bias. Instead, it is assumed that the model predictions are normally distributed about the true
values multiplied by a bias factor, δ :
2


M | θ ∼ N δ θ , σM (4.15)
The standard deviation, σM , and the bias factor, δ , represent the model uncertainty. Again, the delta method
renders a distribution for ln M whose parameters can be expressed in terms of a relative standard deviation:
2
 
σeM 2 σM
ln M | θ ∼ N ln δ + ln θ − , σeM ; σeM = (4.16)
2 δθ

Combining Eq. (4.14) with Eq. (4.16) yields:

2 σeE2
 
σ
eM 2 2
ln M − ln E = ln(M/E) ∼ N ln δ − + ,σ
eM + σeE (4.17)
2 2

To estimate the mean and standard deviation of the distribution5 , first define:
n
1
ln(M/E) = ∑ ln(Mi /Ei ) (4.18)
n i=1

The least squares estimate of the standard deviation of the combined distribution is defined as:

2 1 n h i2
σeM eE2 ≈
+σ ∑ ln(Mi /Ei ) − ln(M/E) (4.19)
n − 1 i=1

Recall that σ
eE is known and the expression on the right can be evaluated using the pairs of measured and
predicted values. Equation (4.19) imposes a constraint on the value of the experimental uncertainty, σeE . A
further constraint is that σeM cannot be less than σeE because it is not possible to demonstrate that the model
is more accurate than the measurements against which it is compared. Combining the two constraints leads
to:
2 1  
σE < Var ln(M/E)
e (4.20)
2
An estimate of δ can be found using the mean of the distribution:
2 σeE2
 
σeM
δ ≈ exp ln(M/E) + − (4.21)
2 2

Taking the assumed normal distribution of the model prediction, M, in Eq. (4.15) and using a Bayesian
argument6 with a non-informative prior for θ , the posterior distribution can be expressed:
2


δ θ | M ∼ N M , σM (4.22)
5 The assumption that ln(M/E) is normally distributed has been tested for each quantity of interest discussed in the chapters

ahead. The results are shown in Section 16.2.

6 The form of Bayes theorem used here states that the posterior distribution is the product of the prior distribution and the
R
likelihood function, normalized by their integral: f (θ |M) = p(θ ) f (M|θ )/ p(θ ) f (M|θ ) dθ . A constant prior is also known as a
Jeffreys prior [324].

161
The assumption of a non-informative prior implies that there is not sufficient information about the prior dis-
tribution (i.e., the true value) of θ to assume anything other than a uniform7 distribution. This is equivalent
to saying that the modeler has not biased the model input parameters to compensate for a known bias in the
model output. For example, if a particular model has been shown to over-predict compartment temperature,
and the modeler has reduced the specified heat release rate to better estimate the true temperature, then it
can no longer be assumed that the prior distribution of the true temperature is uniform. Still another way to
look at this is by analogy to target shooting. Suppose a particular rifle has a manufacturers defect such that,
on average, it shoots 10 cm to the left of the target. It must be assumed that any given shot by a marksman
without this knowledge is going to strike 10 cm to the left of the intended target. However, if the marksman
knows of the defect, he or she will probably aim 10 cm to the right of the intended target to compensate for
the defect. If that is the case, it can no longer be assumed that the intended target was 10 cm to the right of
the bullet hole.
The final step in the derivation is to rewrite Eq. (4.22) as:
 2 !
M 2 M
θ |M∼N , σeM (4.23)
δ δ

This formula has been obtained8 by dividing by the bias factor, δ , in Eq. (4.22). To summarize, given a
model prediction, M, of a particular quantity of interest (e.g., a cable temperature), the true (but unknown)
value of this quantity is normally distributed. The mean value and variance of this normal distribution are
based solely on comparisons of model predictions with past experiments that are similar to the particular
fire scenario being analyzed. The performance of the model is quantified by the estimators of the param-
eters, δ and σeM , which have been corrected to account for uncertainties associated with the experimental
measurements.
When computing the relative error between measured and predicted values, an additional step is per-
formed to ensure that the bias factor, δ , is not skewed by a large number of data points at any particular
region in the scatter plot. The approach used for this procedure is called a regressogram, i.e., a bin-smoothed
estimator function [325]. This approach accounts for cases in which small measured values are compared
to small predicted values, which can result in a large relative error. In these cases, the calculated bias factor
might not be representative of the overall model bias, especially for larger measured and predicted values.
Alternatively, a regressogram treats the average values throughout the scatter plot equally by subdividing
the scatter plot into bins and normalizing each bin by the number of local data points. The regressogram
estimator function is implemented as follows. For each scatter plot, the x-axis is subdivided into 10 equally
spaced bins. Each bin is assigned a weight that is inversely proportional to the number of points in the bin;
a bin with more points is assigned a smaller weight, and a bin with fewer points is assigned a larger weight.
Finally, when the relative error is calculated, each bin is multiplied by its respective bin weight.

4.5 Example
This section describes how to make use of Eq. (4.23). Referring to the sample problem given above, suppose
a fire model is being used to estimate the likelihood that electrical control cables could be damaged due to
a fire in a compartment. Damage is assumed to occur when the surface temperature of any cable reaches
200 ◦ C. What is the likelihood that the cables would be damaged if the model predicts that the maximum
surface temperature of the cables is 175 ◦ C. Assuming that the input parameters are not in question, the
following procedure is suggested:
7A uniform distribution means that for any two equally sized intervals of the real line, there is an equal likelihood that the
random variable takes a value in one of them.
8 Note that if X ∼ N(µ, σ 2 ), then cX ∼ N(cµ, (cσ )2 ).

162
 1. Assemble a collection of model predictions, Mi , and experimental measurements, Ei , from past exper-
iments involving objects with similar thermal characteristics as the cables in question. How “similar”
the experiment is to the hypothetical scenario under study can be quantified by way of various param-
eters, like the thermal inertia of the object, the size of the fire, the size of the compartment, and so on.
Obtain estimates of the experimental uncertainty from those who conducted the experiments or follow
the procedure outlined by Hamins [316]. Express the experimental uncertainty in relative terms, σ eE .
2. Calculate the bias factor, δ , and relative standard deviation, σ̃M , from Eqs. (4.21) and (4.19), respec-
tively.
Consider the distribution, Eq. (4.23), of the “true” temperature, θ , shown graphically in Fig. 4.1. The
vertical lines indicate the “critical” temperature at which damage is assumed to occur (Tc = 200 ◦ C), and
the temperature predicted by the model (175 ◦ C). Given an ambient temperature of 20 ◦ C, the predicted
temperature rise, M, is 155 ◦ C. The mean and standard deviation in Eq. (4.23) are calculated:
M 155 M 155
µ = 20 + = 20 + = 157 ◦ C ; σ = σ eM = 0.20 × = 27 ◦ C (4.24)
δ 1.13 δ 1.13
respectively. The shaded area beneath the bell curve is the probability that the “true” temperature can exceed
the critical value, Tc = 200 ◦ C, which can be expressed via the complimentary error function:
   
1 Tc − µ 1 200 − 157
P(T > Tc ) = erfc √ = erfc √ ≈ 0.06 (4.25)
2 σ 2 2 27 2
This means that there is a 6 % chance that the cables could become damaged, assuming that the model’s
input parameters are not subject to uncertainty.

4.6 Additional Considerations

Keep in mind that for any fire experiment, FDS might predict a particular quantity accurately (within the
experimental uncertainty bounds, for example), but another quantity less accurately. For example, in the a
series of 15 full-scale fire experiments conducted at NIST in 2003, sponsored by the U.S. Nuclear Regulatory
Commission, the average hot gas layer (HGL) temperature predictions were nearly within the accuracy of the
measurements themselves, yet the smoke concentration predictions differed from the measurements by as
much as a factor of 3. Why? Consider the following issues associated with various types of measurements:
• Is the measurement taken at a single point, or averaged over many points? In the example above, the
HGL temperature is an average of many thermocouple measurements, whereas the smoke concentration
is based on the extinction of laser light over a short length span. Model error tends to be reduced by
the averaging process, plus most fire models, including FDS, are based on global mass and energy
conservation laws that are expressed as spatial averages.
• Is the measured quantity time-averaged or instantaneous? For example, a surface temperature prediction
is less prone to error in comparison to a heat flux prediction because the former is, in some sense, a time-
integral of the latter.
• In the case of a point measurement, how close to the fire is it? The terms “near-field” and “far-field” are
used throughout this Guide to describe the relative distance from the fire. In general, predictions of near-
field phenomena are more prone to error than far-field. There are exceptions, however. For example, a
prediction of the temperature directly within the flaming region may be more accurate than that made
just a fire diameter away because of the fact that temperatures tend to stabilize at about 1000 ◦ C within
the fire itself, but then rapidly decrease away from the flames. Less accurate predictions typically occur
in regions of steep gradients (rapid changes, both in space and time).

163
Chapter 5

HGL Temperature and Depth

FDS, like any CFD-based fire model, does not perform a direct calculation of the HGL temperature or
height. These are constructs unique to two-zone models. Nevertheless, FDS does make predictions of gas
temperature at the same locations as the thermocouples in the experiments, and these values can be reduced
in the same manner as the experimental measurements to produce an “average” HGL temperature and height.
Regardless of the validity of the reduction method, the FDS predictions of the HGL temperature and height
ought to be representative of the accuracy of its predictions of the individual thermocouple measurements
that are used in the HGL reduction. The temperature measurements from the experiments reported in this
chapter are used to compute an HGL temperature and height with which to compare to FDS. The same layer
reduction method, described in the next section, is used for all the data presented in this chapter.

5.1 HGL Reduction Method

Fire protection engineers often need to estimate the location of the interface between the hot, smoke-laden
upper layer and the cooler lower layer in a burning compartment. Relatively simple fire models, often re-
ferred to as two-zone models, compute this quantity directly, along with the average temperature of the upper
and lower layers. In a CFD-based fire model like FDS, there are not two distinct zones, but rather a con-
tinuous profile of temperature. Nevertheless, there are methods that have been developed to estimate layer
height and average temperatures from a continuous vertical profile of temperature. One such method [326]
is as follows: Consider a continuous function T (z) defining temperature T as a function of height above the
floor z, where z = 0 is the floor and z = H is the ceiling. Define Tu as the upper layer temperature, T` as the
lower layer temperature, and zint as the interface height. Compute the quantities:
Z H
(H − zint ) Tu + zint T` = T (z) dz = I1
0
Z H
1 1 1
(H − zint ) + zint = dz = I2
Tu T` 0 T (z)
Solve for zint :
T` (I1 I2 − H 2 )
zint = (5.1)
I1 + I2 T`2 − 2 T` H
Let T` be the temperature in the lowest mesh cell and, using Simpson’s Rule, perform the numerical integra-
tion of I1 and I2 . Tu is defined as the average upper layer temperature via
Z H
(H − zint ) Tu = T (z) dz (5.2)
zint
Further discussion of similar procedures can be found in Ref. [327].

165
5.2 ATF Corridors
The ATF Corridors experiments consisted of two corridors one on top of the other and connected by a
stairwell. HGL temperature and depth reductions were carried out using three arrays of thermocouples in
the lower corridor (Trees A, B, and C) and two arrays in the upper corridor (Trees G and H).
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Level 1 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Level 1
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Level 1 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Level 1
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 2.5
ATF Corridors, 240 kW, Level 1 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 240 kW, Level 1
250
2

200
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

150
1
100

0.5
50 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.1: ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, first floor, 50 kW, 100 kW, 240 kW.

166
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 2.5
ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Level 1 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Level 1
250
2

200
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
150
1
100

0.5
50 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Level 1 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Level 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Level 1 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Level 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.2: ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, first floor, 250 kW, 500 kW, mixed.

167
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Level 2 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Level 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Level 2 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Level 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, 240 kW, Level 2 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 240 kW, Level 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.3: ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, second floor, 50 kW, 100 kW, 240 kW.

168
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Level 2 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Level 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Level 2 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Level 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Level 2 HGL Height, ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Level 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.4: ATF Corridors, HGL temperature and height, second floor, 250 kW, 500 kW, mixed.

169
5.3 CSTB Tunnel
The CSTB Tunnel experiments include thermocouple measurements at various locations in a small-scale
tunnel equipped with a water mist system. Two experiments (Tests 2 and 27) are simulated; the former with
no mist activation and the latter with activation after 5 min. The tunnel is approximately 43 m long and the
fire is located 17.5 m from the upstream opening.
On the following pages, thermocouple measurements at downwind distances of 4 m, 8 m, 12 m, and
24 m are compared to the predicted values. For a given label, say T+2411, the T denotes Temperature, the
+24 means 24 m downwind of the fire, and the final two digits denote the particular thermocouple within an
array at that location. The chosen TCs are located along the vertical centerline.

170
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 2
600

500
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+0410)
Exp (T+0412)
400
Exp (T+0414)
FDS (Tp0410)
300 FDS (Tp0412)
FDS (Tp0414)
200

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 2
400
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+0810)
300 Exp (T+0812)
Exp (T+0814)
FDS (Tp0810)
200 FDS (Tp0812)
FDS (Tp0814)

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 2

300 Exp (T+1210)

Exp (T+1212)
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+1214)
Exp (T+1216)
200 FDS (Tp1210)
FDS (Tp1212)
FDS (Tp1214)
FDS (Tp1216)
100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 2
250
Exp (T+2410)
200 Exp (T+2412)
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+2414)
Exp (T+2416)
150 FDS (Tp2410)
FDS (Tp2412)
100 FDS (Tp2414)
FDS (Tp2416)

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

Figure 5.5: CSTB Tunnel, Test 2, temperatures at 4, 8, 12 and 24 m downstream of fire.

171
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 27
400
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+0410)
300 Exp (T+0412)
Exp (T+0414)
FDS (Tp0410)
200 FDS (Tp0412)
FDS (Tp0414)

100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 27

300
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+0811)
Exp (T+0812)
Exp (T+0814)
200 FDS (Tp0811)
FDS (Tp0812)
FDS (Tp0814)
100

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 27
250
Exp (T+1210)
200 Exp (T+1212)
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+1214)
Exp (T+1216)
150 FDS (Tp1210)
FDS (Tp1212)
100 FDS (Tp1214)
FDS (Tp1216)

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200
Temperature, CSTB Tunnel Test 27

150 Exp (T+2411)

Exp (T+2413)
Temperature (°C)

Exp (T+2414)
Exp (T+2416)
100 FDS (Tp2411)
FDS (Tp2413)
FDS (Tp2414)
FDS (Tp2416)
50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

Figure 5.6: CSTB Tunnel, Test 27, temperatures at 4, 8, 12 and 24 m downstream of fire.

172
5.4 DelCo Trainers
The DelCo Trainer experiments were conducted in two different structures. Tests 2-6 were conducted in a
single level structure consisting of three rooms. Rooms 1 and 3 had two thermocouple trees and Room 2
had one. Tests 22-25 were conducted in a two level structure. Floors 1 and 2 each had three thermocouple
arrays. See Section 3.17 for their exact locations.

173
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 2, Room 1 HGL Height, Test 2, Room 1
600
2
500
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
400

300 1
200
0.5
100 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 2, Room 2 HGL Height, Test 2, Room 2
400 2
Temperature (°C)

300 1.5
Height (m)

200 1

100 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 2, Room 3 HGL Height, Test 2, Room 3
250
2

200
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

150
1
100

0.5
50 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.7: DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 2.

174
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 3, Room 1 HGL Height, Test 3, Room 1
600
2
500
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
400

300 1
200
0.5
100 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 3, Room 2 HGL Height, Test 3, Room 2
400 2
Temperature (°C)

300 1.5
Height (m)

200 1

100 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 3, Room 3 HGL Height, Test 3, Room 3
250
2

200
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

150
1
100

0.5
50 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.8: DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 3.

175
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 4, Room 1 HGL Height, Test 4, Room 1
600
2
500
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
400

300 1
200
0.5
100 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 4, Room 2 HGL Height, Test 4, Room 2
400 2
Temperature (°C)

300 1.5
Height (m)

200 1

100 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 4, Room 3 HGL Height, Test 4, Room 3
250
2

200
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

150
1
100

0.5
50 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.9: DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 4.

176
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 5, Room 1 HGL Height, Test 5, Room 1
600
2
500
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
400

300 1
200
0.5
100 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 5, Room 2 HGL Height, Test 5, Room 2
400 2
Temperature (°C)

300 1.5
Height (m)

200 1

100 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 5, Room 3 HGL Height, Test 5, Room 3
250
2

200
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

150
1
100

0.5
50 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.10: DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 5.

177
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 6, Room 1 HGL Height, Test 6, Room 1
600
2
500
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
400

300 1
200
0.5
100 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 6, Room 2 HGL Height, Test 6, Room 2
400 2
Temperature (°C)

300 1.5
Height (m)

200 1

100 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 6, Room 3 HGL Height, Test 6, Room 3
250
2

200
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

150
1
100

0.5
50 Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.11: DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature and Height, Test 6.

178
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 22, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 22, Floor 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 22, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 22, Floor 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 23, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 23, Floor 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 23, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 23, Floor 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.12: DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature, Tests 22-23.

179
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 24, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 24, Floor 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 24, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 24, Floor 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 25, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 25, Floor 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
HGL Temperature, Test 25, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 25, Floor 2
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.13: DelCo Trainers, HGL Temperature, Tests 24-25.

180
5.5 FM/SNL Test Series
Nineteen tests from the FM/SNL test series were selected for comparison. The HGL temperature and height
are calculated using the standard method. The thermocouple arrays that were located in Sectors 1, 2 and
3 are averaged (with an equal weighting for each) for all tests except Tests 21 and 22. For these tests,
only Sectors 1 and 3 are used, as Sector 2 falls within the smoke plume. Also, for all but the gas burner
experiments, the time history of the HRR is estimated. Only the peak HRR is reported.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 1 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 1
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 2 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 2
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 3 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 3
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 6 7 8 9 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.14: FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1, 2, 3.

181
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 4 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 4
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 5 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 5
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 6 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 6
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 7 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 7
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.15: FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 4, 5, 6, 7.

182
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 8 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 8
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 9 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 9
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 10 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 10
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 11 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 11
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.16: FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 8, 9, 10, 11.

183
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 12 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 12
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 13 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 13
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 14 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 14
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 15 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 15
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.17: FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 12, 13, 14, 15.

184
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 16 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 16
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 17 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 17
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 21 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 21
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 6
HGL Temperature, FM/SNL Test 22 HGL Height, FM/SNL Test 22
5
150
4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

100 3

2
50
Exp (T_Upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.18: FM/SNL experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 16, 17, 21, 22.

185
5.6 LLNL Enclosure Series
The figures on the following pages compare predicted and measured hot gas layer temperatures from the
LLNL Enclosure experiments. Fifteen thermocouples were evenly spaced from floor to ceiling on either
side of the burner. The measured temperatures were reported as averages of the lower, middle, and upper
five TCs. Some of the experiments were conducted with a separated plenum space in the top one-third of the
overall compartment (Tests 17-60). In these cases, the upper five TCs are a measure of the average plenum
temperature.
In the figures, the black circles represent the average of the five upper-most TC measurements. The
red circles represent the average of the middle five TC measurements. The corresponding colored curves
represent the simulation. For the experiments involving an upper plenum, the middle five TCs are located
immediately beneath the plenum and their average temperature is typically greater than that of the upper-
most TCs in the plenum. Note that in a number of experiments, the fuel flow was stopped or the fire
self-extinguished. The simulations last only as long as the reported measurements.
Details on the experiments and modeling can be found in Section 3.35.

186
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 1 HGL Temperature, Test 2
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100
Exp (Upper)
Exp (Middle)
50 FDS (Upper)
50
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 3 HGL Temperature, Test 4
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
HGL Temperature, Test 5 HGL Temperature, Test 6

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
HGL Temperature, Test 7 HGL Temperature, Test 8

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.19: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 1-8.

187
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 9 HGL Temperature, Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100
Exp (Upper)
Exp (Middle)
50 FDS (Upper)
50
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 11 HGL Temperature, Test 12
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 13 HGL Temperature, Test 14
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 300
HGL Temperature, Test 15 HGL Temperature, Test 16
250
150
200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 150

100
50
50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.20: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 9-16.

188
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 17 HGL Temperature, Test 18
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100
Exp (Upper)
Exp (Middle)
50 FDS (Upper)
50
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 19 HGL Temperature, Test 20
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 250
HGL Temperature, Test 21 HGL Temperature, Test 22
200
300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150
200
100

100
50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 250
HGL Temperature, Test 23 HGL Temperature, Test 24
250
200

200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150
150
100
100

50
50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.21: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 17-24.

189
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 250
HGL Temperature, Test 25 HGL Temperature, Test 26
250
200

200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150
150
100
100
Exp (Upper)
50 Exp (Middle)
50 FDS (Upper)
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
HGL Temperature, Test 27 HGL Temperature, Test 28
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
350 350
HGL Temperature, Test 29 HGL Temperature, Test 30
300 300

250 250
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 31 HGL Temperature, Test 32
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.22: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 25-32.

190
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
HGL Temperature, Test 33 HGL Temperature, Test 34

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 Exp (Upper) 50
Exp (Middle)
FDS (Upper)
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
HGL Temperature, Test 35 HGL Temperature, Test 36

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 37 HGL Temperature, Test 38
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 39 HGL Temperature, Test 40
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.23: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 33-40.

191
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 300
HGL Temperature, Test 41 HGL Temperature, Test 42
250
150
200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 150

100
50 Exp (Upper)
Exp (Middle)
50 FDS (Upper)
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 300
HGL Temperature, Test 43 HGL Temperature, Test 44
250
200

200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150
150
100
100

50
50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
HGL Temperature, Test 45 HGL Temperature, Test 46
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
HGL Temperature, Test 47 HGL Temperature, Test 48
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.24: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 41-48.

192
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 300
HGL Temperature, Test 49 HGL Temperature, Test 50
250
200

200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150
150
100
100
Exp (Upper)
50 Exp (Middle)
50 FDS (Upper)
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 51 HGL Temperature, Test 52
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 53 HGL Temperature, Test 54
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 250
HGL Temperature, Test 55 HGL Temperature, Test 56
200
150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150
100
100

50
50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.25: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 49-56.

193
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
350 350
HGL Temperature, Test 57 HGL Temperature, Test 58
300 300

250 250
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

150 150

100 Exp (Upper) 100

Exp (Middle)
50 FDS (Upper) 50
FDS (Middle)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
350 350
HGL Temperature, Test 59 HGL Temperature, Test 60
300 300

250 250
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
HGL Temperature, Test 61 HGL Temperature, Test 62
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
HGL Temperature, Test 63 HGL Temperature, Test 64

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.26: LLNL Enclosure experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 57-64.

194
5.7 NBS Multi-Room Test Series
This series of experiments was performed in two relatively small rooms connected by a long corridor. The
fire was located in one of the rooms. Eight vertical arrays of thermocouples were positioned throughout the
test space: Tree 1 in the burn room, Tree 2 in the doorway of the burn room, Trees 3, 4, and 5 in the corridor,
Tree 6 in the exit doorway to the outside at the far end of the corridor, Tree 7 in the doorway of the “target”
room, and Tree 8 inside the target room. Four trees have been selected for comparison with model prediction:
Tree 1 in the burn room, the trees in the corridor, and Tree 8 in the target room in Test 100Z. In Tests 100A
and 100O, the target room was closed. The test director reduced the layer information individually for the
eight thermocouple arrays using an alternative method. These results were included in the original data sets.
However, in this report the selected TC trees were reduced using the method described in Section 5.1.

195
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100A Tree 1 HGL Height, NBS Test 100A Tree 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 1) FDS (Layer Height 1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100A Tree 3 HGL Height, NBS Test 100A Tree 3
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 3) FDS (Layer Height 3)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100A Tree 4 HGL Height, NBS Test 100A Tree 4
2

100
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

1
50

0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 4) FDS (Layer Height 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100A Tree 5 HGL Height, NBS Test 100A Tree 5
2

100
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

1
50

0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 5) FDS (Layer Height 5)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.27: NBS Multi-Room experiments, HGL temperature and height, Test 100A.

196
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100O Tree 1 HGL Height, NBS Test 100O Tree 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 1) FDS (Layer Height 1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100O Tree 3 HGL Height, NBS Test 100O Tree 3
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 3) FDS (Layer Height 3)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100O Tree 4 HGL Height, NBS Test 100O Tree 4
2

100
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

1
50

0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 4) FDS (Layer Height 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100O Tree 5 HGL Height, NBS Test 100O Tree 5
2

100
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

1
50

0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 5) FDS (Layer Height 5)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.28: NBS Multi-Room experiments, HGL temperature and height, Test 100O.

197
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100Z Tree 1 HGL Height, NBS Test 100Z Tree 1
2
300
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
200
1

100
0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 1) FDS (Layer Height 1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100Z Tree 3 HGL Height, NBS Test 100Z Tree 3
2
150
Temperature (°C)

1.5

Height (m)
100
1

50
0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 3) FDS (Layer Height 3)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100Z Tree 5 HGL Height, NBS Test 100Z Tree 5
2

100
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

1
50

0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 5) FDS (Layer Height 5)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 2.5
HGL Temperature, NBS Test 100Z Tree 8 HGL Height, NBS Test 100Z Tree 8
2

100
Temperature (°C)

1.5
Height (m)

1
50

0.5
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (Layer Temp 8) FDS (Layer Height 8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.29: NBS Multi-Room experiments, HGL temperature and height, Test 100Z.

198
5.8 NIST Composite Beam
A brief description of the experiments is given in Section 3.41. The compartment interior dimensions are
12.4 m long, running east-west, 1.9 m wide, and 3.77 m high. Four experiments with fires were performed,
labeled as Tests 2-5. Test 1 did not include a fire.
To measure the hot gas layer in the compartment, stainless steel sheathed thermocouples (Omega TJ36-
CAXL-14U-24 and TJ36-CAXL-38U-24) were mounted 0.8 m below the concrete slab, extending out of
the compartment walls. Results are shown in Figs. 5.30 and 5.31. TCC1 was mounted 30 cm from the west
wall and 46 cm from the north wall. TCC5 was mounted 30 cm from the east wall and 46 cm from the south
wall. TCC2, TCC3, and TCC4 were mounted 46 cm from the north wall, and at positions -4.3 m, 0 m, and
4.3 m relative to the line of east-west symmetry, respectively (east is the positive direction). TCC6, TCC7,
and TCC8 were mounted 46 cm from the south wall and 4.3 m, 0 m, and -4.3 m from the east-west line of
symmetry, respectively.
Because of the symmetry of the experimental configuration, TCC1 and TCC5 are duplicates, TCC3 and
TCC7 are duplicates, and TCC2, TCC4, TCC6, and TCC8 are duplicates.

199
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Center, Test 2 Exp (TCC3) 1200 HGL Temp., Center, Test 3
Exp (TCC7)
FDS (TCC3)
1000 FDS (TCC7)
1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Center, Test 4 1200 HGL Temp., Center, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Off-Center, Test 2 Exp (TCC2) 1200 HGL Temp., Off-Center, Test 3
Exp (TCC4)
Exp (TCC6)
1000 Exp (TCC8)
1000
FDS (TCC2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 FDS (TCC4) 800

FDS (TCC6)
600 FDS (TCC8) 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Off-Center, Test 4 1200 HGL Temp., Off-Center, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.30: NIST Composite Beam, mid-compartment HGL temperatures.

200
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2 Exp (TCC1) 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3
Exp (TCC5)
FDS (TCC1)
1000 FDS (TCC5)
1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 4 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.31: NIST Composite Beam, end-compartment HGL temperatures.

201
5.9 NIST E119 Compartment
A brief description of the experiments is given in Section 3.42. The compartment interior dimensions are
10.8 m long, running east-west, 7.0 m wide, and 3.8 m high. Three fire experiments were performed, labeled
as Tests 1-3.
To measure the upper layer gas temperatures in the compartment, twelve stainless steel sheathed ther-
mocouples (Omega TJ36-CAXL-14U-24) were mounted 0.305 m below the ceiling, extending out of the
ceiling slab. Results are shown in Figs. 5.32 through 5.34. Locations of TC1 through TC12 were shown in
Fig. 3.22. Because of the symmetry of the experimental configuration, TC1 and TC4 are duplicates, TC2
and TC3 are duplicates, TC9 and TC12 are duplicates, and TC10, TC11 are duplicates.

202
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC1) Exp (TC2)
Exp (TC4) Exp (TC3)
200 FDS (TC1) 200 FDS (TC2)
FDS (TC4) FDS (TC3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC5) 200 Exp (TC6)

FDS (TC5) FDS (TC6)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC7) 200 Exp (TC8)

FDS (TC7) FDS (TC8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 1
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC9) Exp (TC10)
Exp (TC12) Exp (TC11)
200 FDS (TC9) 200 FDS (TC10)
FDS (TC12) FDS (TC11)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.32: NIST E119 Compartment Test 1, upper layer gas temperatures.

203
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC1) Exp (TC2)
Exp (TC4) Exp (TC3)
200 FDS (TC1) 200 FDS (TC2)
FDS (TC4) FDS (TC3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC5) 200 Exp (TC6)

FDS (TC5) FDS (TC6)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC7) 200 Exp (TC8)

FDS (TC7) FDS (TC8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 2
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC9) Exp (TC10)
Exp (TC12) Exp (TC11)
200 FDS (TC9) 200 FDS (TC10)
FDS (TC12) FDS (TC11)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.33: NIST E119 Compartment Test 2, upper layer gas temperatures.

204
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC1) Exp (TC2)
Exp (TC4) Exp (TC3)
200 FDS (TC1) 200 FDS (TC2)
FDS (TC4) FDS (TC3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC5) 200 Exp (TC6)

FDS (TC5) FDS (TC6)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC7) 200 Exp (TC8)

FDS (TC7) FDS (TC8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3 1200 HGL Temp., Sides, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC9) Exp (TC10)
Exp (TC12) Exp (TC11)
200 FDS (TC9) 200 FDS (TC10)
FDS (TC12) FDS (TC11)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.34: NIST E119 Compartment Test 3, upper layer gas temperatures.

205
5.10 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE), 2008
Thermocouple arrays were suspended from the ceiling at two points along the centerline of the ISO 9705
compartment. The array in the front of the compartment was located 72 cm inside the door, and the array
in the rear was 72 cm from the back wall. Each array consisted of 11 TCs positioned at heights of 3 cm,
30 cm, 60 cm, 90 cm, 105 cm, 120 cm, 135 cm, 150 cm, 180 cm, 210 cm, and 2.38 cm. The height of the
compartment was 2.4 m. In the plots on the following the pages, the average HGL temperature and layer
height are shown for experiments 8 through 32. The thermocouple arrays were not installed for experiments
labeled ISONG3, ISOHept4, or ISOHept5.

206
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept8 HGL Height, ISOHept8 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept9 HGL Height, ISOHept9 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISONylon10 HGL Height, ISONylon10 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOPP11 HGL Height, ISOPP11 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.35: NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 8-11.

207
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHeptD12 HGL Height, ISOHeptD12 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHeptD13 HGL Height, ISOHeptD13 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOPropD14 HGL Height, ISOPropD14 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOProp15 HGL Height, ISOProp15 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.36: NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 12-15.

208
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOStyrene16 HGL Height, ISOStyrene16 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOStyrene17 HGL Height, ISOStyrene17 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOPP18 HGL Height, ISOPP18 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept19 HGL Height, ISOHept19 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.37: NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 16-19.

209
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOToluene20 HGL Height, ISOToluene20 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOStyrene21 HGL Height, ISOStyrene21 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept22 HGL Height, ISOHept22 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept23 HGL Height, ISOHept23 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.38: NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 20-23.

210
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept24 HGL Height, ISOHept24 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept25 HGL Height, ISOHept25 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept26 HGL Height, ISOHept26 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept27 HGL Height, ISOHept27 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.39: NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 24-27.

211
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOHept28 HGL Height, ISOHept28 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOToluene29 HGL Height, ISOToluene29 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISOPropanol30 HGL Height, ISOPropanol30 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3
Exp (Height)
HGL Temperature, ISONG32 HGL Height, ISONG32 FDS (Height)
2.5
1500
2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

1000 1.5

1
500
Exp (T_Upper)
0.5
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.40: NIST FSE, HGL temperature and height, Tests 28-30„ 32.

212
5.11 NIST/NRC Test Series
The NIST/NRC series consisted of 15 heptane spray fire experiments with varying heat release rates, pan
locations, and ventilation conditions. Gas temperatures were measured using seven floor-to-ceiling thermo-
couple arrays (or “trees”) distributed throughout the compartment. The average hot gas layer temperature
and height are calculated using thermocouple Trees 1, 2, 3, 5, 6 and 7. Tree 4 was not used because one of
its thermocouples (TC 4-9) malfunctioned during most of the experiments. A few observations about the
simulations:

• During Tests 4, 5, 10 and 16 a fan blew air into the compartment through a vent in the south wall. The
measured velocity profile of the fan was not uniform, with the bulk of the air blowing from the lower
third of the duct towards the ceiling at a roughly 45◦ angle. The exact flow pattern is difficult to replicate
in the model, thus, the results for Tests 4, 5, 10 and 16 should be evaluated with this in mind. The effect
of the fan on the hot gas layer is small, but it does have a some effect on target temperatures near the
vent.

• For all of the tests involving a fan, the predicted HGL height increased after the fire was extinguished,
while the measured HGL decreased. This appears to be a curious artifact of the layer reduction algo-
rithm. It is not included in the calculation of the relative difference.

• In the closed door tests, the hot gas layer descended all the way to the floor. However, the reduction
method, used on both the measured and predicted temperatures, does not account for the formation of a
single layer, and therefore does not indicate that the layer drops all the way to the floor. This is neither
a flaw in the measurements nor in FDS, but rather in the layer reduction method.

• The HGL reduction method produces spurious results in the first few minutes of each test because no
clear layer has yet formed. These early times are not included in the relative difference calculation.

213
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 1

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 7

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 2

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 8

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.41: NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-2, 7-8.

214
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 4

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 10

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 13

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.42: NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 4, 10, 13, 16.

215
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 17 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 17

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Open door tests to follow

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 3

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 9

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.43: NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 3, 9, 17.

216
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 5

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 15

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18 HGL Height, NIST/NRC Test 18

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

Exp (Height)
200 2 FDS (Height)

100 1
Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.44: NIST/NRC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 5, 14, 15, 18.

217
5.12 NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments
The plots on the following pages compare hot gas layer temperatures and heights in a large compartment
where corner, wall, and cabinet effects experiments were conducted. The corner and wall experiments
involved a 60 cm by 60 cm natural gas burner with heat release rates of 200 kW, 300 kW, and 400 kW. The
burner was either set in a corner or against a wall. The cabinet experiments involved gas burners set in one
of two mock steel cabinets, with a variety of heat release rates.
In all experiments, two vertical thermocouple arrays were placed along the centerline of the room,
each one-third of the room length from each respective short wall. The arrays each had 13 bare-bead
thermocouples. The first was 2 cm below the ceiling, and the rest were spaced 30 cm apart.

218
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 4
HGL Temperature, Corner, 200 kW HGL Height, Corner, 200 kW
250
3
200
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
150 2

100
1
50 Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 4
HGL Temperature, Corner, 300 kW HGL Height, Corner, 300 kW
250
3
200
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 2

100
1
50 Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 4
HGL Temperature, Corner, 400 kW HGL Height, Corner, 400 kW
250
3
200
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 2

100
1
50 Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.45: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, HGL temperature and height, corner experiments.

219
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 4
HGL Temperature, Wall, 200 kW HGL Height, Wall, 200 kW
250
3
200
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
150 2

100
1
50 Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 4
HGL Temperature, Wall, 300 kW HGL Height, Wall, 300 kW
250
3
200
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 2

100
1
50 Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 4
HGL Temperature, Wall, 400 kW HGL Height, Wall, 400 kW
250
3
200
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 2

100
1
50 Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.46: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, HGL temperature and height, wall experiments.

220
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 1 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 1

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
200 2

100 1
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 2 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 2

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
200 2

100 1
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 3 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 3

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

200 2

100 1
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 4 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 4

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

200 2

100 1
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.47: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, HGL temperature and height, cabinet experiments 1-4.

221
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 5 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 5

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
200 2

100 1
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 6 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 6

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
200 2

100 1
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 7 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 7
200
3
Temperature (°C)

150
Height (m)

2
100

1
50
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 8 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 8
200
3
Temperature (°C)

150
Height (m)

2
100

1
50
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.48: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, HGL temperature and height, cabinet experiments 5-8.

222
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 9 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 9
200
3
Temperature (°C)

150

Height (m)
2
100

1
50
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 10 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 10
200
3
Temperature (°C)

150

Height (m)
2
100

1
50
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 11 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 11

300 3
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

200 2

100 1
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 4
HGL Temperature, Cabinet Test 12 HGL Height, Cabinet Test 12
200
3
Temperature (°C)

150
Height (m)

2
100

1
50
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.49: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, HGL temperature and height, cabinet experiments 9-12.

223
5.13 NIST Vent Study
These experiments were performed in a small-scale two floor enclosure, with each floor connected by one
or two ceiling vents. Each floor contained a vertical array of eight sheathed thermocouples at distances
below the ceiling of 5, 10, 15, 20, 25, 30, 40, and 50 cm. Fifteen experiments were performed, but only
12 were modeled because three experiments involved a circular vent rather than square which could not be
distinguished in the FDS simulations. The results of these experiments were nearly identical.

224
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 1, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 1, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 1, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 1, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 2, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 2, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 2, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 2, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.50: NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1 and 2.

225
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 3, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 3, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 3, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 3, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 4, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 4, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 4, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 4, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.51: NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 3 and 4.

226
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 5, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 5, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 5, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 5, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 6, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 6, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 6, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 6, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.52: NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 5 and 6.

227
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 7, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 7, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 7, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 7, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 8, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 8, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 8, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 8, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.53: NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 7 and 8.

228
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 9, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 9, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 9, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 9, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 13, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 13, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 13, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 13, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.54: NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 9 and 13.

229
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 14, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 14, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 14, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 14, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 15, Floor 1 HGL Height, Test 15, Floor 1
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_1_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_1_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 0.7
HGL Temperature, Test 15, Floor 2 HGL Height, Test 15, Floor 2
100 0.6

0.5
80
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

0.4
60
0.3
40
0.2
20 Exp (floor_2_T_Upper) 0.1 Exp (floor_2_Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.55: NIST Vent Study, HGL temperature and height, Tests 14 and 15.

230
5.14 NRCC Smoke Tower
In the NRCC Smoke Tower experiments, there was a vertical array consisting of thirteen TCs that were
installed in the fire compartment on the second floor at the following heights: 0.62 m, 0.92 m, 1.22 m,
1.37 m, 1.52 m, 1.67 m, 1.82 m, 1.97 m, 2.12 m, 2.27 m, 2.42 m, 2.57 m and 2.95 m. Also, five TCs were
installed in the doorway between the stair vestibule and stair shaft on the second floor. Figure 5.56 shows
the predicted and measured HGL temperature for both vertical arrays.

231
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Fire Compartment HGL Temp., Test BK-R Stair Vestibule HGL Temp., Test BK-R
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (T_upper) Exp (T_upper)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Fire Compartment HGL Temp., Test CMP-R Stair Vestibule HGL Temp., Test CMP-R
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (T_upper) Exp (T_upper)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Fire Compartment HGL Temp., Test CLC-I-R Stair Vestibule HGL Temp., Test CLC-I-R
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (T_upper) Exp (T_upper)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Fire Compartment HGL Temp., Test CLC-II-R Stair Vestibule HGL Temp., Test CLC-II-R
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (T_upper) Exp (T_upper)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (T_upper)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.56: NRCC Smoke Tower experiments, HGL temperature in the fire room and stair vestibule.

232
5.15 PRISME DOOR Experiments
The compartments in the PRISME DOOR experiments contained vertical arrays of thermocouples to mea-
sure the HGL temperature and depth. Each array contained 18 TCs and each compartment included three
arrays. The array above the fire was excluded from the calculation of the HGL temperature and depth.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 1 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 2, Room 1 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 2, Room 1 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 3, Room 1 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 3, Room 1 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.57: PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 1, Tests 1-3.

233
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 4, Room 1 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 4, Room 1 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 5
DOOR Test 5, Room 1 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 5, Room 1 HGL Height
400 4
Temperature (°C)

300 3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
200 2

100 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 5
DOOR Test 6, Room 1 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 6, Room 1 HGL Height
400 4
Temperature (°C)

300 3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
200 2

100 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.58: PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 1, Tests 4-6.

234
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 2, Room 2 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 2, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 3, Room 2 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 3, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.59: PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 2, Tests 1-3.

235
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 4, Room 2 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 4, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 5, Room 2 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 5, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
DOOR Test 6, Room 2 HGL Temp. DOOR Test 6, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.60: PRISME DOOR experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 1, Tests 4-6.

236
5.16 PRISME SOURCE Experiments
The PRISME SOURCE experiments were conducted in a single compartment connected to an HVAC net-
work. The compartment was 5 m by 6 m by 4 m high. The HGL temperature was computed from a single
vertical thermocouple array located in the northeast quadrant of the compartment. The array contained 18
TCs; the highest one 0.1 m below the ceiling.

237
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 1, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 2, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 3, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 4, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.61: PRISME SOURCE experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 2, Tests 1-4.

238
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 5, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 5a, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 6, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 5
SOURCE Test 6a, Room 1 HGL Temp. SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 HGL Height
4
300
Temperature (°C)

3
Height (m)

Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)

200 FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
2

100
1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.62: PRISME SOURCE experiments, HGL temperature and height, Room 2, Tests 5-6.

239
5.17 Steckler Compartment Experiments
Steckler et al. [289] mapped the doorway/window flows in 55 compartment fire experiments. The test matrix
is presented in Table 3.31. Shown on the following pages are the temperature profiles inside the compartment
compared with model predictions. To quantify the difference between prediction and measurement, the
maximum temperatures were compared.

240
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2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 10 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 11

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 12 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 612

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 13 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 14

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 18 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 710

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.63: Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 612, 710.

241
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2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 810 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 16

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 17 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 22

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 23 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 30

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 41 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 19

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.64: Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 30, 41, 810.

242
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2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 20 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 21

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 114 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 144

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 212 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 242

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 410 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 210

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.65: Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 20, 21, 114, 144, 210, 212, 242, 410.

243
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2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 310 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 240

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 116 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 122

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 224 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 324

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 220 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 221

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.66: Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 116, 122, 220, 221, 224, 240,310, 324.

244
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 514 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 544

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 512 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 542

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 610 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 510

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 540 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 517

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.67: Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 510, 512, 514, 517, 540, 542, 544, 610.

245
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 622 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 522

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 524 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 541

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 520 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 521

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 513 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 160

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.68: Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 160, 513, 520, 521, 522, 524, 541, 622.

246
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2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 163 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 164

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 165 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 162

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 167 2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 161

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (T_in) Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room) FDS (TC_Room)
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Temperature Profile, Steckler Test 166

1.5
Height (m)

0.5
Exp (T_in)
FDS (TC_Room)
0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Temperature (°C)

Figure 5.69: Steckler experiments, HGL temperature, Tests 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167.

247
5.18 UL/NIST Vent Experiments
The HGL temperature and height for the four experiments was calculated from two vertical arrays of eight
thermocouples each. The arrays were centered on the long central axis of the compartment and 90 cm from
each short size wall. The 2.4 m by 1.2 m double vent was 90 cm from each array. The uppermost TC was
2.5 cm below the ceiling. The second TC was 30 cm (1 ft) below the ceiling, and the rest were spaced evenly
by 1 ft.

248
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 2.5
HGL Temperature, UL/NIST Vents Test 1 HGL Height, UL/NIST Vents Test 1
800 2
Temperature (°C)

600 1.5

Height (m)
400 1

200 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 2.5
HGL Temperature, UL/NIST Vents Test 2 HGL Height, UL/NIST Vents Test 2
800 2
Temperature (°C)

600 1.5

Height (m)
400 1

200 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 2.5
HGL Temperature, UL/NIST Vents Test 3 HGL Height, UL/NIST Vents Test 3
800 2
Temperature (°C)

600 1.5
Height (m)

400 1

200 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 2.5
HGL Temperature, UL/NIST Vents Test 4 HGL Height, UL/NIST Vents Test 4
800 2
Temperature (°C)

600 1.5
Height (m)

400 1

200 0.5
Exp (T_upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.70: UL/NIST experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-4.

249
5.19 UL/NIJ House Experiments
Details of the experiments can be found in Section 3.77
The HGL temperature and height for three experiments conducted in the ranch-style house were calcu-
lated from two vertical arrays of eight thermocouples. The thermocouple arrays were located in the hallway
(4TC) and in the living room (5TC).
The HGL temperature and height for three experiments conducted in the two-story colonial-style house
were calculated from a vertical array of thermocouples in the center of the family room (8TC). The upper-
most TC was 2.5 cm below the ceiling. The second TC was 30 cm (1 ft) below the ceiling, and the rest were
spaced evenly by 30 cm (1 ft).

250
 300 3
HGL Temperature, UL/NIJ Single Story House Test 1 HGL Height, UL/NIJ Single Story House Test 1
250 2.5

200 2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
150 1.5

100 1

50 Exp (T_upper)
0.5 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

300 3
HGL Temperature, UL/NIJ Single Story House Test 2 HGL Height, UL/NIJ Single Story House Test 2
250 2.5

200 2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 1.5

100 1

50 Exp (T_upper)
0.5 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

300 3
HGL Temperature, UL/NIJ Single Story House Test 5 HGL Height, UL/NIJ Single Story House Test 5
250 2.5

200 2
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 1.5

100 1

50 Exp (T_upper)
0.5 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.71: UL/NIJ Experiments, HGL temperature and height, single-story ranch-style House Tests 1, 2, and 5

251
 300 6
HGL Temperature, UL/NIJ Two Story House Test 1 HGL Height, UL/NIJ Two Story House Test 1
250 5

200 4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
150 3

100 2

50 Exp (T_upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

300 6
HGL Temperature, UL/NIJ Two Story House Test 4 HGL Height, UL/NIJ Two Story House Test 4
250 5

200 4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 3

100 2

50 Exp (T_upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

300 6
HGL Temperature, UL/NIJ Two Story House Test 6 HGL Height, UL/NIJ Two Story House Test 6
250 5

200 4
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

150 3

100 2

50 Exp (T_upper)
1 Exp (Height)
FDS (T_upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.72: UL/NIJ Experiments, HGL temperature and height, two-story colonial-style House Tests 1, 4, and 6

252
5.20 VTT Test Series
The HGL temperature and height are calculated from the (1 min) averaged gas temperatures from three
vertical thermocouple arrays using the standard reduction method. There are 10 thermocouples in each
vertical array, spaced 2 m apart in the lower two-thirds of the hall, and 1 m apart near the ceiling.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
140
HGL Temperature, VTT Case 1 HGL Height, VTT Case 1
120
15
100
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)
80
10 Exp (Height)
FDS (Height)
60

40 5
20 Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_Upper)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
140
HGL Temperature, VTT Case 2 HGL Height, VTT Case 2
120
15
100
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

80
10 Exp (Height)
FDS (Height)
60

40 5
20 Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_Upper)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
140
HGL Temperature, VTT Case 3 HGL Height, VTT Case 3
120
15
100
Temperature (°C)

Height (m)

80
10 Exp (Height)
FDS (Height)
60

40 5
20 Exp (T_Upper)
FDS (T_Upper)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.73: VTT experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-3.

253
5.21 WTC Test Series
The HGL temperature and height for the WTC experiments were calculated from two TC trees, one that was
approximately 3 m to the west and one 2 m to the east of the fire pan (see Fig. 3.52). Each tree consisted of
15 thermocouples, the highest point being 5 cm below the ceiling.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 4
HGL Temperature, WTC Test 1 HGL Height, WTC Test 1
800
3
Temperature (°C)

600

Height (m)
2
400

1
200
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 4
HGL Temperature, WTC Test 2 HGL Height, WTC Test 2
800
3
Temperature (°C)

600
Height (m)

2
400

1
200
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 4
HGL Temperature, WTC Test 3 HGL Height, WTC Test 3
800
3
Temperature (°C)

600
Height (m)

2
400

1
200
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.74: WTC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 1-3.

254
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 4
HGL Temperature, WTC Test 4 HGL Height, WTC Test 4
800
3
Temperature (°C)

600

Height (m)
2
400

1
200
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 4
HGL Temperature, WTC Test 5 HGL Height, WTC Test 5
800
3
Temperature (°C)

600
Height (m)

2
400

1
200
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 4
HGL Temperature, WTC Test 6 HGL Height, WTC Test 6
800
3
Temperature (°C)

600
Height (m)

2
400

1
200
Exp (T_Upper) Exp (Height)
FDS (T_Upper) FDS (Height)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 5.75: WTC experiments, HGL temperature and height, Tests 4-6.

255
256
5.22 Summary of Hot Gas Layer Temperature and Height

HGL Temperature, Natural Ventilation

Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
1000
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.10 ATF Corridors
Model Bias Factor: 1.02 DelCo Trainers
LLNL Enclosure
NBS Multiroom
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

NIST Composite Beam

NIST E119 Compartment
NIST FSE 2008
NIST Vent Study
NIST/NRC
100 NIST/NRC Corner Effects
NRCC Smoke Tower
Steckler Compartment
UL/NIJ Houses
UL/NIST Vents
VTT
WTC

10
10 100 1000
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

1000
HGL Temperature, Forced Ventilation
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.15
Model Bias Factor: 1.14
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

CSTB Tunnel
FM/SNL
LLNL Enclosure
100
NIST/NRC
PRISME
VTT

10
10 100 1000
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

Figure 5.76: Summary, HGL temperature, natural and forced ventilation.

257
 HGL Temperature, No Ventilation
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.10
Model Bias Factor: 1.09
100
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

LLNL Enclosure
NBS Multiroom
NIST/NRC

10

1
1 10 100
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

HGL Depth
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.05
10
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.08
Model Bias Factor: 1.06 ATF Corridors
DelCo Trainers
FM/SNL
NBS Multiroom
Predicted Layer Depth (m)

NIST FSE 2008

NIST Vent Study
NIST/NRC
NIST/NRC Corner Effects
1 PRISME
Steckler Compartment
UL/NIJ Houses
UL/NIST Vents
VTT
WTC

0.1
0.1 1 10
Measured Layer Depth (m)

Figure 5.77: Summary, HGL temperature, unventilated compartments; HGL depth.

258
Chapter 6

Fire Plumes

6.1 Plume Temperatures

For fire plumes, a measure of how well the flow field is resolved is given by the non-dimensional expression
D∗ /δ x, where D∗ is a characteristic fire diameter
  25
∗ Q̇
D = √ (6.1)
ρ∞ c p T∞ g

and δ x is the nominal size of a mesh cell1 . The quantity D∗ /δ x can be thought of as the number of compu-
tational cells spanning the characteristic (not necessarily the physical) diameter of the fire. The more cells
spanning the fire, the better the resolution of the calculation. It is better to assess the quality of the mesh in
terms of this non-dimensional parameter, rather than an absolute mesh cell size. For example, a cell size of
10 cm may be “adequate,” in some sense, for evaluating the spread of smoke and heat through a building
from a sizable fire, but may not be appropriate to study a very small, smoldering source. The resolution of
all the numerical simulations included in this chapter is given in Table 3.42.

1 The characteristic fire diameter is related to the characteristic fire size via the relation Q∗ = (D∗ /D)5/2 , where D is the physical

diameter of the fire.

259
6.1.1 FM Burner Experiments
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.24.
Mean and rms temperature measurements were made above a 13.7 cm (inner) diameter, 15 kW ethylene
burner. The radial profiles are located at heights of 1.0, 1.5, 2.0, 2.5, 3.0, and 3.5 burner diameters, D.
Figure 6.3 displays the probability distributions (PDFs) at the six heights and radii of 0 cm, 1 cm, 2 cm,
3 cm, and 4 cm.
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1400 600
Radial Mean Temperature Profile, 1.0 D Radial RMS Temperature Profile, 1.0 D
1200 500
1000
400
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)
800
300
600
200
400 Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
200 FDS (1 cm)
100 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1400 600
Radial Mean Temperature Profile, 1.5 D Radial RMS Temperature Profile, 1.5 D
1200 500
1000
400
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

800
300
600
200
400 Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
200 FDS (1 cm)
100 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1400 600
Radial Mean Temperature Profile, 2.0 D Radial RMS Temperature Profile, 2.0 D
1200 500
1000
400
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

800
300
600
200
400 Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
200 FDS (1 cm)
100 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 6.1: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms temperatures at heights of 1.0, 1.5, and 2.0 diameters.

260
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1400 600
Radial Mean Temperature Profile, 2.5 D Radial RMS Temperature Profile, 2.5 D
1200 500
1000
400
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)
800
300
600
200
400 Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
200 FDS (1 cm)
100 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1400 600
Radial Mean Temperature Profile, 3.0 D Radial RMS Temperature Profile, 3.0 D
1200 500
1000
400
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

800
300
600
200
400 Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
200 FDS (1 cm)
100 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1400 600
Radial Mean Temperature Profile, 3.5 D Radial RMS Temperature Profile, 3.0 D
1200 500
1000
400
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

800
300
600
200
400 Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
200 FDS (1 cm)
100 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 6.2: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms temperatures at heights of 2.5, 3.0, and 2.5 diameters.

261
 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
5 5 5 5 5
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
Temperature; z=1.0 D; r=0 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.0 D; r=1 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.0 D; r=2 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.0 D; r=3 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.0 D; r=4 cm FDS (2 cm)
4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
-3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
10 10 10 10 10
5 5 5 5 5
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
Temperature; z=1.5 D; r=0 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.5 D; r=1 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.5 D; r=2 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.5 D; r=3 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=1.5 D; r=4 cm FDS (2 cm)
4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
-3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
10 10 10 10 10
5 5 5 5 5
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
Temperature; z=2.0 D; r=0 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.0 D; r=1 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.0 D; r=2 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.0 D; r=3 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.0 D; r=4 cm FDS (2 cm)
4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
-3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
10 10 10 10 10
5 5 5 5 5

262
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
Temperature; z=2.5 D; r=0 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.5 D; r=1 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.5 D; r=2 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.5 D; r=3 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=2.5 D; r=4 cm FDS (2 cm)
4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
5 5 5 5 5
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
Temperature; z=3.0 D; r=0 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.0 D; r=1 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.0 D; r=2 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.0 D; r=3 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.0 D; r=4 cm FDS (2 cm)
4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master 10 -3 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
5 5 5 5 5
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
Temperature; z=3.5 D; r=0 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.5 D; r=1 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.5 D; r=2 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.5 D; r=3 cm FDS (2 cm)
Temperature; z=3.5 D; r=4 cm FDS (2 cm)
4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm) 4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)

Probability (1/K)
3 3 3 3 3
2 2 2 2 2
1 1 1 1 1
0 0 0 0 0
500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000 500 1000 1500 2000
Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K) Temperature (K)
Figure 6.3: FM Burner experiments, temperature PDFs.
6.1.2 FM/SNL Experiments
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.27.
The FM/SNL tests consisted of propylene gas burners, heptane pools, methanol pools, PMMA solids,
as well as qualified and unqualified cables, burned in a large room which, for the first 18 tests, was free of
obstructions. Plume Temperatures shown here were measured at approximately 6 m from the floor, or 0.98
times the total ceiling height. For Tests 1-5 and 7-9, the thermocouple station (Station 13) was centered
above the fire pan. Tests 6 and 10-15 used an alternate fire location, centered along the south wall. Station 9
was not centered above these fires, but fell within the plume. Tests 16 and 17 had fires located in the
south-west corner of the room, too remote from any stations to allow for plume measurements.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 1 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 2

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100
Exp (28) Exp (28)
FDS (Ch28) FDS (Ch28)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 3 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 4

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100
Exp (28) Exp (28)
FDS (Ch28) FDS (Ch28)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.4: FM/SNL experiments, plume temperature, Tests 1-4.

263
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 5 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 6

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100
Exp (28) Exp (24)
FDS (Ch28) FDS (Ch24)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 7 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 8

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100
Exp (28) Exp (28)
FDS (Ch28) FDS (Ch28)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 9 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 10

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100
Exp (28) Exp (24)
FDS (Ch28) FDS (Ch24)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 600
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 11 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 12
500
300
400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 300

200
100
Exp (24)
100 Exp (24)
FDS (Ch24) FDS (Ch24)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.5: FM/SNL experiments, plume temperature, Tests 5-12.

264
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 13 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 14
500
300
400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 200

200
100
100 Exp (24) Exp (24)
FDS (Ch24) FDS (Ch24)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 600
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 15 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 16
500
300
400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 300

200
100
Exp (24)
100 Exp (24)
FDS (Ch24) FDS (Ch24)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 17 Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 21
500
300
400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 200

200
100
100 Exp (24) Exp (24)
FDS (Ch24) FDS (Ch24)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
Plume Temperature, FM/SNL Test 22

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100
Exp (24)
FDS (Ch24)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)

Figure 6.6: FM/SNL experiments, plume temperature, Tests 13-17, 21-22.

265
6.1.3 McCaffrey’s Plume Correlation
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.38.
The following plots show the results of simulations of McCaffrey’s five fires at three grid resolutions,
nominally D∗ /δ x = [5, 10, 20] (respectively, coarse, medium, and fine resolution). Temperature measure-
ments and reported simulation results are for thermocouple temperature.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4
McCaffrey Plume, 14 kW 4 McCaffrey Plume, 22 kW

3
3
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Temp 14 kW) Exp (Temp 22 kW)
FDS TC coarse FDS TC coarse
2 FDS TC medium FDS TC medium
2
FDS TC fine FDS TC fine

1 1

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
McCaffrey Plume, 33 kW 5 McCaffrey Plume, 45 kW
4
4
3
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Temp 33 kW) Exp (Temp 45 kW)

FDS TC coarse 3 FDS TC coarse
FDS TC medium FDS TC medium
2 FDS TC fine FDS TC fine
2

1 1

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6
McCaffrey Plume, 57 kW
5

4
Height (m)

Exp (Temp 57 kW)

FDS TC coarse
3 FDS TC medium
FDS TC fine
2

0
0 200 400 600 800 1000
Temperature (°C)

Figure 6.7: McCaffrey experiments, plume temperature.

266
 Below we plot the same results but arranged in a different way. The height dimension is scaled by the
fire Froude number and each plot represents nominally the same resolution level.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature, Coarse 3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature, Medium

10 10

=0 =0

=-1 =-1

=-5/3 =-5/3
10 2 10 2
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 -2 10 -1 10 0

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

3 McCaffrey Centerline Temperature, Fine

10

=0

=-1

=-5/3
10 2
-2 -1
10 10 10 0

Figure 6.8: McCaffrey experiments, plume temperature, Froude scaling.

267
6.1.4 NIST/NRC Corner/Wall/Cabinet Effects Experiments
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.47.
This set of experiments involved a 60 cm by 60 cm natural gas burner with heat release rates of 200 kW,
300 kW, and 400 kW. The burner was initially positioned in a corner or against a wall and then gradually
moved away. A three-tiered array of thermocouples was positioned above the burner and moved along with
it. Each tier contained 29 bare-bead thermocouples at heights of 2.13 m, 2.74 m, and 3.35 m above the
floor. The plots below show the maximum temperature of the 29 thermocouples, time-averaged over 2 min,
at each level. Note that FDS does not allow its devices to move; thus the time over which the model and
measurement are compared is limited to that time period in the experiment when the center of the burner was
underneath the fixed TC array in the corner or against the wall. In short, the last 30 min of the experiments
are not considered.

268
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 800
Exp (Top Grid Avg) Exp (Top Grid Avg)
Corner Plume, 200 kW Exp (Mid Grid Avg)
Wall Plume, 200 kW Exp (Mid Grid Avg)
1000 Exp (Bot Grid Avg) Exp (Bot Grid Avg)
FDS (Upper) 600 FDS (Upper)
800 FDS (Middle) FDS (Middle)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (Lower) FDS (Lower)

600 400

400
200
200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 800
Exp (Top Grid Avg) Exp (Top Grid Avg)
Corner Plume, 300 kW Exp (Mid Grid Avg)
Wall Plume, 300 kW Exp (Mid Grid Avg)
1000 Exp (Bot Grid Avg) Exp (Bot Grid Avg)
FDS (Upper) 600 FDS (Upper)
800 FDS (Middle) FDS (Middle)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (Lower) FDS (Lower)

600 400

400
200
200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 800
Exp (Top Grid Avg) Exp (Top Grid Avg)
Corner Plume, 400 kW Exp (Mid Grid Avg)
Wall Plume, 400 kW Exp (Mid Grid Avg)
1000 Exp (Bot Grid Avg) Exp (Bot Grid Avg)
FDS (Upper) 600 FDS (Upper)
800 FDS (Middle) FDS (Middle)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (Lower) FDS (Lower)

600 400

400
200
200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.9: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, plume temperature.

269
6.1.5 NIST Pool Fires
Details of the NIST Pool Fires experiments and modeling are found in Section 3.51. On the following
pages are comparisons of predicted and measured temperatures at various locations in and around liquid and
gaseous pool fires.

• Figures 6.10 and 6.11 display centerline profiles of mean and rms temperature for 30 cm diameter
acetone, ethanol, and methanol liquid pool fires; and 37 cm methane and propane gaseous fires [328].

• Figure 6.12 displays radial profiles of mean and rms temperature for a 30 cm methanol fire at heights of
z = 3 cm (mean only), z = 30 cm (mean only), z = 41 cm, z = 51 cm, and z = 61 cm. The profiles at
3 cm and 30 cm are from Ref. [312] and the others are from Ref. [329].

• Figures 6.13 and 6.14 display centerline and radial profiles of mean and rms temperature for a 100 cm
methanol fire. The radial profiles are located at heights of z = 20 cm, z = 60 cm, z = 100 cm, z = 140 cm,
and z = 180 cm [330].

270
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Figure 6.10: NIST Pool Fires, centerline tempertaure profiles, 30 cm acetone, 30 cm ethanol, 37 cm methane.

271
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

Figure 6.11: NIST Pool Fires, centerline tempertaure profiles, 30 cm methanol and 37 cm propane.

272
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1600 1600

1400 1400

1200 1200

1000 1000

800 800

600 600

400 400

-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 600

500
1000
400
800
300

600 200

100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 600

500
1000
400
800
300

600 200

100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 600

500
1000
400
800
300

600 200

100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.12: NIST Pool Fires, 30 cm methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms temperature.

273
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250

200 200

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400 0 100 200 300 400 500 600

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1600 600

1400 500

1200 400
1000
300
800
200
600
100
400
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1600 600

1400 500

1200 400
1000
300
800
200
600
100
400
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 6.13: NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol fire, centerline profiles of mean and rms temperature (top row), radial
profiles at z = 20 cm (middle row) and z = 60 cm (bottom row).

274
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1600 600

1400 500

1200 400
1000
300
800
200
600
100
400
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1600 600

1400 500

1200 400
1000
300
800
200
600
100
400
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1600 600

1400 500

1200 400
1000
300
800
200
600
100
400
0
-10 0 10 20 30 40 50 -10 0 10 20 30 40 50

Figure 6.14: NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol fire, radial profiles of mean and rms temperature at z = 100 cm (top
row), z = 140 cm (middle row), z = 180 cm (bottom row).

275
6.1.6 NRCC Smoke Tower Experiments, Stairwell Plumes
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.56.
The NRCC Smoke Tower experiments include measurements of the temperature of smoke ascending a
10 story stairwell. This data is included here in the chapter on Fire Plumes because smoke movement in a
vertical shaft with stairs can be considered an obstructed plume. Shown in Fig. 6.15 are predictions of gas
temperature measurements made in the center of the stairwell approximately 1.8 m above the slab at floors
2-10. Note that the plot labels “Slot” refer to the data acquisition system in the experiments only and have
no meaning in the present context. It should be clear from the plot title how the various curves ought to be
interpreted.

276
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 100
Temperature, Lower Stairwell, Test BK-R Temperature, Upper Stairwell, Test BK-R
400 Exp (Slot 4) 80
Exp (Slot 52) Exp (Slot 92)
Exp (Slot 84)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (Slot 44)
300 Exp (Slot 72) 60 Exp (Slot 112)
Exp (Slot 64) Exp (Slot 104)
FDS (Slot 4) FDS (Slot 92)
200 FDS (Slot 52) 40 FDS (Slot 84)
FDS (Slot 44) FDS (Slot 112)
FDS (Slot 72) FDS (Slot 104)
100 FDS (Slot 64) 20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 100
Temperature, Lower Stairwell, Test CMP-R Temperature, Upper Stairwell, Test CMP-R
400 Exp (Slot 4) 80
Exp (Slot 52) Exp (Slot 92)
Exp (Slot 84)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (Slot 44)
300 Exp (Slot 72) 60 Exp (Slot 112)
Exp (Slot 64) Exp (Slot 104)
FDS (Slot 4) FDS (Slot 92)
200 FDS (Slot 52) 40 FDS (Slot 84)
FDS (Slot 44) FDS (Slot 112)
FDS (Slot 72) FDS (Slot 104)
100 FDS (Slot 64) 20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 100
Temperature, Lower Stairwell, Test CLC-I-R Temperature, Upper Stairwell, Test CLC-I-R
400 Exp (Slot 4) 80
Exp (Slot 52) Exp (Slot 92)
Exp (Slot 84)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (Slot 44)

300 Exp (Slot 72) 60 Exp (Slot 112)
Exp (Slot 64) Exp (Slot 104)
FDS (Slot 4) FDS (Slot 92)
200 FDS (Slot 52) 40 FDS (Slot 84)
FDS (Slot 44) FDS (Slot 112)
FDS (Slot 72) FDS (Slot 104)
100 FDS (Slot 64) 20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 100
Temperature, Lower Stairwell, Test CLC-II-R Temperature, Upper Stairwell, Test CLC-II-R
400 Exp (Slot 4) 80
Exp (Slot 52) Exp (Slot 92)
Exp (Slot 84)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (Slot 44)

300 Exp (Slot 72) 60 Exp (Slot 112)
Exp (Slot 64) Exp (Slot 104)
FDS (Slot 4) FDS (Slot 92)
200 FDS (Slot 52) 40 FDS (Slot 84)
FDS (Slot 44) FDS (Slot 112)
FDS (Slot 72) FDS (Slot 104)
100 FDS (Slot 64) 20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.15: NRCC Smoke Tower, stairwell temperatures.

277
6.1.7 Sandia Methane Burner Experiments
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.64.
Figures 6.16 through 6.19 compare measured and predicted thermocouple temperatures along the verti-
cal centerline of 3 m methane gas burner fires.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 1 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 2 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 3 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 4 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 6.16: Sandia Methane Burner experiments, plume temperature, Tests 1-4.

278
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 5 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 6 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 7 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 8 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 9 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 10 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 11 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 12 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 6.17: Sandia Methane Burner experiments, plume temperature, Tests 5-12.

279
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 13 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 14 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 15 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 16 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 17 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 18 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 19 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 20 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 6.18: Sandia Methane Burner experiments, plume temperature, Tests 13-20.

280
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 21 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 22 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 23 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 24 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 25 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 26 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp Exp
Plume Temperature; Test 27 FDS
Plume Temperature; Test 28 FDS
8 8

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200 0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Temperature (°C) Temperature (°C)

Figure 6.19: Sandia Methane Burner experiments, plume temperature, Tests 21-28.

281
6.1.8 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.70.
Three experiments were conducted at SP, Sweden, in 2011, in which a 6 m long, 20 cm diameter vertical
column was positioned in the middle of 1.1 m and 1.9 m diesel fuel and 1.1 m heptane pool fires [284]. Gas,
plate, and steel surface temperature measurements were made at heights of 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m
above the pool surface. Gas temperatures were measured with 0.25 mm and 0.50 mm bead thermocouples.
The results are very similar and only the 0.25 mm values are used. In the experiments, the fire was reported
to lean. The lean was significant for the 1.9 m diesel fuel fire. In that case, only data from 1 m and 2 m
above the pool are used. The average temperature between 10 min and 15 min is the basic of comparison.

282
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1000
Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 1 m Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 2 m
1000
800

800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600
600
400
400

200
200 Exp (gas (0.25) 1m pos1) Exp (gas (0.25) 2m pos1)
FDS (Gas-1) FDS (Gas-2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 600
Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 3 m Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 4 m
500
600
400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
400 300

200
200
Exp (gas (0.25) 3m pos1)
100 Exp (gas (0.25) 4m pos1)
FDS (Gas-3) FDS (Gas-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 5 m

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100
Exp (gas (0.25) 5m pos1)
FDS (Gas-5)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 6.20: SP AST experiments, plume temperature, 1.1 m diesel fire.

283
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
Plume Temperature, 1.9 m Diesel Fire, 1 m Plume Temperature, 1.9 m Diesel Fire, 2 m
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 Exp (gas (0.25) 1m pos1)

200 Exp (gas (0.25) 2m pos1)
FDS (Gas-1) FDS (Gas-2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1000
Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 1 m Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 2 m
1000
800

800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600
600
400
400

200
200 Exp (gas (0.25) 1m pos1) Exp (gas (0.25) 2m pos1)
FDS (Gas-1) FDS (Gas-2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 600
Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 3 m Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 4 m
500
600
400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 300

200
200
Exp (gas (0.25) 3m pos1)
100 Exp (gas (0.25) 4m pos1)
FDS (Gas-3) FDS (Gas-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
Plume Temperature, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 5 m

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100
Exp (gas (0.25) 5m pos1)
FDS (Gas-5)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 6.21: SP AST experiments, plume temperature, 1.9 m diesel and 1.9 m heptane fires.

284
6.1.9 UMD Line Burner
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.80.
In this section, we present thermocouple temperature measurements and computational results for the
UMD Line Burner. Experimental details may be found in White et al. [302]. FDS simulations are performed
at three grid resolutions corresponding to W /δ x = 4, 8, 16, where W = 5 cm is the width of the fuel slot in
the line burner. Fig. 6.22 shows measured and computational results for mean thermocouple temperature
across the width of the burner at two heights, z, above the burner surface. Fig. 6.23 shows a slice of gas
temperature for the case with methane fuel and 18 vol. % O2 in the coflow stream (nitrogen dilution). The
purpose of the image is to provide a qualitative result for the flame.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 1200
18 %, z=12.5 cm 18 %, z=25 cm
1000 1000
TC Temperature (°C)

TC Temperature (°C)
800 800
Exp Exp
FDS 1.25 cm FDS 1.25 cm
600 FDS 0.625 cm
600 FDS 0.625 cm
FDS 0.3125 cm FDS 0.3125 cm
400 400

200 200

0 0
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
Position (m) Position (m)

Figure 6.22: Measured and computed mean thermocouple temperature profiles at 18 vol % O2 .

285
Figure 6.23: UMD Line Burner temperature contours, front (left) and side (right) views for the δ x = 0.625 cm case.
Fuel (natural gas in this case) enters through the red surface. The air with nitrogen dilution (to 18 vol. % O2 in this
case) enters through the blue surface. The white ceramic flame holder is seen surrounding the red burner surface. The
right side view corresponds to the profiles shown in Fig. 6.22 through the center of the burner at different heights z
from the red burner surface. Within the slice plane blue represents 20 °C, red 1500 °C.

286
6.1.10 USN High Bay Hangar Experiments
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.84.
A large number of plume temperature measurements are available from the US Navy experiments con-
ducted at Keflavik, Iceland, and Barber’s Point, Hawaii. The hangars were very large in size (22 m high in
Iceland and 15 m high in Hawaii) and the heat release rates varied from 100 kW to 33 MW. All experiments
made use of a fuel pan filled with either JP-5 or JP-8 jet fuel, positioned in the center of the hangar.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 1 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 2
50 50

40 40
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
30 30

20 20

10 Exp (C)
10 Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 3 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 4
50 50

40 40
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

30 30

20 20

10 Exp (C)
10 Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 5 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 6
50 50

40 40
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

30 30

20 20

10 Exp (C)
10 Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.24: USN Hangar experiments, Iceland, plume temperature, Tests 1-6.

287
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
80 80
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 7 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 9

60 60
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
40 40

20 20
Exp (C) Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
80 80
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 10 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 11

60 60
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

40 40

20 20
Exp (C) Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
80 80
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 12 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 13

60 60
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

40 40

20 20
Exp (C) Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.25: USN Hangar experiments, Iceland, plume temperature, Tests 7, 9-13.

288
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 14 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 15
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp (C) Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 17 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 18
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp (C) Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 19 Temperature, USN Hangars, Iceland, Test 20
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp (C) Exp (C)
FDS (C) FDS (C)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.26: USN Hangar experiments, Iceland, plume temperature, Tests 14-15, 17-20.

289
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 1 Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 2

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50
Exp (C1) Exp (C1)
FDS (C1) FDS (C1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 3 Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 4

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50
Exp (C1) Exp (C1)
FDS (C1) FDS (C1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 5 Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 6

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50
Exp (C1) Exp (C1)
FDS (C1) FDS (C1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 7 Temperature, USN Hangars, Hawaii, Test 11

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50
Exp (C1) Exp (C1)
FDS (C1) FDS (C1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 6.27: USN Hangar experiments, Hawaii, plume temperature, Tests 1-7, 11.

290
6.1.11 VTT Large Hall Experiments
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.88.
The VTT experiments consisted of liquid fuel pan fires positioned in the middle of a large fire test hall.
Plume temperatures were measured at two heights above the fire, 6 m (T G.1) and 12 m (T G.2). The flames
were observed to extend to about 4 m above the fire pan.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plume Temperature, VTT Case 1 Plume Temperature, VTT Case 2

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 Exp (T G.1) 100 Exp (T G.1)

Exp (T G.2) Exp (T G.2)
FDS (TG.1) FDS (TG.1)
FDS (TG.2) FDS (TG.2)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
Plume Temperature, VTT Case 3

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (T G.1)

Exp (T G.2)
FDS (TG.1)
FDS (TG.2)
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min)

Figure 6.28: VTT experiments, plume temperature.

291
6.1.12 Waterloo Methanol Pool Fire Experiment
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.90.
Figure 6.29 displays the centerline profile of measured and predicted mean temperatures above a 30 cm
diameter methanol pool fire. These measurements were conducted by Hamins and Lock [312] at NIST,
along with radial profiles at 40 cm, 50 cm, and 60 cm. All of the other measurements on the following pages
were conducted by Weckman at the University of Waterloo [310].
Figures 6.30 through 6.33 display radial profiles of measured and predicted mean (left hand plots) and
root mean square (right hand plots) temperatures. The root mean square of the temperature is given by
s

1/2 ∑ni=1 (Ti − T )2
T 0T 0 = (6.2)
n−1

where Ti is the instantaneous value of temperature and T is the average value over 50 s. The profile heights
range from 2 cm to 30 cm above the pool surface. Time resolved temperature data was measured using
50 µm diameter, bare-wire thermocouples (Pt vs Pt-10% Rh) with known bead diameters in the range of
75 µm to 100 µm.
Figures 6.34 through 6.36 display radial profiles of measured and predicted estimates of temperature-
velocity covariances:

∑ni=1 (wi − w)(Ti − T ) ∑ni=1 (ui − w)(Ti − T )

w0 T 0 = ; u0 T 0 = (6.3)
n−1 n−1
where ui and wi are instantaneous values of the horizontal and vertical components of velocity and u and w
are 50 s time averages.
The FDS results are shown at three grid resolutions, 0.5 cm, 1 cm, and 2 cm.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master

60

50

40

30

20

10

0
400 600 800 1000 1200 1400

Figure 6.29: Waterloo Methanol, centerline profile of mean temperature, 2 cm to 60 cm above the burner.

292
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.30: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean (left) and rms (right) temperature, 2 cm to 8 cm above the
burner.
293
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.31: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean (left) and rms (right) temperature, 10 cm to 16 cm above the
burner.
294
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.32: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean (left) and rms (right) temperature, 18 cm to 40 cm above the
burner. The measurement at 40 cm was performed by Hamins and Lock [312].
295
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500
1400
400
1200

1000 300

800 200

600
100
400
0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.33: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean (left) and rms (right) temperature, 50 cm to 60 cm above the
burner. The measurements were performed by Hamins and Lock [312].

296
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.34: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of T 0 w0 (left) and T 0 u0 (right), 2 cm to 8 cm above the burner.

297
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.35: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of T 0 w0 (left) and T 0 u0 (right), 10 cm to 16 cm above the burner.

298
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 200

250 150

200 100

150 50

100 0

50 -50

0 -100
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 6.36: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of T 0 w0 (left) and T 0 u0 (right), 18 cm to 30 cm above the burner.

299
6.1.13 Summary of Plume Temperature Predictions

Plume Temperature
1000 Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.23
Model Bias Factor: 1.06 FM Burner
FM/SNL
McCaffrey Plume
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

NIST Pool Fires

100 NIST/NRC Corner Effects
NRCC Smoke Tower
SP AST Column
Sandia Methane Burner
Smyth Slot Burner
UMD Line Burner
USN Hangars, Hawaii
10 USN Hangars, Iceland
VTT
Waterloo Methanol

1
1 10 100 1000
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

Figure 6.37: Summary of plume temperature predictions.

300
6.2 Flame Height
In fire experiments, the flame height is typically defined as the height at which luminous flame can be seen
50 % of the time. For simulations, the “flame height” can be defined as the height at which most of the fire’s
energy has been released. “Most” is taken as some fraction, f , between 0.95 and 0.99. Mathematically, this
is found by considering the heat release rate per unit vertical length, z:
Z ∞Z ∞
0
q̇ (z,t) = q̇000 (x0 , y0 , z,t) dx0 dy0 (6.4)
−∞ −∞

where q̇000 (x, y, z,t) is the instantaneous heat release rate per unit volume at a specific point in the domain.
The flame height of the simulated fire is given by zL (t)−z0 , where zL (t) is the height at which the cumulative
heat release rate reaches the fraction, f , of the total, Q̇(t).
Z zL (t)
f Q̇(t) = q̇0 (z0 ,t) dz0 (6.5)
z0

z0 is the height of the firebed or burner surface.

6.2.1 Heskestad’s Flame Height Correlation

Table 6.1 lists the parameters for FDS simulations of fires in a 1 m by 1 m square pan2 . Figure 6.38
shows a verification of the heat release rate for each case, and Fig. 6.39 compares the FDS predictions
with Heskestad’s empirical correlation. Note that the flame height for the FDS simulations is defined as
the distance above the pan, on average, at which 99 % of the fuel has been consumed. Note also that the
simulations were run at three different grid resolutions. A convenient length scale is given by

D∗ = (Q∗ )2/5 D (6.6)

Given a grid cell size, δ x, the three resolutions can be characterized by the non-dimensional quantity, D∗ /δ x,
whose values in these cases are 5, 10 and 20.
The flame height definition used in Fig. 6.39 (99 % fuel consumption) is admittedly arbitrary and is often
questioned when FDS predictions of flame height are compared with experimental values, which are usu-
ally based on luminosity (effectively measuring radiation emission from soot). Further, Heskestad’s flame
height correlation is one among many such correlations [25, 331, 332, 333, 334, 335, 336], and the reported
variation is significant, especially at low values of Q∗ where the details of the burner configuration (shape
of the burner, etc.) become important. To illustrate the uncertainty one can expect from FDS calculations
and to test the sensitivity of the reported FDS results to the flame height definition, Fig. 6.40 shows two
different FDS flame height predictions, one at 99 % fuel consumption (as in Fig. 6.39)—the red curve—and
one using 95 % fuel consumption—the blue curve. Three different grid resolutions were run for each flame
height definition. For 99 % fuel consumption, the red dashed line is the maximum flame height from the
three resolutions. For 95 % fuel consumption, the blue dashed line is the minimum flame height from the
three resolutions. We also overlay several different flame height correlations (colored solid lines).
Figure 6.41 includes comparisons of the predicted HRR as a function of the height of the burner for
three different values of Q∗ . The experimental measurements were performed by Tamanini at Factory Mu-
tual [337]. Both the HRR and height above the burner have been non-dimensionalized by the total HRR and
the flame height, respectively. These results demonstrate that the predicted spatial distribution of the energy
release improves as the numerical grid is refined.

2 The effective diameter, D, of a 1 m square pan is 1.13 m, obtained by equating the area of a square and circle.

301
Table 6.1: Summary of parameters for the flame height predictions. The grid cell size, δ x10 , refers to the
case where D∗ /δ x=10.

Q∗ Q̇ (kW) D∗ (m) δ x5 (m) δ x10 δ x20

0.1 151 0.45 0.090 0.045 0.022
0.2 303 0.59 0.119 0.059 0.030
0.5 756 0.86 0.171 0.086 0.043
1 1513 1.13 0.226 0.113 0.057
2 3025 1.49 0.298 0.149 0.075
5 7564 2.15 0.430 0.215 0.108
10 15127 2.84 0.568 0.284 0.142
20 30255 3.75 0.749 0.375 0.187
50 75636 5.40 1.081 0.540 0.270
100 151273 7.13 1.426 0.713 0.356
200 302545 9.41 1.882 0.941 0.470
500 756363 13.6 2.715 1.357 0.679
1000 1512725 17.9 3.582 1.791 0.895
2000 3025450 23.6 4.726 2.363 1.182
5000 7563625 34.1 6.819 3.409 1.705
10000 15127250 45.0 8.997 4.499 2.249

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 8
Flame Height Heat Release Verification
Heat Release Rate (kW)

10 6

10 4
D */ x =5
D */ x =10
D */ x =20
correct
10 2
10 0 10 2 10 4
Q*

Figure 6.38: Verification of the heat release rate for Heskestad Flame Height cases.

302
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3
10

2
10

1
10

0
10

-1
10
-1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10

Figure 6.39: Comparison of FDS predictions of flame height from a 1 m square pan fire for Q∗ values ranging from
0.1 to 10000.

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Flame Height Variation

10
Steward
Becker & Liang
Cox & Chitty
1
10 Heskestad
Lf /D

Hasemi & Tokunaga

Cetegen
Delichatsios
0 Max FDS 99%
10 Min FDS 95%

-1
10
-1 0 1 2 3 4
10 10 10 10 10 10
Q*

Figure 6.40: Flame height predictions from various correlations compared with FDS predictions using two different
flame height definitions. Uncertainty (maximum variation) at Q∗ > 1 is ±15 %. At Q∗ = 0.1, the uncertainty is ap-
proximately ±65 %. Correlation references: Steward [331], Becker and Liang [332], Cox and Chitty [333], Heskestad
[25], Hasemi and Tokunaga [334], Cetegen [335], Delichatsios [336].

303
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

0.8

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Figure 6.41: Predicted HRR as a function of height above the burner compared to measurements.

304
6.2.2 UMD Line Burner
A summary of these experiments can be found in Section 3.80.
FDS simulations are performed at three grid resolutions corresponding to W /δ x = 4, 8, 16, where W = 5
cm is the width of the fuel slot in the line burner. Fig. 6.42 shows measured and predicted flame heights of
the methane and propane fires as a function of oxygen concentration. For FDS, the flame height is taken as
the distance above the burner where 97 % of the fuel gas is consumed, on average.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1 1
Flame Height, Methane Flame Height, Propane
0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6
Lf (m)

Lf (m)
0.4 0.4

Exp Exp
0.2 FDS 1.25 cm 0.2 FDS 1.25 cm
FDS 0.625 cm FDS 0.625 cm
FDS 0.3125 cm FDS 0.3125 cm
0 0
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22
O 2 Volume Fraction O 2 Volume Fraction

Figure 6.42: Measured and predicted mean flame heights for the methane and propane UMD Line Burner experiments.

305
6.2.3 Flame Height Summary

Flame Height
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.10
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.33
100 Model Bias Factor: 1.18
Predicted Flame Height (m)

BGC/GRI LNG Fires

Heskestad Flame Height
10
Loughborough Jet Fires
Montoir LNG Fires
Phoenix LNG Fires
Sandia Methane Burner

0.1
0.1 1 10 100
Measured Flame Height (m)

Figure 6.43: Summary of measured and predicted mean flame heights.

306
6.3 Flame Tilt
When assessing the hazards of a large, outdoor fire, not only is flame height a concern, but the flame tilt as
well. That is, a fire in the wind tends to tilt in the windward direction. The angle from the vertical is referred
to as “flame tilt.” Figure 6.44 presents the results of flame tilt predictions for some large, outdoor pool fire
experiments.

Flame Tilt
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.10
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.69
Model Bias Factor: 0.86
Predicted Flame Tilt (deg)

BGC/GRI LNG Fires

10 Montoir LNG Fires
Phoenix LNG Fires

1
1 10
Measured Flame Tilt (deg)

Figure 6.44: Summary of measured and predicted mean flame tilt angle.

307
6.4 Harrison Spill Plumes/Entrainment Experiments
Details of these experiments can be found in Section 3.31.
In each of these reduced-scale spill plume experiments, the entrained mass flow rate into the plume was
measured at a series of heights by varying the flow through an exhaust hood to maintain a constant smoke
layer depth. Figure 6.45 compares measured and predicted entrainment rates at five different elevations for
the fire scenarios labelled SE4 through SE21 in Ref. [206]. Two general configurations are considered – one
that is intended to mimic a balcony spill plume and one in which the plume adheres to a vertical wall above
the compartment opening.

1
Entrainment
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.06
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.06
Model Bias Factor: 1.15
Predicted Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Harrison Spill Plumes, Adhered

0.1
Harrison Spill Plumes, Balcony

0.01
0.01 0.1 1
Measured Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Figure 6.45: A comparison of predicted and measured mass flow rates at various heights for the Harrison Spill Plume
experiments.

308
6.5 Sandia Plume Experiments
Details of these experiments can be found in Section 3.65.
The Fire Laboratory for Accreditation of Models by Experimentation (FLAME) facility [270, 271] at
Sandia National Laboratories in Albuquerque, New Mexico, is designed specifically for validating models
of buoyant fire plumes. The plume source is 1 m in diameter surrounded by a 0.5 m steel “ground plane”.
Particle Image Velocimetry (PIV) and Planar Laser-Induced Fluorescence (PLIF) techniques were used to
obtain instantaneous joint scalar and velocity fields.

6.5.1 Sandia 1 m Helium Plume

Calculations of the Sandia 1 m helium plume are run at three grid resolutions: 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm.
To give the reader with a qualitative feel for the results, Fig. 6.46 provides a snapshot of density contours
from the simulation. The calculations are run in parallel on 16 processors; the outlined blocks indicate the
domain decomposition. Data for vertical velocity, radial velocity, and helium mass fraction are recorded at
three levels downstream from the base of the plume, z = [0.2, 0.4, 0.6] m, corresponding to the experimental
measurements of O’Hern et al. [270]. Results for the mean and root mean square (RMS) profiles are given
in Figs. 6.47 - 6.49. The means are taken between t = 10 and t = 20 seconds in the simulation.
The domain is 3 m by 3 m by 4 m. The boundary conditions are open on all sides with a smooth
solid surface surrounding the 1 m diameter helium pool. The ambient and helium mixture temperature is
set to 12 ◦ C and the background pressure is set to 80900 Pa to correspond to the experimental conditions.
The helium/acetone/oxygen mixture molecular weight is set to 5.45 kg/kmol. The turbulent Schmidt and
Prandtl numbers are left at the FDS default value of 0.5. The helium mixture mass flux is specified as
0.0605 kg/s/m2 . This case was studied previously by DesJardin et al. [272].

309
Figure 6.46: A snapshot of FDS results at 1.5 cm resolution for the Sandia 1 m helium plume showing density contours.
The rows of measurement devices are visible near the base. The calculations are run in parallel on 16 processors; the
outlined blocks indicate the domain decomposition.

310
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 2
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
z = 0.6 m FDS 20 cm 1.75 z = 0.6 m FDS 20 cm

RMS Vertical Velocity (m/s)

4 FDS 10 cm FDS 10 cm
1.5
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 6 cm FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
3 FDS 1.5 cm 1.25 FDS 1.5 cm

1
2 0.75
0.5
1
0.25
0 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 2
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
z = 0.4 m FDS 20 cm 1.75 z = 0.4 m FDS 20 cm
4 FDS 10 cm RMS Vertical Velocity (m/s) FDS 10 cm
1.5
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 6 cm FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
3 FDS 1.5 cm 1.25 FDS 1.5 cm

1
2 0.75
0.5
1
0.25
0 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 2
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
z = 0.2 m FDS 20 cm 1.75 z = 0.2 m FDS 20 cm
RMS Vertical Velocity (m/s)

4 FDS 10 cm FDS 10 cm
1.5
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 6 cm FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
3 FDS 1.5 cm 1.25 FDS 1.5 cm

1
2 0.75
0.5
1
0.25
0 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.47: FDS predictions of mean and root mean square (RMS) vertical velocity profiles for the Sandia 1 m
helium plume experiment. Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. With z being the streamwise
coordinate, the bottom row is at z = 0.2 m, the middle row is at z = 0.4 m, and the top row is at z = 0.6 m.

311
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
0.75 z = 0.6 m FDS 20 cm
z = 0.6 m FDS 20 cm

RMS Radial Velocity (m/s)

FDS 10 cm FDS 10 cm
0.5 FDS 6 cm 0.75 FDS 6 cm
Radial Velocity (m/s)

FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
0.25 FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

0 0.5
-0.25
-0.5 0.25
-0.75
-1 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
0.75 z = 0.4 m FDS 20 cm
z = 0.4 m FDS 20 cm
FDS 10 cm RMS Radial Velocity (m/s) FDS 10 cm
0.5 FDS 6 cm 0.75 FDS 6 cm
Radial Velocity (m/s)

FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
0.25 FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

0 0.5
-0.25
-0.5 0.25
-0.75
-1 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
0.75 z = 0.2 m FDS 20 cm
z = 0.2 m FDS 20 cm
RMS Radial Velocity (m/s)

FDS 10 cm FDS 10 cm
0.5 FDS 6 cm 0.75 FDS 6 cm
Radial Velocity (m/s)

FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
0.25 FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

0 0.5
-0.25
-0.5 0.25
-0.75
-1 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.48: FDS predictions of mean and root mean square (RMS) radial velocity profiles for the Sandia 1 m helium
plume experiment. Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. With z being the streamwise
coordinate, the bottom row is at z = 0.2 m, the middle row is at z = 0.4 m, and the top row is at z = 0.6 m.

312
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 0.25
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
FDS 20 cm FDS 20 cm
z = 0.6 m z = 0.6 m

RMS Helium Mass Fraction

0.8 FDS 10 cm 0.2 FDS 10 cm
Helium Mass Fraction

FDS 6 cm FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
0.6 FDS 1.5 cm 0.15 FDS 1.5 cm

0.4 0.1

0.2 0.05

0 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 0.25
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
FDS 20 cm FDS 20 cm
z = 0.4 m z = 0.4 m
0.8
RMS Helium Mass Fraction 0.2
FDS 10 cm FDS 10 cm
Helium Mass Fraction

FDS 6 cm FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
0.6 FDS 1.5 cm 0.15 FDS 1.5 cm

0.4 0.1

0.2 0.05

0 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 0.25
Sandia Helium Plume Exp Sandia Helium Plume Exp
FDS 20 cm FDS 20 cm
z = 0.2 m z = 0.2 m
RMS Helium Mass Fraction

0.8 FDS 10 cm 0.2 FDS 10 cm

Helium Mass Fraction

FDS 6 cm FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
0.6 FDS 1.5 cm 0.15 FDS 1.5 cm

0.4 0.1

0.2 0.05

0 0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.49: FDS predictions of mean and root mean square (RMS) helium mass fraction profiles for the Sandia 1 m
helium plume experiment. Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. With z being the streamwise
coordinate, the bottom row shows data at z = 0.2 m, the middle row shows data at z = 0.4 m, and the top row shows
data at z = 0.6 m.

313
6.5.2 Sandia 1 m Methane Pool Fire
The Sandia 1 m methane pool fire series provides data for three methane flow rates: Test 14 (low flow rate),
Test 24 (medium flow rate), and Test 17 (high flow rate) [273]. The experiments are simulated using three
grid resolutions: 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm. Fig. 6.50 provides a snapshot of temperature contours from the
1.5 cm Test 17 simulation. The calculations are run in parallel on 16 processors—a similar computational
set up as the helium case (the experiments were run in the same facility at Sandia). Data for vertical velocity
and radial velocity are recorded at three levels downstream from the base of the plume, z = [0.3, 0.5, 0.9] m.
Results for the mean profiles (and turbulent kinetic energy for Test 24) are given in Figs. 6.51 - 6.54. The
means are taken between t = 10 and t = 20 seconds in the simulation.
For Test 17, we recorded the vertical velocity as a time series in four locations in the plume—at two
positions along the centerline and at two positions on the edge. The time series from our 1.5 cm simulation at
x = 0 m and z = 0.5 m, corresponding to Fig. 6 in [274], is shown in Fig. 6.55 along with the power spectrum
from the average of the four time series locations. The FDS results compare well with the experimentally
obtained puffing frequency of 1.65 Hz [274].

Figure 6.50: A snapshot of FDS results at 1.5 cm resolution for the Sandia 1 m methane pool fire (Test 17 – high flow
rate) showing instantaneous contours of temperature. The rows of measurement devices (green) are visible near the
base.

314
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 14, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 14, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 14, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 14, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 14, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 14, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.51: FDS predictions of mean velocity profiles for the Sandia 1 m methane pool fire experiment (Test 14 – low
flow rate). Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. The z coordinate represents height above
the methane pool; bottom row: z = 0.3 m, middle row: z = 0.5 m, and top row: z = 0.9 m.

315
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 24, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 24, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 24, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 24, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 24, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 24, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.52: FDS predictions of mean velocity profiles for the Sandia 1 m methane pool fire experiment (Test 24 –
medium flow rate). Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. The z coordinate represents height
above the methane pool; bottom row: z = 0.3 m, middle row: z = 0.5 m, and top row: z = 0.9 m.

316
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
FDS 6 cm
Test 24, z = 0.9 m
4 FDS 3 cm
FDS 1.5 cm

TKE (m 2 /s 2 )
3

0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
FDS 6 cm
Test 24, z = 0.5 m
4 FDS 3 cm
FDS 1.5 cm
TKE (m 2 /s 2 )

0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
FDS 6 cm
Test 24, z = 0.3 m
4 FDS 3 cm
FDS 1.5 cm
TKE (m 2 /s 2 )

0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.53: FDS predictions of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) profiles for the Sandia 1 m methane pool fire experi-
ment (Test 24 – medium flow rate). Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. The z coordinate
represents height above the methane pool; bottom row: z = 0.3 m, middle row: z = 0.5 m, and top row: z = 0.9 m.

317
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 17, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 17, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 17, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 17, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp Sandia Methane Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 17, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 17, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.54: FDS predictions of mean velocity profiles for the Sandia 1 m methane pool fire experiment (Test 17).
Results are shown for 3 cm and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. The z coordinate represents height above the methane pool;
bottom row: z = 0.3 m, middle row: z = 0.5 m, and top row: z = 0.9 m.

318
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
7
Sandia Methane Pool Fire, Test 17
6 x = 0.0 m, z = 0.5 m
Vertical Velocity (m/s) 5

0
10 11 12 13 14 15 16 17 18 19 20
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

Sandia 1 m Methane Pool Fire, Test 17

/s)

0
10 FDS W-Velocity, 1.5 cm Resolution
2
Autospectral Density (m

-5/3
-2
10

measured
-4 puffing
10
frequency

-6
10
-1 0
10 1
2 3
10 10 10 10
Frequency (Hz)

Figure 6.55: FDS velocity signal and power spectrum for the Sandia 1 m methane pool fire experiment (Test 17). The
vertical velocity signal (top plot) is output from FDS on the centerline at z = 0.5 m downstream of the fuel source. The
power spectrum of vertical velocity is measured at four locations and averaged. Two of the measurement locations are
along the centerline, at z = [0.5, 2.0] m, and two are along the edge of the plume, x = 0.5 m and z = [0.5, 2.0] m. The
measured puffing frequency of the plume is 1.65 Hz [274]. The temporal Nyquist limit of the simulation (the highest
resolvable frequency due to the discrete time increment) is 1/(2δt) ≈ 1000 Hz (δt ≈ 0.0005).

319
6.5.3 Sandia 1 m Hydrogen Pool Fire
Sandia Test 35 [273] is simulated at three grid resolutions: 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm. The computational
set up is nearly identical to the methane cases. Results for mean vertical and radial velocity are given in
Figs. 6.57. Results for turbulent kinetic energy are presented in Fig. 6.58. Means are taken from a time
average between t = 10 and t = 20 seconds in the simulation.
By examining movies of the simulation results we can see a qualitative difference between the methane
and hydrogen cases. The dynamics of the hydrogen case tend to dominated by near total consumption
events which create blowback on the pool followed by streaks of accelerating buoyant flow which increase
the mean vertical velocity. An example of the consumption event is seen near the end of the case shown
in Fig. 6.56. It is possible that we have not run the simulation long enough for accurate statistics and that
streaking events early in the time window (between 10-20 seconds) are biasing the mean vertical velocity to
be too high, as is clear from the top-left plot in Fig. 6.57.

Figure 6.56: A snapshot of FDS results at 1.5 cm resolution for the Sandia 1 m hydrogen pool fire (Test 35) showing
instantaneous contours of temperature. The rows of measurement devices (green) are visible near the base.

320
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Hyrdogen Pool Fire Exp Sandia Hydrogen Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 35, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 35, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Hyrdogen Pool Fire Exp Sandia Hydrogen Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 35, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 35, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.8
Sandia Hydrogen Pool Fire Exp Sandia Hydrogen Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 35, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm 0.6
Test 35, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm FDS 3 cm
6 0.4
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS 1.5 cm FDS 1.5 cm

Radial Velocity (m/s)

5 0.2
4 0
3 -0.2
2 -0.4
1 -0.6
0 -0.8
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 -0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.57: FDS predictions of mean velocity profiles for the Sandia 1 m hydrogen pool fire experiment (Test 35).
Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. The z coordinate represents height above the pool;
bottom row: z = 0.3 m, middle row: z = 0.5 m, and top row: z = 0.9 m.

321
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8
Sandia Hydrogen Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 35, z = 0.9 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm
6 FDS 1.5 cm

TKE (m 2 /s 2 )
5
4
3
2
1
0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8
Sandia Hydrogen Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 35, z = 0.5 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm
6 FDS 1.5 cm
TKE (m 2 /s 2 )

5
4
3
2
1
0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8
Sandia Hydrogen Pool Fire Exp
7 Test 35, z = 0.3 m FDS 6 cm
FDS 3 cm
6 FDS 1.5 cm
TKE (m 2 /s 2 )

5
4
3
2
1
0
-0.5 -0.4 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.58: FDS predictions of turbulent kinetic energy (TKE) profiles for the Sandia 1 m hydrogen pool fire exper-
iment (Test 35). Results are shown for 6 cm, 3 cm, and 1.5 cm grid resolutions. The z coordinate represents height
above the methane pool; bottom row: z = 0.3 m, middle row: z = 0.5 m, and top row: z = 0.9 m.

322
6.6 Purdue 7.1 cm Methane Flame
Details of these experiments can be found in Section 3.61.
Figures 6.59-6.62 show results for the Purdue 7.1 cm methane flame [30]. Three sets of results are
presented: two coarse (4 mm) cases and one fine (2 mm) case. The fine mesh case is run with MPI on 16
meshes. The coarse cases are run two ways: a single mesh case (dashed lines) and a 16 mesh case (dotted
lines). As should be the case, the single- and multi-mesh cases yield the same results. This gives confidence
in the domain decomposition strategy for open plume flows with FDS.
The discrepancy at the centerline for mixture fraction and vertical velocity may be attributed to our not
accounting for (1) the slight divergence of the flow at the burner exit (7° [30]) and (2) the asymmetries and
fluctuations in the burner exit and ambient environment. Examination of the FDS output shows the solution
remains very symmetric, preventing large gulps of air from penetrating the centerline of the plume, which
would tend to smooth out the profiles near the center reducing the bimodal vertical velocity profile and
centerline mixture fraction.
FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
1 1
z/D = 1.41 Exp z/D = .70 Exp
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
0.8 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh 0.8 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh
Mixture Fraction

Mixture Fraction
0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
1 1
z/D = .14 Exp z/D = .07 Exp
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
0.8 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh 0.8 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh
Mixture Fraction

Mixture Fraction

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.59: Measured [32] and computed radial profiles of the mean mixture fraction at select heights above the
burner exit simulated using grids with different spatial resolutions.

323
 FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
3000 3000
z/D = 1.41 Exp z/D = .70 Exp
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
2500 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
2500 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
3000 3000
z/D = .14 Exp z/D = .07 Exp
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
2500 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
2500 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

2000 2000

1500 1500

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.60: Inferred [30] and computed radial profiles of the mean temperature at select heights above the burner exit
simulated using grids with different spatial resolutions.

324
 FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
3 0.5
z/D = 0.70 Exp z/D = 0.70 Exp
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
2.5 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh

Horizontal Velocity (m/s)

Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh

2

1.5 0

0.5

0 -0.5
-0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 -0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
3 0.5
z/D = 0.56 Exp z/D = 0.56 Exp
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
2.5 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
Horizontal Velocity (m/s)
FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh

2

1.5 0

0.5

0 -0.5
-0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 -0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
3 0.5
z/D = 0.42 Exp z/D = 0.42 Exp
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
2.5 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
Horizontal Velocity (m/s)
Vertical Velocity (m/s)

FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh

2

1.5 0

0.5

0 -0.5
-0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05 -0.05 -0.03 -0.01 0.01 0.03 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.61: Measured [32] and computed radial profiles of the mean vertical and horizontal velocities at select heights
above the burner exit simulated using grids with different spatial resolutions.

325
 FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
1 1
z/D = .5 Exp z/D = .5 Exp
0.9 0.9
FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh FDS x = 4 mm 1 mesh
0.8 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh 0.8 FDS x = 4 mm 16 mesh
FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh FDS x = 2 mm 16 mesh
0.7 0.7
W rms (m/s)

U rms (m/s)

0.6 0.6
0.5 0.5
0.4 0.4
0.3 0.3
0.2 0.2
0.1 0.1
0 0
0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05 0 0.01 0.02 0.03 0.04 0.05
Radial Position (m) Radial Position (m)

Figure 6.62: Measured and computed profiles of rms vertical (left) and radial (right) velocity profiles at z/D = 0.5.

326
6.7 FM Vertical Wall Flame Experiments
Details of these experiments can be found in Section 3.28.
Figure 6.63 displays the measured and predicted thermocouple (i.e. uncorrected) temperatures as a
function of the normal distance, y, from the surface of a vertical, water-cooled burner. The measurements
were made 771 mm from the base of the burner for propylene mass flow rates of 8.75, 11.85, 12.68, 17.05,
22.37, and 22.49 g/m2 /s.
Figure 6.64 displays the measured and predicted soot depth at heights of 365, 527, 771, 1022, and
1317 mm above the base of the burner for various fuel burning rates. The soot depth was measured by
inserting glass rods through the flame, normal to the burner surface, for 2 s. The soot depth is the length of
the blackened portion of the rod, taken to represent the average flame depth over the 2 s interval. For the
FDS simulations, the soot depth was taken to be the distance from the burner surface where the soot mass
fraction drops below 0.0025.

327
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
Temperature, FM Vertical Wall, Propylene Temperature, FM Vertical Wall, Propylene

1000 1000
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)
500 500

Exp (m=8.75) Exp (m=11.85)

FDS (T-10) FDS (T-12)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
y (mm) y (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
Temperature, FM Vertical Wall, Propylene Temperature, FM Vertical Wall, Propylene

1000 1000
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

500 500

Exp (m=12.68) Exp (m=17.05)

FDS (T-14) FDS (T-18)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
y (mm) y (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
Temperature, FM Vertical Wall, Propylene Temperature, FM Vertical Wall, Propylene

1000 1000
Temperature (K)

Temperature (K)

500 500

Exp (m=22.37) Exp (m=22.49)

FDS (T-20) FDS (T-20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
y (mm) y (mm)

Figure 6.63: Uncorrected horizontal temperature profiles normal to the burner surface for fuel flow rates of 8.75, 11.85,
12.68, 17.05, 22.37, and 22.49 g/m2 /s.

328
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
Soot Depth, FM Vertical Wall, z=365 mm Soot Depth, FM Vertical Wall, z=527 mm
100 100

80 80
Soot Depth (mm)

Soot Depth (mm)

60 60

40 40

20 Exp (Z=365mm)
20 Exp (Z=537mm)
FDS (365 mm) FDS (527 mm)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s) Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
Soot Depth, FM Vertical Wall, z=771 mm Soot Depth, FM Vertical Wall, z=1022 mm
100 100

80 80
Soot Depth (mm)

Soot Depth (mm)

60 60

40 40

20 Exp (Z=771mm)
20 Exp (Z=1022mm)
FDS (771 mm) FDS (1022 mm)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s) Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120
Soot Depth, FM Vertical Wall, z=1317 mm
100

80
Soot Depth (mm)

60

40

20 Exp (Z=1317mm)
FDS (1317 mm)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s)

Figure 6.64: Soot depth at heights of 365, 527, 771, 1022, and 1317 mm.

329
Chapter 7

Ceiling Jets and Device Activation

FDS is a CFD-based fire model and has no specific ceiling jet algorithm. Rather, temperatures throughout
the fire compartment are computed directly from the governing conservation equations. Nevertheless, tem-
perature measurements near the ceiling are useful in evaluating the model’s ability to predict the activation
times of sprinklers, smoke detectors, and other fire protection devices. The term “ceiling jet” is used loosely
here – it distinguishes a point temperature measurement near the ceiling from an average “hot gas layer”
(HGL) temperature.
This chapter first presents comparisons of model predictions and temperature measurements near to the
ceiling. Next, predicted sprinkler activation times and the total number of activations are compared with
measurements. Finally, predicted smoke detector activation times are compared with measurements.

7.1 Ceiling Jet Temperatures

The ceiling jet temperature measurements presented in this section were made for a variety of reasons.
Most often, these measurements were simply the upper most thermocouple temperature in a vertical array.
Sometimes, these measurements were designed to detect the activation time of a sprinkler. In any case, these
measurements are used to evaluate the model’s ability to predict the gas temperature at a single point, as
opposed to the hot gas layer average.

331
7.1.1 ATF Corridors Experiment
This series of experiments involved two fairly long corridors connected by a staircase. The fire, a natural gas
sand burner, was located on the first level at the end of the corridor away from the stairwell. The corridor
was closed at this end, and open at the same position on the second level. Two-way flow occurred on both
levels because make-up air flowed from the opening on the second level down the stairs to the first. The
only opening to the enclosure was the open end of the second-level corridor.
Temperatures were measured with seven thermocouple trees. Tree A was located fairly close to the fire
on the first level. Tree B was located halfway down the first-level corridor. Tree C was close to the stairwell
entrance on the first level. Tree D was located in the doorway of the stairwell on the first level. Tree E was
located roughly along the vertical centerline of the stairwell. Tree F was located near the stairwell opening
on the second level. Tree G was located near the exit at the other end of the second-level corridor. The
graphs on the following pages show the top and bottom TC from each tree for the given fire sizes of 50 kW,
100 kW, 250 kW, 500 kW, and a mixed HRR “pulsed” fire.

332
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree A Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree B

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50
Exp (TC_A10) Exp (TC_B10)
FDS (A-10) FDS (B-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree C Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree D

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50
Exp (TC_C10) Exp (TC_D10)
FDS (C-10) FDS (D-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree E Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree F
80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40

20 20
Exp (TC_E08) Exp (TC_F10)
FDS (E-08) FDS (F-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree G
80
Temperature (°C)

60

40

20
Exp (TC_G10)
FDS (G-10)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)

Figure 7.1: ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 50 kW.

333
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree A Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree B

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50
Exp (TC_A10) Exp (TC_B10)
FDS (A-10) FDS (B-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree C Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree D

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50
Exp (TC_C10) Exp (TC_D10)
FDS (C-10) FDS (D-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree E Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree F
80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40

20 20
Exp (TC_E08) Exp (TC_F10)
FDS (E-08) FDS (F-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree G
80
Temperature (°C)

60

40

20
Exp (TC_G10)
FDS (G-10)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)

Figure 7.2: ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 100 kW.

334
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree A Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree B

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100
Exp (TC_A10) Exp (TC_B10)
FDS (A-10) FDS (B-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree C Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree D

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100
Exp (TC_C10) Exp (TC_D10)
FDS (C-10) FDS (D-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree E Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree F

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50
Exp (TC_E08) Exp (TC_F10)
FDS (E-08) FDS (F-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree G

150
Temperature (°C)

100

50
Exp (TC_G10)
FDS (G-10)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)

Figure 7.3: ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 250 kW.

335
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree A Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree B
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200

100 Exp (TC_A10)

100 Exp (TC_B10)
FDS (A-10) FDS (B-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree C Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree D
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200

100 Exp (TC_C10)

100 Exp (TC_D10)
FDS (C-10) FDS (D-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree E Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree F
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 Exp (TC_E08)
50 Exp (TC_F10)
FDS (E-08) FDS (F-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree G
250

200
Temperature (°C)

150

100

50 Exp (TC_G10)
FDS (G-10)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)

Figure 7.4: ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, 500 kW.

336
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, Pulsed, Tree A Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, Pulsed, Tree B
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200

100 Exp (TC_A10)

100 Exp (TC_B10)
FDS (A-10) FDS (B-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, Pulsed, Tree C Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, Pulsed, Tree D
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200

100 Exp (TC_C10)

100 Exp (TC_D10)
FDS (C-10) FDS (D-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, Pulsed, Tree E Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, Pulsed, Tree F
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 Exp (TC_E08)
50 Exp (TC_F10)
FDS (E-08) FDS (F-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300
Ceiling Jet, ATF Corridors, Pulsed, Tree G
250

200
Temperature (°C)

150

100

50 Exp (TC_G10)
FDS (G-10)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)

Figure 7.5: ATF Corridors experiments, ceiling jet, mixed HRR.

337
7.1.2 Arup Tunnel Experiments
The plots below show the predicted and measured temperatures from a fire experiment conducted in a
tunnel. Near-ceiling temperatures were measured at distances of 2 m, 4 m, 6 m and 8 m from the fire along
the centerline of tunnel.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Jet at 2 m, Arup Tunnel Ceiling Jet at 4 m, Arup Tunnel
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100
Exp (Tl04) Exp (Tl03)
Exp (Tl06) Exp (Tl07)
50 FDS (Tl04)
50 FDS (Tl03)
FDS (Tl06) FDS (Tl07)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Jet at 6 m, Arup Tunnel Ceiling Jet at 8 m, Arup Tunnel
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100
Exp (Tl02) Exp (Tl01)
Exp (Tl08) Exp (Tl09)
50 FDS (Tl02)
50 FDS (Tl01)
FDS (Tl08) FDS (Tl09)
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.6: Arup Tunnel experiments, ceiling jet.

338
7.1.3 DelCo Trainers
The plots below and on the following pages display comparisons of ceiling jet temperatures for the DelCo
Trainer experiments. Tests 2-6 were conducted in a single level house mock-up with three rooms adjacent to
one another. Locations A1 and A2 were in the fire room, A3 was in an adjacent room, and A4 and A5 were
in a room next to the adjacent room. Tests 22-25 were conducted in a two level house mock-up. Locations
A1, A2, and A3 were 2 cm below the ceiling of the first level, and A7, A8, and A9 were 2 cm below the
ceiling of the second level. See Section 3.17 for their exact locations.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 1000
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 2, A1, A3, A5 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 2, A2, A4
800
600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_A1_1)
Exp (TC_A3_1) 600 Exp (TC_A2_1)
Exp (TC_A5_1) Exp (TC_A4_1)
400 FDS (TC_A1_1) FDS (TC_A2_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) 400 FDS (TC_A4_1)
FDS (TC_A5_1)
200
200

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 1000
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 3, A1, A3, A5 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 3, A2, A4
800
600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_A1_1)
Exp (TC_A3_1) 600 Exp (TC_A2_1)
Exp (TC_A5_1) Exp (TC_A4_1)
400 FDS (TC_A1_1) FDS (TC_A2_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) 400 FDS (TC_A4_1)
FDS (TC_A5_1)
200
200

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 1000
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 4, A1, A3, A5 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 4, A2, A4
800
600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_A1_1)
Exp (TC_A3_1) 600 Exp (TC_A2_1)
Exp (TC_A5_1) Exp (TC_A4_1)
400 FDS (TC_A1_1) FDS (TC_A2_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) 400 FDS (TC_A4_1)
FDS (TC_A5_1)
200
200

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.7: DelCo Trainers, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 2-4.

339
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 1000
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 5, A1, A3, A5 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 5, A2, A4
800
600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600
400
Exp (TC_A1_1) 400
Exp (TC_A3_1)
200 Exp (TC_A5_1) Exp (TC_A2_1)
FDS (TC_A1_1) 200 Exp (TC_A4_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) FDS (TC_A2_1)
FDS (TC_A5_1) FDS (TC_A4_1)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 1000
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 6, A1, A3, A5 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 6, A2, A4
800
600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600
400
Exp (TC_A1_1) 400
Exp (TC_A3_1)
200 Exp (TC_A5_1) Exp (TC_A2_1)
FDS (TC_A1_1) 200 Exp (TC_A4_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) FDS (TC_A2_1)
FDS (TC_A5_1) FDS (TC_A4_1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.8: DelCo Trainers, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 5 and 6.

340
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 300
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 22, A1, A2, A3 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 22, A7, A8, A9
500 250

400 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 150
Exp (TC_A1_1) Exp (TC_A7_1)
200 Exp (TC_A2_1) 100 Exp (TC_A8_1)
Exp (TC_A3_1) Exp (TC_A9_1)
FDS (TC_A1_1) FDS (TC_A7_1)
100 FDS (TC_A2_1)
50 FDS (TC_A8_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) FDS (TC_A9_1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 300
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 23, A1, A2, A3 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 23, A7, A8, A9
500 250

400 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 150
Exp (TC_A1_1) Exp (TC_A7_1)
200 Exp (TC_A2_1) 100 Exp (TC_A8_1)
Exp (TC_A3_1) Exp (TC_A9_1)
FDS (TC_A1_1) FDS (TC_A7_1)
100 FDS (TC_A2_1)
50 FDS (TC_A8_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) FDS (TC_A9_1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 300
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 24, A1, A2, A3 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 24, A7, A8, A9
500 250

400 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 150
Exp (TC_A1_1) Exp (TC_A7_1)
200 Exp (TC_A2_1) 100 Exp (TC_A8_1)
Exp (TC_A3_1) Exp (TC_A9_1)
FDS (TC_A1_1) FDS (TC_A7_1)
100 FDS (TC_A2_1)
50 FDS (TC_A8_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) FDS (TC_A9_1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 300
Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 25, A1, A2, A3 Ceiling Jet, DelCo Trainers, Test 25, A7, A8, A9
500 250

400 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 150
Exp (TC_A1_1) Exp (TC_A7_1)
200 Exp (TC_A2_1) 100 Exp (TC_A8_1)
Exp (TC_A3_1) Exp (TC_A9_1)
FDS (TC_A1_1) FDS (TC_A7_1)
100 FDS (TC_A2_1)
50 FDS (TC_A8_1)
FDS (TC_A3_1) FDS (TC_A9_1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.9: DelCo Trainers, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 22-25.

341
7.1.4 FAA Cargo Compartments
Figure 7.10 displays the locations of the near-ceiling thermocouples in the Boeing 707 compartment. The
TCs were positioned approximately 4 cm below the ceiling. The small numbered squares indicate the fire
locations for Tests 1, 2 and 3.

s36 s37 s38 s39 s40

s31 s32 s33 s34 s35

B - Aft Beam

- Vertical Beams (3)

s26 s27 s28 s29 s30

s21 s22 s23 s24 s25

1
A

s s s s s - Mid-Compartment Beam
16 17 18 19 20

s11 s12 s13 s14 s15

3
- Forward Beam

s6 s7 s8 s9 s10

2
s1 s2 s3 s4 s5

Figure 7.10: Layout of the near-ceiling thermocouples and other instruments, FAA Cargo Compartment Experiments.

342
 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1
25 25
Exp (TC1) Exp (TC5)
20 Exp (TC2) 20 Exp (TC6)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC3) Exp (TC7)
Exp (TC4) Exp (TC8)
15 FDS (TC1)
15 FDS (TC5)
FDS (TC2) FDS (TC6)
10 FDS (TC3) 10 FDS (TC7)
FDS (TC4) FDS (TC8)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1
25 25
Exp (TC9) Exp (TC13)
20 Exp (TC10) 20 Exp (TC14)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC11) Exp (TC15)
Exp (TC12) Exp (TC16)
15 FDS (TC9)
15 FDS (TC13)
FDS (TC10) FDS (TC14)
10 FDS (TC11) 10 FDS (TC15)
FDS (TC12) FDS (TC16)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1
25 25
Exp (TC17) Exp (TC21)
20 Exp (TC18) 20 Exp (TC22)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC19) Exp (TC23)

Exp (TC20) Exp (TC24)
15 FDS (TC17)
15 FDS (TC21)
FDS (TC18) FDS (TC22)
10 FDS (TC19) 10 FDS (TC23)
FDS (TC20) FDS (TC24)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1
25 25
Exp (TC25) Exp (TC29)
20 Exp (TC26) 20 Exp (TC30)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC27) Exp (TC31)

Exp (TC28) Exp (TC32)
15 FDS (TC25)
15 FDS (TC29)
FDS (TC26) FDS (TC30)
10 FDS (TC27) 10 FDS (TC31)
FDS (TC28) FDS (TC32)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.11: FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 1.

343
 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1
25 25
Exp (TC33) Exp (TC37)
20 Exp (TC34) 20 Exp (TC38)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC35) Exp (TC39)
Exp (TC36) Exp (TC40)
15 FDS (TC33)
15 FDS (TC37)
FDS (TC34) FDS (TC38)
10 FDS (TC35) 10 FDS (TC39)
FDS (TC36) FDS (TC40)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2
25 25
Exp (TC1) Exp (TC5)
20 Exp (TC2) 20 Exp (TC6)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC3) Exp (TC7)
Exp (TC4) Exp (TC8)
15 FDS (TC1)
15 FDS (TC5)
FDS (TC2) FDS (TC6)
10 FDS (TC3) 10 FDS (TC7)
FDS (TC4) FDS (TC8)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2
25 25
Exp (TC9) Exp (TC13)
20 Exp (TC10) 20 Exp (TC14)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC11) Exp (TC15)

Exp (TC12) Exp (TC16)
15 FDS (TC9)
15 FDS (TC13)
FDS (TC10) FDS (TC14)
10 FDS (TC11) 10 FDS (TC15)
FDS (TC12) FDS (TC16)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2
25 25
Exp (TC17) Exp (TC21)
20 Exp (TC18) 20 Exp (TC22)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC19) Exp (TC23)

Exp (TC20) Exp (TC24)
15 FDS (TC17)
15 FDS (TC21)
FDS (TC18) FDS (TC22)
10 FDS (TC19) 10 FDS (TC23)
FDS (TC20) FDS (TC24)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.12: FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 1 and 2.

344
 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2
25 25
Exp (TC25) Exp (TC29)
20 Exp (TC26) 20 Exp (TC30)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC27) Exp (TC31)
Exp (TC28) Exp (TC32)
15 FDS (TC25)
15 FDS (TC29)
FDS (TC26) FDS (TC30)
10 FDS (TC27) 10 FDS (TC31)
FDS (TC28) FDS (TC32)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2
25 25
Exp (TC33) Exp (TC37)
20 Exp (TC34) 20 Exp (TC38)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC35) Exp (TC39)
Exp (TC36) Exp (TC40)
15 FDS (TC33)
15 FDS (TC37)
FDS (TC34) FDS (TC38)
10 FDS (TC35) 10 FDS (TC39)
FDS (TC36) FDS (TC40)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3
25 25
Exp (TC1) Exp (TC5)
20 Exp (TC2) 20 Exp (TC6)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC3) Exp (TC7)

Exp (TC4) Exp (TC8)
15 FDS (TC1)
15 FDS (TC5)
FDS (TC2) FDS (TC6)
10 FDS (TC3) 10 FDS (TC7)
FDS (TC4) FDS (TC8)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3
25 25
Exp (TC9) Exp (TC13)
20 Exp (TC10) 20 Exp (TC14)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC11) Exp (TC15)

Exp (TC12) Exp (TC16)
15 FDS (TC9)
15 FDS (TC13)
FDS (TC10) FDS (TC14)
10 FDS (TC11) 10 FDS (TC15)
FDS (TC12) FDS (TC16)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.13: FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 2 and 3.

345
 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3
25 25
Exp (TC17) Exp (TC21)
20 Exp (TC18) 20 Exp (TC22)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC19) Exp (TC23)
Exp (TC20) Exp (TC24)
15 FDS (TC17)
15 FDS (TC21)
FDS (TC18) FDS (TC22)
10 FDS (TC19) 10 FDS (TC23)
FDS (TC20) FDS (TC24)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3
25 25
Exp (TC25) Exp (TC29)
20 Exp (TC26) 20 Exp (TC30)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC27) Exp (TC31)

Exp (TC28) Exp (TC32)
15 FDS (TC25)
15 FDS (TC29)
FDS (TC26) FDS (TC30)
10 FDS (TC27) 10 FDS (TC31)
FDS (TC28) FDS (TC32)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
30 30
Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3 Ceiling Jet, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3
25 25
Exp (TC33) Exp (TC37)
20 Exp (TC34) 20 Exp (TC38)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC35) Exp (TC39)

Exp (TC36) Exp (TC40)
15 FDS (TC33)
15 FDS (TC37)
FDS (TC34) FDS (TC38)
10 FDS (TC35) 10 FDS (TC39)
FDS (TC36) FDS (TC40)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.14: FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling jet, Test 3.

346
7.1.5 FM/SNL Experiments
The near-ceiling thermocouples in Sectors 1 and 3 have been chosen to evaluate the ceiling jet temperature
prediction.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 1 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 2
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 3 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 4
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 5 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 6
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.15: FM/SNL experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-6.

347
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 7 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 8
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 9 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 10
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 11 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 12
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 13 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 14
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.16: FM/SNL experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 7-14.

348
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 15 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 16
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 17 Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 21
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

Exp (1/(0.98 H)) Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H)) 50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1) FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11) FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250
Ceiling Jet, FM/SNL Test 22
200
Temperature (°C)

150

100

Exp (1/(0.98 H))

50 Exp (11/(0.98 H))
FDS (Sector1 Ch1)
FDS (Sector3 Ch11)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min)

Figure 7.17: FM/SNL experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 15-17, 21-22.

349
7.1.6 NIST Composite Beam
A brief description of the experiments is given in Section 3.41. The compartment interior dimensions are
12.4 m long, running east-west, 1.9 m wide, and 3.77 m high. Four experiments with fires were performed,
labeled as Tests 2-5. Test 1 did not include a fire.
To measure the ceiling jet temperature in the compartment, stainless steel sheathed thermocouples
(Omega TJ36-CAXL-14U-24 and TJ36-CAXL-38U-24) were mounted 2.5 cm and 23 cm below the ceiling,
extending through four holes drilled down through the concrete. Two TCs were located at each of the four
positions. TCC9 and TCC10 were located 2.6 m west and 0.6 m north of the compartment center. TCC11
and TCC12 were located at the same location east of the center. TCC13 and TCC14 were located at the
same relative location, south and east of the center. TCC15 and TCC16 were located west and south of the
center.
Because of the symmetry of the experimental configuration, TCC9, TCC11, TCC13, and TCC15, all
2.5 cm below the ceiling are duplicates; as are TCC10, TCC12, TCC14, and TCC16, located 23 cm below
the ceiling.

350
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 2 Exp (TCC10) 1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 3
Exp (TCC12)
Exp (TCC14)
1000 Exp (TCC16)
1000
FDS (TCC10)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 FDS (TCC12) 800
FDS (TCC14)
600 FDS (TCC16) 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 4 1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 2 1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800
Exp (TCC9)
600 600 Exp (TCC11)
Exp (TCC13)
400 400 Exp (TCC15)
FDS (TCC9)
FDS (TCC11)
200 200 FDS (TCC13)
FDS (TCC15)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 4 1200 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.18: NIST Composite Beam, ceiling jet temperatures.

351
7.1.7 NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments
The primary purpose of the NIST Smoke Alarm Experiments was to measure smoke detector activation
times in residential settings. In the single-story manufactured home tests that were selected for validation,
five smoke detector measurement stations (Station A through Station E) were located in different areas of
the manufactured home. Thermocouple trees were also located at each measurement station. The highest
thermocouple in the tree can be compared to ceiling jet temperature predictions. The plots on the following
page show the measured and predicted ceiling jet temperatures for the five measurement stations in each
test.

352
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC02 Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC05
Exp (TCA_1) Exp (TCA_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TCC_1) Exp (TCC_1)
Exp (TCD_1) Exp (TCD_1)
Exp (TCE_1) Exp (TCE_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
FDS (TCB_1) FDS (TCB_1)
FDS (TCC_1) FDS (TCC_1)
FDS (TCD_1) FDS (TCD_1)
50 50
FDS (TCE_1) FDS (TCE_1)

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC07 Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC10
Exp (TCA_1) Exp (TCA_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TCC_1) Exp (TCC_1)
Exp (TCD_1) Exp (TCD_1)
Exp (TCE_1) Exp (TCE_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
FDS (TCB_1) FDS (TCB_1)
FDS (TCC_1) FDS (TCC_1)
FDS (TCD_1) FDS (TCD_1)
50 50
FDS (TCE_1) FDS (TCE_1)

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC33 Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC35
Exp (TCA_1) Exp (TCA_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TCC_1) Exp (TCC_1)

Exp (TCD_1) Exp (TCD_1)
Exp (TCE_1) Exp (TCE_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
FDS (TCB_1) FDS (TCB_1)
FDS (TCC_1) FDS (TCC_1)
FDS (TCD_1) FDS (TCD_1)
50 50
FDS (TCE_1) FDS (TCE_1)

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC38 Ceiling Jet, NIST Smoke Alarms, Test SDC39
Exp (TCA_1) Exp (TCA_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
150 Exp (TCB_1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TCC_1) Exp (TCC_1)

Exp (TCD_1) Exp (TCD_1)
Exp (TCE_1) Exp (TCE_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
100 FDS (TCA_1)
FDS (TCB_1) FDS (TCB_1)
FDS (TCC_1) FDS (TCC_1)
FDS (TCD_1) FDS (TCD_1)
50 50
FDS (TCE_1) FDS (TCE_1)

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.19: NIST Smoke Alarm experiments, ceiling jet.

353
7.1.8 NIST/NRC Experiments
In the NIST/NRC experiments, seven vertical arrays of thermocouples were positioned throughout the com-
partment. The thermocouple nearest the ceiling in Tree 7, located towards the back of the compartment
away from the door, has been chosen to evaluate the ceiling jet temperature prediction.

354
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 1 Exp (Tree 1-10) Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (Tree 2-10)
400 Exp (Tree 3-10) 400
Exp (Tree 4-10)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (Tree 5-10)
300 Exp (Tree 6-10) 300
Exp (Tree 7-10)
FDS (Tr 1-10)
200 FDS (Tr 2-10) 200
FDS (Tr 3-10)
FDS (Tr 4-10)
100 FDS (Tr 5-10) 100
FDS (Tr 6-10)
FDS (Tr 7-10)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 2 Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 8
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 4 Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 10
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 13 Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 16
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.20: NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

355
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 17
400 Exp (Tree 1-10)
Exp (Tree 2-10)
Temperature (°C)

Exp (Tree 3-10)

300 Exp (Tree 5-10)
Exp (Tree 6-10)
Exp (Tree 7-10)
200 FDS (Tr 1-10)
FDS (Tr 2-10)
FDS (Tr 3-10)
100 FDS (Tr 5-10)
FDS (Tr 6-10)
FDS (Tr 7-10)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 3 Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 9
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 5 Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 14
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 15 Ceiling Jet, NIST/NRC Test 18
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.21: NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18.

356
7.1.9 NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments
The plots on the following pages compare ceiling jet temperatures at two locations in a large compartment
where corner, wall, and cabinet effects experiments were conducted. The corner and wall experiments
involved a 60 cm by 60 cm natural gas burner with heat release rates of 200 kW, 300 kW, and 400 kW. The
burner was either set in a corner or against a wall. The cabinet experiments involved gas burners set in one
of two mock steel cabinets, with a variety of heat release rates.
In all experiments, two vertical thermocouple arrays were placed along the centerline of the room,
each one-third of the room length from each respective short wall. The arrays each had 13 bare-bead
thermocouples. The first was 2 cm below the ceiling, used to measure the ceiling jet temperature.

357
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Jet, Corner, 200 kW Ceiling Jet, Wall, 200 kW

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 Exp (TC-WT-01) 100 Exp (TC-WT-01)

Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
FDS (TC-WT-01) FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Jet, Corner, 300 kW Ceiling Jet, Wall, 300 kW

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (TC-WT-01) 100 Exp (TC-WT-01)

Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
FDS (TC-WT-01) FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Jet, Corner, 400 kW Ceiling Jet, Wall, 400 kW

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (TC-WT-01) 100 Exp (TC-WT-01)

Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
FDS (TC-WT-01) FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.22: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, ceiling jet temperature, wall and corner tests.

358
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 1 Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 2
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100
Exp (TC-WT-01) Exp (TC-WT-01)
Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
50 FDS (TC-WT-01)
50 FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 3 Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 4
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100
Exp (TC-WT-01) Exp (TC-WT-01)
Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
50 FDS (TC-WT-01)
50 FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 5 Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 6
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

Exp (TC-WT-01) Exp (TC-WT-01)

100 Exp (TC-ET-01) 100 Exp (TC-ET-01)
FDS (TC-WT-01) FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.23: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, ceiling jet temperature, large cabinet.

359
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 7 Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 8

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 Exp (TC-WT-01) 50 Exp (TC-WT-01)

Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
FDS (TC-WT-01) FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 9 Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100
Exp (TC-WT-01) Exp (TC-WT-01)
Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
50 FDS (TC-WT-01)
50 FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 300
Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 11 Ceiling Jet, Cabinet Test 12
250
400

200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300
150
200
100
Exp (TC-WT-01) Exp (TC-WT-01)
100 Exp (TC-ET-01) Exp (TC-ET-01)
FDS (TC-WT-01)
50 FDS (TC-WT-01)
FDS (TC-ET-01) FDS (TC-ET-01)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.24: NIST/NRC Corner Effects experiments, ceiling jet temperature, medium-sized cabinet.

360
7.1.10 NIST Vent Study
These experiments were performed in a small-scale two floor enclosure, with each floor connected by one
or two ceiling vents. Each floor contained a vertical array of eight sheathed thermocouples; the uppermost
being 5 cm below the ceiling.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 1 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 2

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
50 50
Exp (TC-01) Exp (TC-01)
Exp (TC-09) Exp (TC-09)
FDS (TC-01) FDS (TC-01)
FDS (TC-09) FDS (TC-09)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 3 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 4

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

50 50
Exp (TC-01) Exp (TC-01)
Exp (TC-09) Exp (TC-09)
FDS (TC-01) FDS (TC-01)
FDS (TC-09) FDS (TC-09)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 5 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 6

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

50 50
Exp (TC-01) Exp (TC-01)
Exp (TC-09) Exp (TC-09)
FDS (TC-01) FDS (TC-01)
FDS (TC-09) FDS (TC-09)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.25: NIST Vent Study, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 1-6.

361
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 7 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 8

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
50 50
Exp (TC-01) Exp (TC-01)
Exp (TC-09) Exp (TC-09)
FDS (TC-01) FDS (TC-01)
FDS (TC-09) FDS (TC-09)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 9 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 13

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

50 50
Exp (TC-01) Exp (TC-01)
Exp (TC-09) Exp (TC-09)
FDS (TC-01) FDS (TC-01)
FDS (TC-09) FDS (TC-09)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 14 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Test 15

100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

50 50
Exp (TC-01) Exp (TC-01)
Exp (TC-09) Exp (TC-09)
FDS (TC-01) FDS (TC-01)
FDS (TC-09) FDS (TC-09)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.26: NIST Vent Study, ceiling jet temperature, Tests 7-9, 13-15.

362
7.1.11 NRCC Smoke Tower
In the NRCC Smoke Tower experiments, there was a vertical array of 13 TCs and a single near-ceiling TC on
the opposite side of the fire compartment. Shown in Fig. 7.27 are the predicted and measured temperatures
of the single TC and the uppermost TC of the vertical array in the fire compartment. Shown in Fig. 7.28 are
predictions of gas temperature measurements made in the stair vestibule of floors 4, 6, 8, and 10, along with
inner compartment temperature measurements made on floors 4, 8, and 10. Note that the plot labels “Slot”
refer to the data acquisition system in the experiments only and have no meaning in the present context. It
should be clear from the plot title how the various curves ought to be interpreted.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Fire Compartment, Test BK-R Fire Compartment, Test CMP-R
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600 Exp (Slot 5)
Exp (Slot 19)
FDS (Slot 5)
400 400 FDS (Slot 19)

Exp (Slot 5)
200 Exp (Slot 19) 200
FDS (Slot 5)
FDS (Slot 19)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Fire Compartment, Test CLC-I-R Fire Compartment, Test CLC-II-R
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (Slot 5) 600 Exp (Slot 5)

Exp (Slot 19) Exp (Slot 19)
FDS (Slot 5) FDS (Slot 5)
400 FDS (Slot 19) 400 FDS (Slot 19)

200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.27: NRCC Smoke Tower experiments, ceiling jet.

363
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 100
Stair Vestibule 4, 6, 8, and 10, Test BK-R Temperature, Floor 4, 8, and 10, Test BK-R
80
150 Exp (Slot 47)
Exp (Slot 67)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (Slot 48)
Exp (Slot 87) 60 Exp (Slot 88)
Exp (Slot 107) Exp (Slot 108)
100 FDS (Slot 47) FDS (Slot 48)
FDS (Slot 67) 40 FDS (Slot 88)
FDS (Slot 87) FDS (Slot 108)
FDS (Slot 107)
50
20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 100
Stair Vestibule 4, 6, 8, and 10, Test CMP-R Temperature, Floor 4, 8, and 10, Test CMP-R
80
150 Exp (Slot 47)
Exp (Slot 67)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (Slot 48)
Exp (Slot 87) 60 Exp (Slot 88)
Exp (Slot 107) Exp (Slot 108)
100 FDS (Slot 47) FDS (Slot 48)
FDS (Slot 67) 40 FDS (Slot 88)
FDS (Slot 87) FDS (Slot 108)
FDS (Slot 107)
50
20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 100
Stair Vestibule 4, 6, 8, and 10, Test CLC-I-R Temperature, Floor 4, 8, and 10, Test CLC-I-R
80
150 Exp (Slot 47)
Exp (Slot 67)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (Slot 48)

Exp (Slot 87) 60 Exp (Slot 88)
Exp (Slot 107) Exp (Slot 108)
100 FDS (Slot 47) FDS (Slot 48)
FDS (Slot 67) 40 FDS (Slot 88)
FDS (Slot 87) FDS (Slot 108)
FDS (Slot 107)
50
20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 100
Stair Vestibule 4, 6, 8, and 10, Test CLC-II-R Temperature, Floor 4, 8, and 10, Test CLC-II-R
80
150 Exp (Slot 47)
Exp (Slot 67)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (Slot 48)

Exp (Slot 87) 60 Exp (Slot 88)
Exp (Slot 107) Exp (Slot 108)
100 FDS (Slot 47) FDS (Slot 48)
FDS (Slot 67) 40 FDS (Slot 88)
FDS (Slot 87) FDS (Slot 108)
FDS (Slot 107)
50
20

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.28: NRCC Smoke Tower, upper floor temperatures.

364
7.1.12 PRISME DOOR Experiments
In the PRISME DOOR experiments, the uppermost TC in the vertical arrays were used to measure the
ceiling jet temperature. These TCs were approximately 10 cm below the ceiling.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
PRISME DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Ceiling Jet PRISME DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Ceiling Jet
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 Exp (TG_L1_NW_390) 300 Exp (TG_L1_NW_390)
Exp (TG_L1_SE_390) Exp (TG_L1_SE_390)
FDS (TG_L1_NW_390) FDS (TG_L1_NW_390)
200 FDS (TG_L1_SE_390) 200 FDS (TG_L1_SE_390)

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
PRISME DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Ceiling Jet PRISME DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Ceiling Jet
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 Exp (TG_L1_NW_390) 300 Exp (TG_L1_NW_390)

Exp (TG_L1_SE_390) Exp (TG_L1_SE_390)
FDS (TG_L1_NW_390) FDS (TG_L1_NW_390)
200 FDS (TG_L1_SE_390) 200 FDS (TG_L1_SE_390)

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700 700
PRISME DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Ceiling Jet PRISME DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Ceiling Jet
600 600

500 500
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TG_L1_NW_390) Exp (TG_L1_NW_390)

400 400
Exp (TG_L1_SE_390) Exp (TG_L1_SE_390)
FDS (TG_L1_NW_390) FDS (TG_L1_NW_390)
300 FDS (TG_L1_SE_390) 300 FDS (TG_L1_SE_390)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.29: PRISME DOOR experiments, ceiling jet, Room 1.

365
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
PRISME DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Ceiling Jet PRISME DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Ceiling Jet
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TG_L2_NE_390) Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)
Exp (TG_L2_CC_390) Exp (TG_L2_CC_390)
Exp (TG_L2_SW_390) Exp (TG_L2_SW_390)
150 FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
150 FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_CC_390) FDS (TG_L2_CC_390)
100 FDS (TG_L2_SW_390) 100 FDS (TG_L2_SW_390)

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
PRISME DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Ceiling Jet PRISME DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Ceiling Jet
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TG_L2_NE_390) Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)

Exp (TG_L2_CC_390) Exp (TG_L2_CC_390)
Exp (TG_L2_SW_390) Exp (TG_L2_SW_390)
150 FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
150 FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_CC_390) FDS (TG_L2_CC_390)
100 FDS (TG_L2_SW_390) 100 FDS (TG_L2_SW_390)

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
PRISME DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Ceiling Jet PRISME DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Ceiling Jet
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TG_L2_NE_390) Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)

Exp (TG_L2_CC_390) Exp (TG_L2_CC_390)
Exp (TG_L2_SW_390) Exp (TG_L2_SW_390)
150 FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
150 FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_CC_390) FDS (TG_L2_CC_390)
100 FDS (TG_L2_SW_390) 100 FDS (TG_L2_SW_390)

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.30: PRISME DOOR experiments, ceiling jet, Room 2.

366
7.1.13 PRISME SOURCE Experiments
In the PRISME SOURCE experiments, the uppermost TC in the vertical array was used to measure the
ceiling jet temperature. The thermocouple array was located in the northeast corner of the room. This TC
was approximately 10 cm below the ceiling.

367
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
PRISME SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 Ceiling Jet PRISME SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 Ceiling Jet
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200

100 100
Exp (TG_L2_NE_390) Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_NE_390) FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
PRISME SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 Ceiling Jet PRISME SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 Ceiling Jet
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300
Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
200 200

100 100
Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
PRISME SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 Ceiling Jet PRISME SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 Ceiling Jet
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300
Exp (TG_L2_NE_390) Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_NE_390) FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
PRISME SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 Ceiling Jet PRISME SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 Ceiling Jet
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300
Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
200 200

100 100
Exp (TG_L2_NE_390)
FDS (TG_L2_NE_390)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.31: PRISME SOURCE experiments, ceiling jet, Room 2.

368
7.1.14 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments
Three experiments were conducted in a standard compartment, 3.6 m long by 2.4 m wide by 2.4 m high, with
a 0.8 m wide by 2.0 m high door centered on the narrow wall. A single beam was suspended 20 cm below the
ceiling lengthwise along the centerline of the compartment. There were three measurement stations along
the beam at distances of 0.9 m (Station A), 1.8 m (Station B), and 2.7 m (Station C) from the far wall where
the fire was either positioned in the corner (Tests 1 and 2), or the center (Test 3). The gas temperatures
reported here were measured 10 cm away from all four sides of the beam at Station A, and 10 cm away from
the two lateral sides at Stations B and C. In the figure legends, the measurement station is denoted A, B, or
C, and the position is denoted 1, 2, 3, or 4. Position 1 is 10 cm above the beam. Position 2 is 10 cm from
the side of the beam facing away from the fire, Position 3 is 10 cm below the beam, and Position 4 is 10 cm
away from the side of the beam facing the fire.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, SP Test 1 Station A Ceiling Jet, SP Test 1 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C41,QT1) Exp (C43,QT3)

200 Exp (C42,QT2) 200 Exp (C44,QT4)
FDS (Gas A-1) FDS (Gas A-3)
FDS (Gas A-2) FDS (Gas A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, SP Test 1 Station B Ceiling Jet, SP Test 1 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C51,TC6) Exp (C53,TC10)

200 Exp (C52,TC8) 200 Exp (C54,TC12)
FDS (Gas B-2) FDS (Gas C-2)
FDS (Gas B-4) FDS (Gas C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.32: SP AST experiments, ceiling jet, Test 1.

369
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, SP Test 2 Station A Ceiling Jet, SP Test 2 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C41,QT1) Exp (C43,QT3)

200 Exp (C42,QT2) 200 Exp (C44,QT4)
FDS (Gas A-1) FDS (Gas A-3)
FDS (Gas A-2) FDS (Gas A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, SP Test 2 Station B Ceiling Jet, SP Test 2 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C51,TC6) Exp (C53,TC10)

200 Exp (C52,TC8) 200 Exp (C54,TC12)
FDS (Gas B-2) FDS (Gas C-2)
FDS (Gas B-4) FDS (Gas C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, SP Test 3 Station A Ceiling Jet, SP Test 3 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C41,QT1) Exp (C43,QT3)

200 Exp (C42,QT2) 200 Exp (C44,QT4)
FDS (Gas A-1) FDS (Gas A-3)
FDS (Gas A-2) FDS (Gas A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, SP Test 3 Station B Ceiling Jet, SP Test 3 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C51,TC6) Exp (C53,TC10)

200 Exp (C52,TC8) 200 Exp (C54,TC12)
FDS (Gas B-2) FDS (Gas C-2)
FDS (Gas B-4) FDS (Gas C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.33: SP AST experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 2 and 3.

370
7.1.15 UL/NFPRF Series I Experiments
The primary purpose of the UL/NFPRF experiments was to measure sprinkler activation times for a series of
heptane spray burner fires. To determine activation times, thermocouples were affixed to each sprinkler, and
a sudden drop in temperature indicated activation. These same thermocouple temperatures can be compared
to ceiling jet temperature predictions. Referring to Fig. 3.44, the chosen measurement locations are 56, 68,
86, and 98, providing comparisons as close to, and as far away from, the fire as possible.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 1 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 2

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 3 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 4

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 5 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 6

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.34: UL/NFPPRF experiments, ceiling jet, Series I, Tests 1-6.

371
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 7 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 8

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 9 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 10

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 11 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 12

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 13 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 14
250
150
200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 100

100
50
50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.35: UL/NFPPRF experiments, ceiling jet, Series I, Tests 7-14.

372
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 15 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 16

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 17 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 18

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 19 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 20

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 21 UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 22

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.36: UL/NFPPRF experiments, ceiling jet, Series I, Tests 15-22.

373
7.1.16 UL/NIJ House Experiments
The following plots compare the uppermost thermocouple measurements with corresponding model predic-
tions for the ranch-style and colonial-style houses.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
350 350
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Single Story Test 1 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Single Story Test 2
300 300

250 250
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (4TC1)
200 200
Exp (5TC1)
FDS (4TC1)
150 FDS (5TC1) 150

100 100 Exp (4TC1)

Exp (5TC1)
50 50 FDS (4TC1)
FDS (5TC1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
350 350
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Single Story Test 5 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Two Story Test 1
300 300

250 250
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (4TC1)
Exp (5TC1)
200 200
Exp (6TC1)
FDS (4TC1)
150 FDS (5TC1) 150
FDS (6TC1)
100 100 Exp (8TC1)
Exp (12TC1)
50 50 FDS (8TC1)
FDS (12TC1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
350 350
Ceiling Jet Temperature, Two Story Test 4 Ceiling Jet Temperature, Two Story Test 6
300 300

250 250
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

150 150

100 Exp (8TC1) 100 Exp (8TC1)

Exp (12TC1) Exp (12TC1)
50 FDS (8TC1) 50 FDS (8TC1)
FDS (12TC1) FDS (12TC1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.37: UL/NIJ Experiments, ceiling jet temperature

374
7.1.17 UL/NIST Vent Experiments
The ceiling jet temperatures were measured at two locations, 90 cm from the short ends of the 2.4 m by
1.2 m double vent.

375
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 1, Tree 1 Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 1, Tree 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (T1-2) Exp (T2-2)
FDS (T1-TC2) FDS (T2-TC2)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1000
Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 2, Tree 1 Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 2, Tree 2
1000
800

800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600
600
400
400

200
200 Exp (T1-2) Exp (T2-2)
FDS (T1-TC2) FDS (T2-TC2)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 3, Tree 1 Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 3, Tree 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (T1-2) Exp (T2-2)
FDS (T1-TC2) FDS (T2-TC2)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1000
Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 4, Tree 1 Ceiling Jet, UL/NIST Vents Test 4, Tree 2
1000
800

800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600
600
400
400

200
200 Exp (T1-2) Exp (T2-2)
FDS (T1-TC2) FDS (T2-TC2)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.38: UL/NIST Vents experiments, ceiling jet.

376
7.1.18 Vettori Flat Ceiling Experiments
For these experiments, the measured and predicted thermocouple temperature at the location of the first
two activating sprinklers are compared. The experiments consisted of either Smooth or Obstructed ceilings;
Slow, Medium or Fast fires; and a burner in the Open, at the Wall, or in the Corner. The experiments
included three replicates of each of the smooth ceiling configurations and two replicates of each of the
obstructed ceiling configurations.

377
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 1 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 2
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 3 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 4
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 5 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 6
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 7 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.39: Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-8.

378
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 9 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 11 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 12
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 13 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 14
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 15 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 16
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.40: Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 9-16.

379
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 17 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 18
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 19 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 20
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
Exp (TC_3_02) Exp (TC_3_02)
150 FDS (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_2_02)
FDS (TC_3_02) FDS (TC_3_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 21 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 22
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 23 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 24
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.41: Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 17-24.

380
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 25 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 26
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 27 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 28
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 29 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 30
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)

Exp (TC_4_02) Exp (TC_4_02)
150 FDS (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_2_02)
FDS (TC_4_02) FDS (TC_4_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 31 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 32
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.42: Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 25-32.

381
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 33 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 34
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_4_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_4_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 35 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 36
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_4_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_4_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 37 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 38
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 39 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 40
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_3_02) Exp (TC_3_02)

Exp (TC_4_02) Exp (TC_4_02)
150 FDS (TC_3_02)
150 FDS (TC_3_02)
FDS (TC_4_02) FDS (TC_4_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140 0 20 40 60 80 100 120 140
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.43: Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 33-40.

382
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 41 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 42
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_1_02)
Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_2_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_2_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300 300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 43 Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 44
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_1_02) Exp (TC_3_02)

Exp (TC_2_02) Exp (TC_4_02)
150 FDS (TC_1_02)
150 FDS (TC_3_02)
FDS (TC_2_02) FDS (TC_4_02)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
300
Vettori Flat Ceiling, Test 45
250

200
Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC_3_02)
Exp (TC_4_02)
150 FDS (TC_3_02)
FDS (TC_4_02)
100

50

0
0 50 100 150 200
Time (s)

Figure 7.44: Vettori Flat Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 41-45.

383
7.1.19 Vettori Sloped Ceiling Experiments
For these experiments, the measured and predicted thermocouple temperature at the locations of the first
two activating sprinklers are compared. The thermocouples were located 15 cm below the ceiling. Replicate
results are shown side by side, i.e. Test 2 is a replicate of Test 1; Test 4 is a replicate of Test 3, and so on.
There were 36 unique configurations (2 replicates of each) combining the following parameters:

• Flat, 13◦ , or 24◦ Ceiling Slope

• Smooth or Obstructed Ceiling Surface

• Fast or Slow Growth Fire

• Corner, Wall, or Detached Burner Location

The plots are labelled using this convention. For example, “13SFC” means that the ceiling is sloped 13◦
from horizontal, the ceiling is Smooth (no beams), the fire growth rate is Fast, and the burner is in the Corner
of the room.

384
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 1, FSFD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 2, FSFD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 3, FSSD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 4, FSSD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 5, FSFW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 6, FSFW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 7, FSSW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 8, FSSW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.45: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-8.

385
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 9, FSFC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 10, FSFC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 11, FSSC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 12, FSSC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 13, FOFD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 14, FOFD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 15, FOSD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 16, FOSD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.46: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 9-16.

386
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 17, FOFW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 18, FOFW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 19, FOSW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 20, FOSW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 21, FOFC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 22, FOFC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 23, FOSC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 24, FOSC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.47: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 17-24.

387
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 25, 13SFD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 26, 13SFD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 27, 13SSD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 28, 13SSD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 29, 13SFW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 30, 13SFW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 31, 13SSW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 32, 13SSW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.48: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 25-32.

388
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 33, 13SFC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 34, 13SFC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 35, 13SSC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 36, 13SSC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 37, 13OFD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 38, 13OFD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 39, 13OSD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 40, 13OSD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.49: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 33-40.

389
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 41, 13OFW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 42, 13OFW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 43, 13OSW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 44, 13OSW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 45, 13OFC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 46, 13OFC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 47, 13OSC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 48, 13OSC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.50: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 41-48.

390
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 49, 24SFD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 50, 24SFD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 51, 24SSD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 52, 24SSD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 53, 24SFW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 54, 24SFW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 55, 24SSW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 56, 24SSW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.51: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 49-56.

391
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 57, 24SFC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 58, 24SFC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 59, 24SSC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 60, 24SSC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 61, 24OFD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 62, 24OFD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 63, 24OSD Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 64, 24OSD
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.52: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 57-64.

392
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 65, 24OFW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 66, 24OFW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 67, 24OSW Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 68, 24OSW
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)
Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 69, 24OFC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 70, 24OFC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
250 250
Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 71, 24OSC Vettori Sloped Ceiling, Test 72, 24OSC
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 Exp (TC_1_2) 150 Exp (TC_1_2)

Exp (TC_2_2) Exp (TC_2_2)
FDS (TC_1_2) FDS (TC_1_2)
100 FDS (TC_2_2) 100 FDS (TC_2_2)

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 7.53: Vettori Sloped Ceiling experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 65-72.

393
7.1.20 WTC Experiments
In the WTC experiments, the compartment was 7 m long, 3.6 m wide and 3.8 m high. A 1 m by 2 m pan
was positioned close to the center of the compartment. Aspirated thermocouples were positioned 3 m to the
west (TTRW1) and 2 m to the east (TTRE1) of the fire pan, 18 cm below the ceiling.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, WTC Test 1 Ceiling Jet, WTC Test 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (TTRW1) Exp (TTRW1)

200 Exp (TTRE1) 200 Exp (TTRE1)
FDS (TTRW1) FDS (TTRW1)
FDS (TTRE1) FDS (TTRE1)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, WTC Test 3 Ceiling Jet, WTC Test 4
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (TTRW1) Exp (TTRW1)

200 Exp (TTRE1) 200 Exp (TTRE1)
FDS (TTRW1) FDS (TTRW1)
FDS (TTRE1) FDS (TTRE1)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Jet, WTC Test 5 Ceiling Jet, WTC Test 6
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (TTRW1) Exp (TTRW1)

200 Exp (TTRE1) 200 Exp (TTRE1)
FDS (TTRW1) FDS (TTRW1)
FDS (TTRE1) FDS (TTRE1)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.54: WTC experiments, ceiling jet, Tests 1-6.

394
7.1.21 Summary of Ceiling Jet Temperature Predictions

ATF Corridors
Ceiling Jet Temperature
Arup Tunnel
1000 Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
DelCo Trainers
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.12 FAA Cargo Compartments
Model Bias Factor: 1.03 FM/SNL
NIST Composite Beam
NIST FSE 2008
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

NIST RSE 1994

100 NIST RSE 2007
NIST Smoke Alarms
NIST Vent Study
NIST/NRC
NIST/NRC Corner Effects
NRCC Smoke Tower
PRISME
10 SP AST
UL/NFPRF, Series I
UL/NIJ Houses
UL/NIST Vents
Vettori Flat Ceiling
Vettori Sloped Ceiling
WTC
1
1 10 100 1000
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

Figure 7.55: Summary of ceiling jet temperature predictions.

395
7.2 Sprinkler Activation Times
There are two ways to evaluate the model’s ability to predict sprinkler activation. The first is to simply
compare the total number of predicted versus observed activations. The second is to compare the time to first
activation. Comparing the total number of activations indirectly indicates if the model accurately predicts
the cooling of the hot gases by the water spray. Comparing time to first activation indirectly indicates if the
model accurately predicts the velocity and temperature of the ceiling jet.

7.2.1 Time to First Sprinkler Activation

Figure 7.56 compares measured and predicted sprinkler activation times. For the UL/NFPRF experiments,
only the time to first activation is compared because the resulting water spray sometimes delays the second
activation substantially. While the model accounts for the cooling effect of the spray, the disruption of the
activation sequence is somewhat random. A better way to check the accuracy of the model is to compare the
predicted and measured total number of activation, which is discussed in the next section. For the Vettori
experiments, the sprinklers did not flow water; thus, it is possible to consider the activation times of up to
four sprinklers.

Sprinkler Activation Time

Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.06
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.16
Model Bias Factor: 1.04
Predicted Time to Activation (s)

Bittern Sprinkler Experiments

100
UL/NFPRF, Commodity
UL/NFPRF, Series I
UL/NFPRF, Series II
Vettori Flat Ceiling
Vettori Sloped Ceiling

10
10 100
Measured Time to Activation (s)

Figure 7.56: Comparison of measured and predicted sprinkler actuation times.

396
7.2.2 Number of Sprinkler Activations
The figures on the following pages display the number of sprinklers actuated as a function of time. The
results are summarized in Fig. 7.63. The discussion of the uncertainty for this quantity can be found in
Section 4.3.2.
Note that no sprinklers were installed for Test 11, Series I.

397
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 1 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 2

15 15
Actuations

Actuations
10 10

5 5
Exp (Act1) Exp (Act2)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 3 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 4

15 15
Actuations

Actuations
10 10

5 5
Exp (Act3) Exp (Act4)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 5 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 6

15 15
Actuations

Actuations

10 10

5 5
Exp (Act5) Exp (Act6)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 7 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 8

15 15
Actuations

Actuations

10 10

5 5
Exp (Act7) Exp (Act8)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.57: UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series I, Tests 1-8.

398
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 9 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 10

15 15
Actuations

Actuations
10 10

5 5
Exp (Act9) Exp (Act10)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 12

15

Actuations
10

5
Exp (Act12)
FDS (Acts)
0
0 5 10 15
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 13 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 14

15 15
Actuations

Actuations

10 10

5 5
Exp (Act13) Exp (Act14)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 15 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 16

15 15
Actuations

Actuations

10 10

5 5
Exp (Act15) Exp (Act16)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.58: UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series I, Tests 9-16.

399
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 17 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 18

15 15
Actuations

Actuations
10 10

5 5
Exp (Act17) Exp (Act18)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 19 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 20

15 15
Actuations

Actuations

10 10

5 5
Exp (Act19) Exp (Act20)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 21 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series I, Test 22

15 15
Actuations

Actuations

10 10

5 5
Exp (Act21) Exp (Act22)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.59: UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series I, Tests 17-22.

400
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 1 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 2
40 40

30 30
Actuations

Actuations
20 20

10 10
Exp (Act1) Exp (Act2)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 3 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 4
40 40

30 30
Actuations

Actuations

20 20

10 10
Exp (Act3) Exp (Act4)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 5 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 6
40 40

30 30
Actuations

Actuations

20 20

10 10
Exp (Act5) Exp (Act6)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.60: UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series II, Tests 1-6.

401
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 7 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 8
40 40

30 30
Actuations

Actuations
20 20

10 10
Exp (Act7) Exp (Act8)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 9 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 10
40 40

30 30
Actuations

Actuations

20 20

10 10
Exp (Act9) Exp (Act10)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 11 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Series II, Test 12
40 40

30 30
Actuations

Actuations

20 20

10 10
Exp (Act11) Exp (Act12)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 7.61: UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Series II, Tests 7-12.

402
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
30 30
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Commodity, Test P-1 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Commodity, Test P-2
25 25

20 20
Actuations

Actuations
15 15

10 10

5 Exp (Act1)
5 Exp (Act2)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
30 30
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Commodity, Test P-3 Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Commodity, Test P-4
25 25

20 20
Actuations

Actuations

15 15

10 10

5 Exp (Act3)
5 Exp (Act4)
FDS (Acts) FDS (Acts)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
30
Actuations, UL/NFPRF, Commodity, Test P-5
25

20
Actuations

15

10

5 Exp (Act5)
FDS (Acts)
0
0 5 10 15
Time (min)

Figure 7.62: UL/NFPRF experiments, number of sprinkler activations, Group A Commodity, Tests 1-5.

403
 100
Sprinkler Actuations
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.15
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.46
Model Bias Factor: 1.08
Predicted Actuations

UL/NFPRF, Commodity
10 UL/NFPRF, Series I
UL/NFPRF, Series II

1
1 10 100
Measured Actuations

Figure 7.63: Comparison of the number of predicted and measured sprinkler activations.

404
7.3 Smoke Detector Activation Times
FDS can model smoke detector activation in two ways. The first method is based on the assumption that
activation occurs when the gas temperature near the detector rises above a given threshold. Essentially this
method treats the smoke detector exactly like a heat detector with a relatively low RTI value. Figure 7.64
compares the measured versus predicted smoke detector activation times using a heat detector/temperature
√
rise approach. The heat detectors were set with an RTI of 5 m · s and an activation temperature of 5 ◦C
above ambient, based on the suggestion of Bukowski and Averill [320].

Smoke Detector Activation Time, Temp. Rise

Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.33
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.33
100 Model Bias Factor: 1.21
Predicted Time to Activation (s)

NIST Smoke Alarms

10

1
1 10 100
Measured Time to Activation (s)

Figure 7.64: Summary of smoke detector activation times (using temperature rise), NIST Smoke Alarms.

The second method of predicting smoke detector activation is to use an empirical model of the smoke
transit time within the device to estimate when the smoke concentration will rise above a particular threshold
value set by the manufacturer. Figure 7.65 compares the measured versus predicted smoke detector activa-
tion times using the smoke detector model. Note that the test report [241] does not provide the parameters
that characterize the smoke transit time within the detector. Instead, generic values are used.

405
 Smoke Detector Activation Time
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.27
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.27
100 Model Bias Factor: 0.61
Predicted Time to Activation (s)

NIST Smoke Alarms

10

1
1 10 100
Measured Time to Activation (s)

Figure 7.65: Summary of smoke detector activation times (using smoke detector model), NIST Smoke Alarms.

406
Chapter 8

Gas Velocity

Gas velocity is often measured at compartment inlets and outlets as part of a global assessment of mass and
energy conservation. This chapter contains measurements of gas velocity and related quantities.

8.1 ATF Corridor Experiments

Comparisons of bi-directional velocity measurements with FDS predictions for the ATF Corridor experi-
ments are presented on the following pages. Velocity measurements were made at four locations, two on the
first level (Trees H and I) and two on the second level (Trees J and K). Shown are the upper-most and lower-
most probe for each vertical array. Typically there were four probes per tree, with the number 1 indicating
the upper-most probe.

407
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree H ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree H
1.5 1.5

1 1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
Exp (Vel_H01) Exp (Vel_H01)
Exp (Vel_H04) Exp (Vel_H04)
0.5 FDS(H-01)
0.5 FDS(H-01)
FDS(H-04) FDS(H-04)
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2
ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree H
1.5

1
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Vel_H01)
Exp (Vel_H04)
0.5 FDS(H-01)
FDS(H-04)
0

-0.5

-1
0 5 10 15 20
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree H ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Tree H
2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

1 1
Exp (Vel_H04) Exp (Vel_H04)
FDS(H-04) FDS(H-04)
0 0

-1 -1

-2 -2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.1: ATF Corridors, gas velocity, first level, Location H.

408
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree I ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree I
1.5 1.5

1 1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
Exp (Vel_I01) Exp (Vel_I01)
Exp (Vel_I04) Exp (Vel_I04)
0.5 FDS(I-01)
0.5 FDS(I-01)
FDS(I-04) FDS(I-04)
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
ATF Corridors, 240 kW, Tree I ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree I
1.5 1.5

1 1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Vel_I01) Exp (Vel_I01)

Exp (Vel_I04) Exp (Vel_I04)
0.5 FDS(I-01)
0.5 FDS(I-01)
FDS(I-04) FDS(I-04)
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree I ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Tree I
2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

1 Exp (Vel_I01) 1 Exp (Vel_I01)

Exp (Vel_I04) Exp (Vel_I04)
FDS(I-01) FDS(I-01)
0 FDS(I-04) 0 FDS(I-04)

-1 -1

-2 -2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.2: ATF Corridors, gas velocity, first level, Location I.

409
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree J ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree J
1.5 1.5

1 1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
Exp (Vel_J01) Exp (Vel_J02)
Exp (Vel_J04) Exp (Vel_J04)
0.5 FDS(J-01)
0.5 FDS(J-02)
FDS(J-04) FDS(J-04)
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
ATF Corridors, 240 kW, Tree J ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree J
1.5 1.5

1 1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Vel_J01) Exp (Vel_J01)

Exp (Vel_J04) Exp (Vel_J04)
0.5 FDS(J-01)
0.5 FDS(J-01)
FDS(J-04) FDS(J-04)
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree J ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Tree J
2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

1 Exp (Vel_J01) 1 Exp (Vel_J01)

Exp (Vel_J04) Exp (Vel_J04)
FDS(J-01) FDS(J-01)
0 FDS(J-04) 0 FDS(J-04)

-1 -1

-2 -2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.3: ATF Corridors, gas velocity, second level, Location J.

410
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
ATF Corridors, 50 kW, Tree K ATF Corridors, 100 kW, Tree K
1.5 1.5

1 1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
Exp (Vel_K01) Exp (Vel_K01)
Exp (Vel_K04) Exp (Vel_K04)
0.5 FDS(K-01)
0.5 FDS(K-01)
FDS(K-04) FDS(K-04)
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
ATF Corridors, 240 kW, Tree K ATF Corridors, 250 kW, Tree K
1.5 1.5

1 1
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Vel_K01) Exp (Vel_K01)

Exp (Vel_K04) Exp (Vel_K04)
0.5 FDS(K-01)
0.5 FDS(K-01)
FDS(K-04) FDS(K-04)
0 0

-0.5 -0.5

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
ATF Corridors, 500 kW, Tree K ATF Corridors, Pulsed HRR, Tree K
2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

1 Exp (Vel_K01) 1 Exp (Vel_K01)

Exp (Vel_K04) Exp (Vel_K04)
FDS(K-01) FDS(K-01)
0 FDS(K-04) 0 FDS(K-04)

-1 -1

-2 -2
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.4: ATF Corridors, gas velocity, second level, Location K.

411
8.2 Backward Facing Step
A snapshot the instantaneous velocity contours of the flow over a backward facing step is shown in Fig. 8.5.
The dimensions of the tunnel are given in Fig. 3.2. Virtual measurement devices are placed throughout the
channel to collect data relating to flow characteristics such as velocity, turbulence RMS velocity, and friction
velocity. These virtual measurement devices are placed into lines, four vertical and one horizontal, with a
device in the volumetric center of each grid cell. A vertical line device is placed within the inlet region at
a location of x = −3h, and three line devices are placed in the post-step region at locations of 4h, 6h, and
10h. The post-step vertical line devices are placed accordingly to sample the recirculation, reattachment,
and recovery regions. A horizontal line device is used to sample data directly adjacent to the bottom wall of
the channel in the post-step region (0h to 20h).

Figure 8.5: Instantaneous contours of velocity magnitude.

The profile of the inlet streamwise velocity component, u(z), is specified using experimental data pro-
vided by Jovic and Driver [50], while the transverse components, v(z) and w(z), are set to zero. Turbulent
eddies are injected using the Synthetic Eddy Method of Jarrin [307]. Eddies are injected at random locations
in the bottom two inlets, advected with the flow over a distance equal to the maximum eddy length scale and
recycled at the inlet. The inlet maximum eddy length scale is 0.03 m, the number of eddies is 100, and the
RMS velocity is set to 0.5 m/s for the middle inlet and 1.0 m/s for the bottom inlet to match the measured
inlet data at x/h = −3 as closely as possible.
The boundary conditions for velocity and pressure on the top of the domain are “mirror”, that is, zero
gradient. The spanwise boundaries are periodic. The outlet boundary is “open”.
Figure 8.6 shows the longitudinal profiles of the friction coefficient (left) and the pressure coefficient
(right). The x/h location where C f crosses zero is the reattachment length, a key validation metric for this
flow. The measured value is approximately 6. Figure 8.7 shows the inlet (x/h = −3) and downstream mean
and covariance profiles.

412
 -3 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10
4 0.25
3
0.2
2
0.15
1
f
C

0 0.1
C

-1
J&D 0.05 J&D
-2 h/ x =5 h/ x =5
h/ x =10 0 h/ x =10
-3
h/ x =20 h/ x =20
-4 -0.05
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
x/h x/h

Figure 8.6: Longitudinal profiles of (left) friction coefficient and (right) pressure coefficient.

413
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3.5 3.5
x/h =-3 x/h =4 x/h =6 x/h =10 x/h =-3 x/h =4 x/h =6 x/h =10
3 3

2.5 2.5

2 2
z/h

z/h
1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 0.5 1 -0.1 0 0.1
<u>/U 0 <w>/U 0

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3.5 3.5
x/h =-3 x/h =4 x/h =6 x/h =10 x/h =-3 x/h =4 x/h =6 x/h =10
3 3

2.5 2.5

2 2
z/h

z/h

1.5 1.5

1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0 0.02 0.04
<uu>/U 20 <ww>/U 20
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3.5
x/h =-3 x/h =4 x/h =6 x/h =10
3

2.5

2
z/h

1.5

0.5

0
0 0.02 0.04
-<uw>/U 20

Figure 8.7: Flow profiles for various grid resolutions. Symbols: –?–, h/δ z=5; ––, h/δ z=10; –♦–, h/δ z=20; ◦, J&D
experimental data.

414
8.3 Bryant Doorway Experiments
On the following page there are seven plots comparing the predicted and measured centerline velocity1
profiles in a doorway of a standard ISO 9705 compartment. The measurements shown are based on PIV
(Particle Image Velocimetry). Note that some of the measurements do not extend to the top of the doorway
(1.96 m above the compartment floor) because the heat from the fire prevented adequate laser resolution of
the particles. Velocity measurements were also made using bi-directional probes [143], but these measure-
ments were shown to be up to 20 % greater in magnitude than the comparable PIV measurement.

1 Note that the quantity that is being compared is the total velocity multiplied by the sign of its normal component.

415
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

Bryant Doorway, 34 kW Bryant Doorway, 65 kW

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (34kW) Exp (65kW)
FDS (Door_q) FDS (Door_q)
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

Bryant Doorway, 96 kW Bryant Doorway, 128 kW

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (96kW) Exp (129kW)
FDS (Door_q) FDS (Door_q)
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

Bryant Doorway, 160 kW Bryant Doorway, 320 kW

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (160kW) Exp (320kW)
FDS (Door_q) FDS (Door_q)
0 0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4 -2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

Bryant Doorway, 511 kW

1.5
Height (m)

0.5
Exp (511kW)
FDS (Door_q)
0
-2 -1 0 1 2 3 4
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.8: Bryant Doorway experiments, gas velocity profiles.

416
8.4 Edinburgh Vegetation Drag
The following figures show average velocities, taken over a 60 s period and obtained 225 mm from the
leading edge of the fuel bed, as shown in Figure 3.10. In the case of the simulations, averaging starts after
20 s in order to allow quasi-steady conditions to establish. The experimental points represent an average of
two repeats, involving re-packing of the fuel bed.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
20 kg/m³, 0.5 m/s 20 kg/m³, 1 m/s
8 8
Height (cm)

Height (cm)
6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
20 kg/m³, 1.5 m/s 20 kg/m³, 2 m/s
8 8
Height (cm)

Height (cm)

6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 1 2 3 4
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.9: Edinburgh Vegetation Drag, gas velocity profiles, low bulk density.

417
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
40 kg/m³, 0.5 m/s 40 kg/m³, 1 m/s
8 8
Height (cm)

Height (cm)
6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
40 kg/m³, 1.5 m/s 40 kg/m³, 2 m/s
8 8
Height (cm)

Height (cm)

6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.10: Edinburgh Vegetation Drag, gas velocity profiles, medium bulk density.

418
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
60 kg/m³, 0.5 m/s 60 kg/m³, 1 m/s
8 8
Height (cm)

Height (cm)
6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
60 kg/m³, 1.5 m/s 60 kg/m³, 2 m/s
8 8
Height (cm)

Height (cm)

6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 1 2 3 4 0 1 2 3 4 5 6
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.11: Edinburgh Vegetation Drag, gas velocity profiles, high bulk density.

419
8.5 FM/FPRF Datacenter Experiments
On the following page there are eight plots comparing the predicted and measured velocities for the high
and low fan speed flow mapping tests in the FM/FPRF datacenter mockup. For each test there are plots for
u-velocity, v-velocity, w-velocity and total velocity. Error bars are the measured and predicted RMS values.
The dotted lines represent the measurement error. Measurement error was not a simple percentage of the
measured value but rather was a propagation of fan flow error (the primary FDS input), sonic anemometer
intrinsic error, and an estimate of the error based on the accuracy of placing the anemometer (determined
from attempts to make repeat measurements after removing and replacing the probe).

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5

0.4 1

0.2 0.5

Predicted V-Velocity (m/s)

Predicted U-Velocity (m/s)

0 0

-0.2 -0.5

-0.4 -1

-0.6 -1.5
-0.6 -0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 -1.5 -1 -0.5 0 0.5 1 1.5
Measured U-Velocity (m/s) Measured V-Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.8 1.4

1.2
0.6

1
Predicted Total Velocity (m/s)

0.4
Predicted W-Velocity (m/s)

0.8
0.2
0.6

0
0.4

-0.2
0.2

-0.4 0
-0.4 -0.2 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2
Measured W-Velocity (m/s) Measured Total Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.12: FM/FPRF experiments, gas velocity, low fan rate.

420
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 5

4
1.5
3
1
2

Predicted V-Velocity (m/s)

Predicted U-Velocity (m/s)

0.5
1

0 0

-1
-0.5
-2
-1
-3
-1.5
-4

-2 -5
-2 -1 0 1 2 -5 0 5
Measured U-Velocity (m/s) Measured V-Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 5

4.5
2.5
4
2
3.5
Predicted Total Velocity (m/s)
Predicted W-Velocity (m/s)

1.5
3

1 2.5

2
0.5
1.5
0
1
-0.5
0.5

-1 0
-1 0 1 2 3 0 1 2 3 4 5
Measured W-Velocity (m/s) Measured Total Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.13: FM/FPRF experiments, gas velocity, high fan rate.

421
8.6 McCaffrey’s Plume Correlation
The following plots show the results of simulations of McCaffrey’s five fires at three grid resolutions, nom-
inally D∗ /δ x = [5, 10, 20] (respectively, coarse, medium, and fine resolution).
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4
McCaffrey Plume, 14 kW 4 McCaffrey Plume, 22 kW

3
3
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Vel 14 kW) Exp (Vel 22 kW)
FDS vel coarse FDS vel coarse
2 FDS vel medium FDS vel medium
2
FDS vel fine FDS vel fine

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
McCaffrey Plume, 33 kW 5 McCaffrey Plume, 45 kW
4
4
3
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Vel 33 kW) Exp (Vel 45 kW)

FDS vel coarse 3 FDS vel coarse
FDS vel medium FDS vel medium
2 FDS vel fine FDS vel fine
2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6
McCaffrey Plume, 57 kW
5

4
Height (m)

Exp (Vel 57 kW)

FDS vel coarse
3 FDS vel medium
FDS vel fine
2

0
0 1 2 3 4 5
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.14: McCaffrey Plumes, centerline plume velocity.

422
 Below we plot the same results but arranged in a different way. The height dimension is scaled by the
fire Froude number and each plot represents nominally the same resolution level.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
2.5 McCaffrey Centerline Velocity, Coarse 2.5 McCaffrey Centerline Velocity, Medium

2 2
=0 =0
1.5 1.5
=1/2 =-1/3 =1/2 =-1/3
1 1

0.5 0.5
10 -2 10 -1 10 0 10 -2 10 -1 10 0

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3
2.5 McCaffrey Centerline Velocity, Fine

2
=0
1.5
=1/2 =-1/3
1

0.5
10 -2 10 -1 10 0

Figure 8.15: McCaffrey Plumes, centerline plume velocity, Froude scaling.

423
8.7 NIST Pool Fires
Figure 8.16 displays centerline profiles of mean vertical velocity for 30 cm acetone, ethanol, and methanol
pool fires; and 37 cm methane and propane gas burners [329].
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5

Figure 8.16: NIST Pool Fires, centerline profiles of mean vertical velocity for 30 cm acetone, methanol, and ethanol
liquid pool fires, a 37 cm methane fire, and propane fires of 20 kW and 34 kW.

424
8.8 PRISME DOOR Experiments
Bi-directional probes were placed in the doorway separating the two compartments of the PRISME DOOR
experiments. Shown on the plots below are the uppermost and lowest measurement points.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
PRISME DOOR Test 1, Doorway Velocity PRISME DOOR Test 2, Doorway Velocity
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
0 0

Exp (V_L1_L2_205) Exp (V_L1_L2_205)

Exp (V_L1_L2_005) Exp (V_L1_L2_005)
FDS (V_L1_L2_205) FDS (V_L1_L2_205)
FDS (V_L1_L2_005) FDS (V_L1_L2_005)
-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
PRISME DOOR Test 3, Doorway Velocity PRISME DOOR Test 4, Doorway Velocity
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

0 0

Exp (V_L1_L2_205) Exp (V_L1_L2_205)

Exp (V_L1_L2_005) Exp (V_L1_L2_005)
FDS (V_L1_L2_205) FDS (V_L1_L2_205)
FDS (V_L1_L2_005) FDS (V_L1_L2_005)
-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
PRISME DOOR Test 5, Doorway Velocity PRISME DOOR Test 6, Doorway Velocity
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

0 0

Exp (V_L1_L2_205) Exp (V_L1_L2_205)

Exp (V_L1_L2_005) Exp (V_L1_L2_005)
FDS (V_L1_L2_205) FDS (V_L1_L2_205)
FDS (V_L1_L2_005) FDS (V_L1_L2_005)
-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.17: PRISME DOOR experiments, gas velocity.

425
8.9 Restivo Experiment
The results of a simulation of Restivo’s room ventilation experiment are presented below. To capture the
forced inlet flow, the volume near the supply slot needs a fairly fine grid to capture the mixing of air at
the shear layer. For the results shown here, the height of the inlet was spanned with 6 grid cells, roughly
3 cm in the vertical dimension, 6 cm in the other two. Finer grids were used in the Musser study [38],
but with no appreciable change in results. The component of velocity in the lengthwise direction was
measured in four arrays: two vertical arrays located 3 m and 6 m from the inlet along the centerline of the
room, and two horizontal arrays located 8.4 cm above the floor and below the ceiling, respectively. These
measurements were taken using hot-wire anemometers. While data on the specific instrumentation used are
not readily available, hot-wire systems tend to have limitations at low velocities, with typical thresholds of
approximately 0.1 m/s.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.4 0.4
Velocity 3 m from Inlet Velocity 6 m from Inlet
0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
0.1 0.1

0 0

-0.1 Exp (u (3 m))

-0.1 Exp (u (6 m))
FDS (u_left) FDS (u_right)
-0.2 -0.2
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Height (m) Height (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.6 0.4
Velocity 8.4 cm below Ceiling Velocity 8.4 cm above Floor

0.4 0.2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

0.2 0

0 -0.2
Exp (u (ceiling)) Exp (u (floor))
FDS (u_top) FDS (u_bottom)
-0.2 -0.4
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Length (m) Length (m)

Figure 8.18: Restivo experiment, gas velocity.

426
8.10 Steckler Compartment Experiments
Steckler et al. [289] mapped the doorway/window flows in 55 compartment fire experiments. The test matrix
is presented in Table 3.31. Shown on the following pages are the centerline velocity profiles, compared with
model predictions. Off-center profiles are not considered. The vertical spacing of the measurements was
approximately 11 cm, with the uppermost velocity probe centered 5.7 cm below the 10 cm thick soffit. The
FDS simulations were uniformly gridded with cells of 5 cm on each side. To quantify the difference between
prediction and measurement, the maximum outward velocities, which always occurred at the uppermost
measurement location, were compared. It has been found that relatively minor changes in the velocity
boundary conditions at the edges and bottom of the door soffit can have a noticeable impact on these results.

427
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 10 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 11

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 12 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 612

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 13 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 14

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 18 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 710

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.19: Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 10, 11, 12, 13, 14, 18, 612, 710.

428
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 810 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 16

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 17 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 22

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 23 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 30

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 41 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 19

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.20: Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 16, 17, 19, 22, 23, 30, 41, 810.

429
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 20 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 21

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 114 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 144

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 212 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 242

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 410 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 210

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.21: Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 20, 21, 114, 144, 210, 212, 242, 410.

430
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 310 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 240

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 116 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 122

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 224 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 324

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 220 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 221

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.22: Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 116, 122, 220, 221, 224, 240, 310, 324.

431
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 514 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 544

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 512 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 542

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 610 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 510

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 540 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 517

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.23: Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 510, 512, 514, 517, 540, 542, 544, 610.

432
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 622 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 522

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 524 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 541

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 520 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 521

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 513 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 160

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.24: Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 160, 513, 520, 521, 522, 524, 541, 622.

433
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 163 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 164

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 165 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 162

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 167 2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 161

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (V_C) Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door) FDS (BP_Door)
0 0
-1 0 1 2 3 -1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s) Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2 Velocity Profile, Steckler Test 166

1.5
Height (m)

0.5
Exp (V_C)
FDS (BP_Door)
0
-1 0 1 2 3
Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.25: Steckler experiments, velocity profiles, Tests 161, 162, 163, 164, 165, 166, 167.

434
8.11 UL/NIJ House Experiments
Details of the UL/NIJ Experiments are presented in Section 3.77.
Velocity was measured at (typically) five vertical locations in the open windows and doorways of the
two houses. The bi-directional probes were evenly spaced through the height of each opening.
In the single story house, the velocity profiles in the front doorway and Window E or F are used for
comparison. In the two story house, the profiles in the front doorway and Windows K, L or A are used.
Note that this data has not been included in the summary scatter plot, Fig. 8.43 because it is too noisy
to make precise comparisons. It is included here mainly for qualitative comparison.

435
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
Velocity, Single Story House, Test 1, Window E Velocity, Single Story House, Test 1, Front Door

2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
1 1

0 0

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
Velocity, Single Story House, Test 2, Window E Velocity, Single Story House, Test 2, Front Door

2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

1 1

0 0

-1 -1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3
Velocity, Single Story House, Test 5, Window F
Exp (Higher)
2 Exp (High)
Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
1 FDS (Lower)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Middle)
FDS (High)
0 FDS (Higher)

-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 8.26: UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, single story house, Tests 1, 2, and 5.

436
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 1, Front Door
2
Exp (Higher)
Exp (High)
1 Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
0 FDS (Higher)
FDS (High)
-1 FDS (Middle)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Lower)
-2

-3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 1, Window K
4
Exp (Higher)
Exp (High)
3 Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
2 FDS (Higher)
FDS (High)
1 FDS (Middle)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Lower)
0

-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 1, Window L
4
Exp (Higher)
Exp (High)
3 Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
2 FDS (Higher)
FDS (High)
1 FDS (Middle)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Lower)
0

-1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 8.27: UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, two-story house, Test 1.

437
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 4, Front Door
2
Exp (Higher)
Exp (High)
1 Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
0 FDS (Higher)
FDS (High)
-1 FDS (Middle)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Lower)
-2

-3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 4, Window K
3
Exp (Higher)
Exp (High)
2 Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
1 FDS (Higher)
FDS (High)
0 FDS (Middle)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Lower)
-1

-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 4, Window L
3

2 Exp (High)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Middle)
Exp (Lower)
1 FDS (High)
FDS (Middle)
0 FDS (Lower)

-1

-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 8.28: UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, two-story house, Test 4.

438
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 6, Window K
3
Exp (Higher)
Exp (High)
2 Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
1 FDS (Higher)
FDS (High)
0 FDS (Middle)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Lower)
-1

-2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 6, Window A
1

0 Exp (Low)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Middle)
Exp (High)
-1 FDS (High)
FDS (Middle)
-2 FDS (Low)

-3

-4
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3
Velocity, Two-Story House, Test 6, Front Door
2
Exp (Higher)
Exp (High)
1 Exp (Middle)
Velocity (m/s)

Exp (Low)
Exp (Lower)
0 FDS (Higher)
FDS (High)
-1 FDS (Middle)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Lower)
-2

-3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 8.29: UL/NIJ Experiments, Velocity, two-story house, Test 6.

439
8.12 Waterloo Methanol Pool Fire Experiment
Figures 8.30 through 8.32 display radial profiles of measured and predicted mean (left hand plots) and root
mean square (right hand plots) values of the vertical velocity above a 30 cm diameter methanol pool fire.
The root mean square of the vertical velocity is given by:
s

1/2 ∑ni=1 (wi − w)2
w0 w0 = (8.1)
n−1

where wi is the instantaneous value of the vertical velocity and w is the average value over 50 s. The profile
heights range from 2 cm to 30 cm above the pool surface. Time resolved velocity measurements were
performed using a two component laser doppler anemometer.
Figures 8.33 through 8.35 display radial profiles of measured and predicted mean (left hand plots) and
root mean square (right hand plots) values of the horizontal velocity.
Figures 8.36 through 8.37 display radial profiles of measured and predicted estimates of the horizontal
and vertical velocity covariance:
∑n (ui − u)(wi − w)
u0 w0 = i=1 (8.2)
n−1
where ui and wi are instantaneous values of the horizontal and vertical components of velocity and u and w
are 50 s time averages.
The FDS results are shown at three grid resolutions, 0.5 cm, 1 cm, and 2 cm.

440
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 2

2 1.5

1 1

0 0.5

-1 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 2

2 1.5

1 1

0 0.5

-1 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 2

2 1.5

1 1

0 0.5

-1 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 2

2 1.5

1 1

0 0.5

-1 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.30: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms vertical velocity, 2 cm to 8 cm above the burner.

441
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 2

2 1.5

1 1

0 0.5

-1 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 2

2 1.5

1 1

0 0.5

-1 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
4 2

3 1.5

2 1

1 0.5

0 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
4 2

3 1.5

2 1

1 0.5

0 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.31: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms vertical velocity, 10 cm to 16 cm above the burner.

442
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
4 2

3 1.5

2 1

1 0.5

0 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
4 2

3 1.5

2 1

1 0.5

0 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
4 2

3 1.5

2 1

1 0.5

0 0
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.32: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms vertical velocity, 18 cm to 30 cm above the burner.

443
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.33: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms horizontal velocity, 2 cm to 8 cm above the burner.

444
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.34: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms horizontal velocity, 10 cm to 16 cm above the burner.

445
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.5 0.8

0.6

0
0.4

0.2
-0.5

-1 -0.2
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.35: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of mean and rms horizontal velocity, 18 cm to 30 cm above the burner.

446
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.36: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of u0 w0 , 2 cm to 12 cm above the burner.

447
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0

-0.2 -0.2

-0.4 -0.4
-5 0 5 10 15 20 -5 0 5 10 15 20

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4

0.2

-0.2

-0.4
-5 0 5 10 15 20

Figure 8.37: Waterloo Methanol, radial profiles of u0 w0 , 14 cm to 30 cm above the burner.

448
8.13 WTC Experiments
Bi-directional probes were positioned inside two of the four inlet openings and three of the four outlet
openings. The locations are shown in Fig. 8.38. Exact dimensions are given in Ref. [69].

6r 4r 1r 9r

7r 2r

8r 5r 3r 10 r

Above: Outlet vents on the east wall looking outwards.

Below: Inlet vents on the west wall looking inwards.

1r 6r

2r 7r

3r 8r

Figure 8.38: Layout of the bi-directional probes in the inlet (west wall) and outlet (east wall) vents, WTC Experiments.

449
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 3
Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 1 Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 2
2.5 2.5

2 Exp (1 Vel in) 2 Exp (1 Vel in)

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
Exp (2 Vel in) Exp (2 Vel in)
Exp (3 Vel in) Exp (3 Vel in)
1.5 FDS (PI1)
1.5 FDS (PI1)
FDS (PI2) FDS (PI2)
1 FDS (PI3) 1 FDS (PI3)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 3
Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 3 Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 4
2.5 2.5

2 Exp (1 Vel in) 2 Exp (1 Vel in)

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

Exp (2 Vel in) Exp (2 Vel in)

Exp (3 Vel in) Exp (3 Vel in)
1.5 FDS (PI1)
1.5 FDS (PI1)
FDS (PI2) FDS (PI2)
1 FDS (PI3) 1 FDS (PI3)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 3
Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 5 Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 6
2.5 2.5

2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

1.5 1.5
Exp (1 Vel in) Exp (1 Vel in)
1 Exp (2 Vel in) 1 Exp (2 Vel in)
Exp (3 Vel in) Exp (3 Vel in)
FDS (PI1) FDS (PI1)
0.5 FDS (PI2)
0.5 FDS (PI2)
FDS (PI3) FDS (PI3)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.39: WTC experiments, inlet velocity, Points 1-3.

450
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 3
Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 1 Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 2
2.5 2.5

2 Exp (6 Vel in) 2 Exp (6 Vel in)

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
Exp (7 Vel in) Exp (7 Vel in)
Exp (8 Vel in) Exp (8 Vel in)
1.5 FDS (PI6)
1.5 FDS (PI6)
FDS (PI7) FDS (PI7)
1 FDS (PI8) 1 FDS (PI8)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 3
Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 3 Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 4
2.5 2.5

2 Exp (6 Vel in) 2 Exp (6 Vel in)

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

Exp (7 Vel in) Exp (7 Vel in)

Exp (8 Vel in) Exp (8 Vel in)
1.5 FDS (PI6)
1.5 FDS (PI6)
FDS (PI7) FDS (PI7)
1 FDS (PI8) 1 FDS (PI8)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
3 3
Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 5 Inflow Velocity, WTC Test 6
2.5 2.5

2 2
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

1.5 1.5
Exp (6 Vel in) Exp (6 Vel in)
1 Exp (7 Vel in) 1 Exp (7 Vel in)
Exp (8 Vel in) Exp (8 Vel in)
FDS (PI6) FDS (PI6)
0.5 FDS (PI7)
0.5 FDS (PI7)
FDS (PI8) FDS (PI8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.40: WTC experiments, inlet velocity, Points 6-8.

451
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
10 10
Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 1 Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 2
8 Exp (1 Vel out) 8 Exp (1 Vel out)
Exp (2 Vel out) Exp (2 Vel out)
Exp (3 Vel out) Exp (3 Vel out)
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
6 Exp (4 Vel out) 6 Exp (4 Vel out)
Exp (5 Vel out) Exp (5 Vel out)
FDS (PO1) FDS (PO1)
4 FDS (PO2) 4 FDS (PO2)
FDS (PO3) FDS (PO3)
FDS (PO4) FDS (PO4)
2 FDS (PO5) 2 FDS (PO5)

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
10 10
Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 3 Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 4
8 Exp (1 Vel out) 8 Exp (1 Vel out)
Exp (2 Vel out) Exp (2 Vel out)
Exp (3 Vel out) Exp (3 Vel out)
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

6 Exp (4 Vel out) 6 Exp (4 Vel out)

Exp (5 Vel out) Exp (5 Vel out)
FDS (PO1) FDS (PO1)
4 FDS (PO2) 4 FDS (PO2)
FDS (PO3) FDS (PO3)
FDS (PO4) FDS (PO4)
2 FDS (PO5) 2 FDS (PO5)

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
12 12
Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 5 Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 6
10 10

8 Exp (1 Vel out) 8 Exp (1 Vel out)

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

Exp (2 Vel out) Exp (2 Vel out)

6 Exp (3 Vel out) 6 Exp (3 Vel out)
Exp (4 Vel out) Exp (4 Vel out)
Exp (5 Vel out) Exp (5 Vel out)
4 FDS (PO1) 4 FDS (PO1)
FDS (PO2) FDS (PO2)
FDS (PO3) FDS (PO3)
2 FDS (PO4)
2 FDS (PO4)
FDS (PO5) FDS (PO5)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.41: WTC experiments, outlet velocity, Points 1-5.

452
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
10 10
Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 1 Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 2
8 8 Exp (6 Vel out)
Exp (7 Vel out)
Exp (6 Vel out) Exp (8 Vel out)
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
6 Exp (7 Vel out) 6 Exp (9 Vel out)
Exp (8 Vel out) Exp (10 Vel out)
FDS (PO6) FDS (PO6)
4 FDS (PO7) 4 FDS (PO7)
FDS (PO8) FDS (PO8)
FDS (PO9)
2 2 FDS (PO10)

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
10 10
Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 3 Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 4
8 Exp (6 Vel out) 8 Exp (6 Vel out)
Exp (7 Vel out) Exp (7 Vel out)
Exp (8 Vel out) Exp (8 Vel out)
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

6 Exp (9 Vel out) 6 Exp (9 Vel out)

Exp (10 Vel out) Exp (10 Vel out)
FDS (PO6) FDS (PO6)
4 FDS (PO7) 4 FDS (PO7)
FDS (PO8) FDS (PO8)
FDS (PO9) FDS (PO9)
2 FDS (PO10) 2 FDS (PO10)

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
12 12
Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 5 Outflow Velocity, WTC Test 6
10 10

8 Exp (6 Vel out) 8 Exp (6 Vel out)

Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)

Exp (7 Vel out) Exp (7 Vel out)

6 Exp (8 Vel out) 6 Exp (8 Vel out)
Exp (9 Vel out) Exp (9 Vel out)
Exp (10 Vel out) Exp (10 Vel out)
4 FDS (PO6) 4 FDS (PO6)
FDS (PO7) FDS (PO7)
FDS (PO8) FDS (PO8)
2 FDS (PO9)
2 FDS (PO9)
FDS (PO10) FDS (PO10)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 8.42: WTC experiments, outlet velocity, Points 6-10.

453
8.14 Summary of Velocity Predictions

Velocity
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.08
10
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.08
Model Bias Factor: 1.02

ATF Corridors
Bryant Doorway
Predicted Velocity (m/s)

Edinburgh Vegetation Drag

McCaffrey Plume
NIST Pool Fires
PRISME
Restivo
1
Schoenberg Ekman Layers
Steckler Compartment
WTC
Waterloo Methanol

0.1
0.1 1 10
Measured Velocity (m/s)

Figure 8.43: Summary of comparisons of predicted and measured maximum velocities.

454
8.15 Wu Bakar Tunnel Experiments
This section contains the results of the simulations of the Wu and Bakar experiments described in Sec-
tion 3.74. Five simulations are conducted. In each, the heat release rate is stepped up from its lowest
reported value to its highest, each step lasting 20 s. For each of the eight heat release rates, the tunnel veloc-
ity is set to the reported critical velocity. Temperature readings along the ceiling indicate where the smoke
layer temperature drops below 30 ◦ C, 10 ◦ C above ambient. This is taken as the extent of the back-layer.
Using an empirical correlation for the normalized back-layer length, Lb∗ , developed by Li et al. [338]

18.5 ln(0.81 Q∗1/3 /V ∗ ) Q∗ ≤ 0.15


Lb∗ = (8.3)
18.5 ln(0.43/V ∗ ) Q∗ > 0.15

where
Lb 4A Q V
Lb∗ = ; H̄ = ; Q∗ = p ; V∗ = p (8.4)
H̄ P ρ∞ c p T∞ gH̄ 5 gH̄
the FDS-predicted critical velocity, VFDS , can be estimated from the measured, Vexp , via
 
Lb,FDS
VFDS ≈ Vexp 1 + (8.5)
18.5 H̄

Note that H̄ is known as the hydraulic diameter which takes into consideration the tunnel’s cross-sectional
area, A, and perimeter, P. For a square cross section, the hydraulic diameter equals the tunnel height.

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1

0.1
0.001 0.01 0.1 1 10

Figure 8.44: Wu and Bakar critical velocity correlation with FDS results added.

455
 The non-dimensionalized critical velocity predictions are plotted against the non-dimensionalized HRR
in Fig. 8.44. The solid line in the figure is the correlation developed by Wu and Bakar [291]:

0.4 (Q∗ /0.2)1/3 Q∗ ≤ 0.2


∗
V = (8.6)
0.4 Q∗ > 0.2

456
Chapter 9

Gas Species and Smoke

For most applications, FDS uses a single step, mixing-controlled combustion model. The products of com-
bustion are “lumped” together and tracked as a single gas mixture. These products include CO2 , H2 O, CO,
and soot. However, in some cases, the combustion is incomplete due to a lack of oxygen. In others, a
multiple-step reaction scheme is used to predict the production of CO.

9.1 Major Combustion Products, O2 and CO2

For any hydrocarbon fuel, the major combustion products are oxygen and carbon dioxide. Accurate predic-
tions of these gases requires knowledge of the chemical composition of the fuel and an accurate transport
algorithm for the combustion products.

457
9.1.1 DelCo Trainers
Oxygen and carbon dioxide measurements were made at several locations in the one and two level DelCo
training structures. See Section 3.17 for their exact locations.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.25
CO , DelCo Trainers, Test 2 O , DelCo Trainers, Test 2
2 2
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15

0.1
0.05
Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)
Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.25
CO 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 3 O 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 3
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15

0.1
0.05
Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)
Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.25
CO 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 4 O 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 4
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15

0.1
0.05
Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)
Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.1: DelCo Trainers, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 2-4.

458
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.25
CO , DelCo Trainers, Test 5 O , DelCo Trainers, Test 5
2 2
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15

0.1
0.05
Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)
Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.25
CO 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 6 O 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 6
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15

0.1
0.05
Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)
Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.2: DelCo Trainers, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 5-6.

459
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 22 O 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 22
0.2 0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)

0.05 Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 23 O 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 23
0.2 0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)

0.05 Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 24 O 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 24
0.2 0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)

0.05 Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 25 O 2 , DelCo Trainers, Test 25
0.2 0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

Exp (CO2_A) Exp (O2_A)

0.05 Exp (CO2_B) 0.05 Exp (O2_B)
FDS (CO2_A) FDS (O2_A)
FDS (CO2_B) FDS (O2_B)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.3: DelCo Trainers, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 22-25.

460
9.1.2 FAA Cargo Compartments
Carbon dioxide and carbon monoxide were measured near the ceiling in the forward, middle, and aft sec-
tions of the compartment. Note that all but the middle compartment concentrations were measured in
Tests 2 and 3.
10 -3 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master 10 -4 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
2 2
CO , FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1 CO, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1
2

1.5 1.5
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
Exp (Mid Pan CO2) Exp (Mid Pan CO)
Exp (Aft Pan CO2) Exp (Aft Pan CO)
Exp (TC36 CO2) Exp (TC36 CO)
1 FDS (GasMidCO2)
1 FDS (GasMidCO)
FDS (GasAftCO2) FDS (GasAftCO)
FDS (GasTC36CO2) FDS (GasTC36CO)
0.5 0.5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

10 -3 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master 10 -4 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
2 2
CO 2 , FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2 CO, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2

1.5 1.5
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp (Aft Pan CO2) Exp (Aft Pan CO)

1 FDS (GasAftCO2)
1 FDS (GasAftCO)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

10 -3 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master 10 -4 FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
2 2
CO 2 , FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3 CO, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3

1.5 1.5
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp (Aft Pan CO2) Exp (Aft Pan CO)

1 FDS (GasAftCO2)
1 FDS (GasAftCO)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.4: FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration.

461
9.1.3 LLNL Enclosure
Oxygen and carbon dioxide concentrations were reported for a single location within the LLNL Enclosure.
The test report [213] specifies the lateral location of the sensors (1.5 m from the wall opposite the exhaust
duct, along the room centerline), but the reported height is only “top of room.” In the model, the sensors
were located 4.3 m off the floor, 0.2 m below the ceiling of the compartment.
For some experiments, only two concentrations are reported, one being the ambient value. The results
of these experiments are shown for completeness, but the values are not included in the calculation of the
accuracy statistics.
Also, the test report does not indicate whether the reported volume fractions were taken to be “wet” or
“dry”; that is, whether the water vapor was condensed out of the sample. For the sake of comparison, the
FDS results are assumed to be “dry”.
Further details of the modeling can be found in Section 3.35.

462
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 1 CO 2 , Test 1
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 2 CO 2 , Test 2
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 3 CO 2 , Test 3
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 4 CO 2 , Test 4
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.5: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 1-4.

463
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 5 CO 2 , Test 5
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 6 CO 2 , Test 6
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 7 CO 2 , Test 7
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 8 CO 2 , Test 8
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.6: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 5-8.

464
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 9 CO 2 , Test 9
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , Test 10 CO 2 , Test 10
0.08
0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.06
0.15
0.04

0.1
0.02
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.05 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 11 CO 2 , Test 11
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 12 CO 2 , Test 12
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.7: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 9-12.

465
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 13 CO 2 , Test 13
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 14 CO 2 , Test 14
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 15 CO 2 , Test 15
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 16 CO 2 , Test 16
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.8: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 13-16.

466
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 17 CO 2 , Test 17
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 18 CO 2 , Test 18
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 19 CO 2 , Test 19
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O , Test 20 CO , Test 20
2 2
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.9: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 17-20.

467
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , Test 21 CO 2 , Test 21
0.08
0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.06
0.15
0.04

0.1
0.02
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.05 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 22 CO 2 , Test 22
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 23 CO 2 , Test 23
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 24 CO 2 , Test 24
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.10: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 21-24.

468
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 25 CO 2 , Test 25
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 26 CO 2 , Test 26
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 27 CO 2 , Test 27
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 28 CO 2 , Test 28
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.11: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 25-28.

469
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 29 CO 2 , Test 29
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 30 CO 2 , Test 30
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 31 CO 2 , Test 31
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 32 CO 2 , Test 32
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.12: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 29-32.

470
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 33 CO 2 , Test 33
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 34 CO 2 , Test 34
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 35 CO 2 , Test 35
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 36 CO 2 , Test 36
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.13: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 33-36.

471
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 37 CO 2 , Test 37
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 38 CO 2 , Test 38
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 39 CO 2 , Test 39
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 40 CO 2 , Test 40
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.14: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 37-40.

472
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 41 CO 2 , Test 41
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 42 CO 2 , Test 42
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 43 CO 2 , Test 43
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 44 CO 2 , Test 44
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.15: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 41-44.

473
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 45 CO 2 , Test 45
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 46 CO 2 , Test 46
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 47 CO 2 , Test 47
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 48 CO 2 , Test 48
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.16: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 45-48.

474
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 49 CO 2 , Test 49
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 50 CO 2 , Test 50
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 51 CO 2 , Test 51
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 52 CO 2 , Test 52
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.17: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 49-52.

475
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 53 CO 2 , Test 53
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 54 CO 2 , Test 54
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 55 CO 2 , Test 55
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 56 CO 2 , Test 56
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.18: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 53-56.

476
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 57 CO 2 , Test 57
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 58 CO 2 , Test 58
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 59 CO 2 , Test 59
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 60 CO 2 , Test 60
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.19: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 57-60.

477
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 61 CO 2 , Test 61
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 62 CO 2 , Test 62
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 63 CO 2 , Test 63
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.05
O 2 , Test 64 CO 2 , Test 64
0.04

0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.03

0.02
0.15

0.01
Exp (O2) Exp (CO2)
FDS (O2) FDS (CO2)
0.1 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.20: LLNL Enclosure, O2 and CO2 concentration, Tests 61-64.

478
9.1.4 NIST/NRC Experiments
The following pages present comparisons of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration predictions and mea-
surements for the NIST/NRC series. There were two oxygen measurements, one in the upper layer, one in
the lower. There was only one carbon dioxide measurement in the upper layer.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 17 CO Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 17
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 3 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 3
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (O2-1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 1) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 9 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 9
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (O2-1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 1) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.21: NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 3, 9, 17.

479
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 5 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 5
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (O2-1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 1) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 14 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 14
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (O2-1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 1) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 15 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 15
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (O2-1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 1) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 18 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 18
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (O2-1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 1) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.22: NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 5, 14, 15, 18.

480
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 1 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 1
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 7 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 7
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 2 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 8 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 8
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.23: NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 1, 2, 7, 8.

481
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 4 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 4
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 10 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 10
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 13 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 13
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 16 CO 2 Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 16
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2-1)
0.05 Exp (O2-2) 0.02
FDS (O2 1) Exp (CO2-4)
FDS (O2 2) FDS (CO2 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.24: NIST/NRC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 4, 10, 13, 16.

482
9.1.5 NRCC Smoke Tower
In the NRCC Smoke Tower experiments, there were oxygen and carbon dioxide analyzers in the stair shaft
on the second floor just outside the door of the fire compartment.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O , Fire Lobby, Test BK-R CO , Fire Lobby, Test BK-R
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06
Exp (Slot 33) Exp (Slot 34)
FDS (Slot 33) FDS (Slot 34)
0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , Fire Lobby, Test CMP-R CO 2 , Fire Lobby, Test CMP-R
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06
Exp (Slot 33) Exp (Slot 34)
FDS (Slot 33) FDS (Slot 34)
0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.25: NRCC Smoke Tower, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests BK-R and COMP-R.

483
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O , Fire Lobby, Test CLC-I-R CO , Fire Lobby, Test CLC-I-R
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06
Exp (Slot 33) Exp (Slot 34)
FDS (Slot 33) FDS (Slot 34)
0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , Fire Lobby, Test CLC-II-R CO 2 , Fire Lobby, Test CLC-II-R
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06
Exp (Slot 33) Exp (Slot 34)
FDS (Slot 33) FDS (Slot 34)
0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.26: NRCC Smoke Tower, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests CLC-I-R and CLC-II-R.

484
9.1.6 PRISME DOOR Experiments
Each compartment in the PRISME DOOR experiments contained an oxygen and carbon dioxide measure-
ment in the upper (haut) and lower (bas) layers.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O , DOOR Test 1, Room 1 CO , DOOR Test 1, Room 1
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2_L1_HAUT) Exp (CO2_L1_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2_L1_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2_L1_BAS)
FDS (O2_L1_HAUT) FDS (CO2_L1_HAUT)
FDS (O2_L1_BAS) FDS (CO2_L1_BAS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , DOOR Test 2, Room 1 CO 2 , DOOR Test 2, Room 1
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O , DOOR Test 3, Room 1 CO , DOOR Test 3, Room 1
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.27: PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 1, Tests 1-3.

485
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O , DOOR Test 4, Room 1 CO , DOOR Test 4, Room 1
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2_L1_HAUT) Exp (CO2_L1_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2_L1_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2_L1_BAS)
FDS (O2_L1_HAUT) FDS (CO2_L1_HAUT)
FDS (O2_L1_BAS) FDS (CO2_L1_BAS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , DOOR Test 5, Room 1 CO 2 , DOOR Test 5, Room 1
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , DOOR Test 6, Room 1 CO 2 , DOOR Test 6, Room 1
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.28: PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 1, Tests 4-6.

486
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O , DOOR Test 1, Room 2 CO , DOOR Test 1, Room 2
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2_L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2_L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2_L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2_L2_BAS)
FDS (O2_L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2_L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2_L2_BAS) FDS (CO2_L2_BAS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , DOOR Test 2, Room 2 CO 2 , DOOR Test 2, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , DOOR Test 3, Room 2 CO 2 , DOOR Test 3, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.29: PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 1-3.

487
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O , DOOR Test 4, Room 2 CO , DOOR Test 4, Room 2
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2_L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2_L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2_L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2_L2_BAS)
FDS (O2_L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2_L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2_L2_BAS) FDS (CO2_L2_BAS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , DOOR Test 5, Room 2 CO 2 , DOOR Test 5, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , DOOR Test 6, Room 2 CO 2 , DOOR Test 6, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.30: PRISME DOOR experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 4-6.

488
9.1.7 PRISME SOURCE Experiments
The compartment in the PRISME SOURCE experiments contained an oxygen and carbon dioxide measure-
ment in the upper (haut) and lower (bas) layers.

489
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 1, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 2, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 3, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 4, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.31: PRISME SOURCE experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 1-4.

490
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 5, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 6, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 CO 2 , SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

Exp (O2L2_HAUT) Exp (CO2L2_HAUT)

0.05 Exp (O2L2_BAS) 0.02 Exp (CO2L2_BAS)
FDS (O2L2_HAUT) FDS (CO2L2_HAUT)
FDS (O2L2_BAS) FDS (CO2L2_BAS)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.32: PRISME SOURCE experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Room 2, Tests 5-6.

491
9.1.8 WTC Experiments
The following pages present comparisons of oxygen and carbon dioxide concentration predictions and mea-
surements for the WTC experiments. There was only one measurement of each made near the ceiling of the
compartment roughly 2 m from the fire.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.25 0.1
O Concentration, WTC Test 1 CO Concentration, WTC Test 1
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (EO2) Exp (ECO2)
FDS (EO2) FDS (ECO2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, WTC Test 2 CO 2 Concentration, WTC Test 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (EO2) Exp (ECO2)
FDS (EO2) FDS (ECO2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, WTC Test 3 CO 2 Concentration, WTC Test 3
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (EO2) Exp (ECO2)
FDS (EO2) FDS (ECO2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.33: WTC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 1-3.

492
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.25 0.1
O Concentration, WTC Test 4 CO Concentration, WTC Test 4
2 2
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (EO2) Exp (ECO2)
FDS (EO2) FDS (ECO2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, WTC Test 5 CO 2 Concentration, WTC Test 5
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (EO2) Exp (ECO2)
FDS (EO2) FDS (ECO2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 Concentration, WTC Test 6 CO 2 Concentration, WTC Test 6
0.2 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.1 0.04

0.05 0.02
Exp (EO2) Exp (ECO2)
FDS (EO2) FDS (ECO2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.34: WTC experiments, CO2 and O2 concentration, Tests 4-6.

493
9.1.9 UMD Line Burner
Oxygen concentration measurements were made across the coflow section of the burner. Fig. 9.35 shows
mean volume fraction O2 profiles for two heights, z, above the burner surface for the experiment with
nitrogen dilution of the coflowing air to 18 vol. % O2 with methane as fuel. Notice that the O2 level
at the outer edge of the burner is the ambient value of 21 vol. %. Further experimental details may be
found in White et al. [302]. FDS simulations are performed at three grid resolutions corresponding to
W /δ x = 4, 8, 16, where W = 5 cm is the width of the line burner (see Fig. 3.49).
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.25 0.25
Methane, 18 %, z=12.5 cm Methane, 18 %, z=25 cm

0.2 0.2
O 2 Volume Fraction

O 2 Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 Exp 0.1 Exp

FDS 1.25 cm FDS 1.25 cm
FDS 0.625 cm FDS 0.625 cm
FDS 0.3125 cm FDS 0.3125 cm
0.05 0.05
-0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2
Position (m) Position (m)

Figure 9.35: Measured and predicted mean oxygen concentration profiles at 18 vol % O2 .

494
9.1.10 Summary of Major Combustion Products Predictions

Carbon Dioxide Concentration

Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.08
0.1
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.15
Model Bias Factor: 1.01
DelCo Trainers
FAA Cargo Compartments
Predicted Rise in Volume Fraction

LLNL Enclosure
NIST FSE 2008
NIST Pool Fires
NIST RSE 1994
NIST RSE 2007
NIST/NRC
0.01
NRCC Smoke Tower
PRISME
SWJTU Tunnels
Smyth Slot Burner
WTC

0.001
0.001 0.01 0.1
Measured Rise in Volume Fraction

Oxygen Concentration
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.08
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.16
Model Bias Factor: 0.98
DelCo Trainers
0.1 LLNL Enclosure
Predicted Drop in Volume Fraction

NIST FSE 2008

NIST Pool Fires
NIST RSE 1994
NIST RSE 2007
NIST/NRC
NRCC Smoke Tower
PRISME
SWJTU Tunnels
Smyth Slot Burner
UMD Line Burner
WTC

0.01
0.01 0.1
Measured Drop in Volume Fraction

Figure 9.36: Summary of major gas species predictions.

495
9.2 Smoke
9.2.1 FM Burner Experiments
Mean and rms soot volume fraction measurements were made above a 13.7 cm (inner) diameter, 15 kW
ethylene burner. Figures 9.37 through 9.42 display the radial profiles located at heights of 0.5, 1.0, 1.5, 2.5,
and 3.5 burner diameters, D. Figures 9.43 through 9.45 display the probability distributions (PDFs) at the
five heights and radii of 0 cm, 2 cm, 4 cm, 6 cm, and 8 cm.
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
3 1
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 0.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 0.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
2.5 FDS (1 cm) 0.8 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

2
0.6
1.5
0.4
1

0.2
0.5

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2.5 1
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 1.0 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 1.0 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
2 FDS (1 cm) 0.8 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

1.5 0.6

1 0.4

0.5 0.2

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 1
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 1.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 1.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) 0.8 FDS (1 cm)
1.5 FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

0.6
1
0.4

0.5
0.2

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 9.37: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction at heights of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 burner
diameters, D, 20.9 % O2 .

496
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1.5 1
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 2.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 2.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) 0.8 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

1
0.6

0.4
0.5

0.2

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1 1
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 3.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 3.5 D, 20.9 % FDS (2 cm)
0.8 FDS (1 cm) 0.8 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 9.38: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction at heights of 2.5 and 3.5 burner
diameters, D, 20.9 % O2 .

497
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
3 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 0.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 0.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
2.5 FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

2
0.3
1.5
0.2
1

0.1
0.5

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2.5 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 1.0 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 1.0 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
2 FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

1.5 0.3

1 0.2

0.5 0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 1.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 1.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
1.5 FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

0.3
1
0.2

0.5
0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 9.39: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction at heights of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 burner
diameters, D, 16.8 % O2 .

498
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1.5 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 2.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 2.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

1
0.3

0.2
0.5

0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 3.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 3.5 D, 16.8 % FDS (2 cm)
0.8 FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

0.6 0.3

0.4 0.2

0.2 0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 9.40: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction at heights of 2.5 and 3.5 burner
diameters, D, 16.8 % O2 .

499
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
3 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 0.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 0.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
2.5 FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

2
0.3
1.5
0.2
1

0.1
0.5

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2.5 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 1.0 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 1.0 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
2 FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

1.5 0.3

1 0.2

0.5 0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 1.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 1.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
1.5 FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

0.3
1
0.2

0.5
0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 9.41: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction at heights of 0.5, 1.0, and 1.5 burner
diameters, D, 15.2 % O2 .

500
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1.5 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 2.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 2.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

1
0.3

0.2
0.5

0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1 0.5
Exp Exp
Mean Soot Profile, 3.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
RMS Soot Profile, 3.5 D, 15.2 % FDS (2 cm)
0.8 FDS (1 cm) 0.4 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
Volume Fraction (ppm)

Volume Fraction (ppm)

0.6 0.3

0.4 0.2

0.2 0.1

0 0
-10 -5 0 5 10 -10 -5 0 5 10
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 9.42: FM Burner experiments, plume mean and rms soot volume fraction at heights of 2.5 and 3.5 burner
diameters, D, 15.2 % O2 .

501
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)

502
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
Figure 9.43: FM Burner experiments, soot volume fraction PDFs, 20.9 % O2 .
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=8 cm

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp

FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=8 cm

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp

FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=8 cm

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp

FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)

503
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=8 cm

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp

FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=8 cm

1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5

Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp

FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)

0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5

Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)
Probability (1/ppm)

0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)

Figure 9.44: FM Burner experiments, soot volume fraction PDFs, 16.8 % O2 .

 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=0.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.0 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)

504
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=2.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=1.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
2 2 2 2 2
Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=0 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=2 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=4 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=6 cm Soot Volume Fraction; z=3.5 D; x=8 cm
1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5 1.5
Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)

Probability (1/ppm)
Exp Exp Exp Exp Exp
FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm) FDS (2 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
1 FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5 0.5
0 0 0 0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5 0 1 2 3 4 5
Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm) Soot Volume Fraction (ppm)
Figure 9.45: FM Burner experiments, soot volume fraction PDFs, 15.2 % O2 .
9.2.2 FM/FPRF Data Center Experiments
Results of the low exhaust rate (78 ACH) and high exhaust rate (265 ACH) tests for propylene and cables
is shown in the figure below. Each test had three measurement locations (subfloor, ceiling, and ceiling
plenum); however, not all locations for all tests had a measurement above background noise in the laser
signal.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 100
Exp SF C H , Low Flow, Sub-floor Source Exp SF C H , High Flow, Sub-floor Source
Exp HA 3 6 Exp HA 3 6
Exp CP 80 Exp CP
FDS SF FDS SF
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

100 FDS HA FDS HA
FDS CP 60 FDS CP

40
50

20

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp HA C 3 H 6 , Low Flow, Hot Aisle Source Exp HA C 3 H 6 , High Flow, Hot Aisle Source
Exp CP Exp CP
8 FDS HA 8 FDS HA
FDS CP FDS CP
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

6 6

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 10
Exp SF Exp SF
Exp HA
Cable, Low Flow, Sub-floor Source Exp HA
Cable, High Flow, Sub-floor Source
250 Exp CP 8 Exp CP
FDS SF FDS SF
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

200 FDS HA FDS HA

FDS CP 6 FDS CP

150
4
100

2
50

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.46: FM/FPRF Data Center, smoke concentration, low and high exhaust rate, propylene and cable sources.

505
9.2.3 NIST/NRC Experiments
For the simulations of the NIST/NRC tests, the smoke yield is specified as one of the test parameters. The
figures on the following pages contain comparisons of measured and predicted smoke concentration at one
measuring station in the upper layer.

506
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 1 Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

100 100

50 50
Exp (Smoke Conc.) Exp (Smoke Conc.)
FDS (Smoke Concentration) FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 2 Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 8

150 150
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

100 100

50 50
Exp (Smoke Conc.) Exp (Smoke Conc.)
FDS (Smoke Concentration) FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 4 Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 10

150 150
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

100 100

50 50
Exp (Smoke Conc.) Exp (Smoke Conc.)
FDS (Smoke Concentration) FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 200
Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 13 Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 16
250
150
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

200

150 100

100
50
50 Exp (Smoke Conc.) Exp (Smoke Conc.)
FDS (Smoke Concentration) FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.47: NIST/NRC experiments, smoke concentration, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

507
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500
Smoke Density (mg/m³) Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 17

1000

500

Exp (Smoke Conc.)

FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 3 Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 9

150 150
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

100 100

50 50
Exp (Smoke Conc.) Exp (Smoke Conc.)
FDS (Smoke Concentration) FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 5 Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 14

150 150
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

100 100

50 50
Exp (Smoke Conc.) Exp (Smoke Conc.)
FDS (Smoke Concentration) FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 15 Smoke Concentration, NIST/NRC Test 18

150 150
Smoke Density (mg/m³)

Smoke Density (mg/m³)

100 100

50 50
Exp (Smoke Conc.) Exp (Smoke Conc.)
FDS (Smoke Concentration) FDS (Smoke Concentration)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.48: NIST/NRC experiments, smoke concentration, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18.

508
 Smoke Concentration
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.19
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.94
Model Bias Factor: 2.68

100
Predicted Density (mg/m³)

FM/FPRF Datacenter
NIST/NRC

10

1
1 10 100
Measured Density (mg/m³)

Figure 9.49: Summary of smoke concentration predictions.

509
9.2.4 FAA Cargo Compartments
Beam obscuration measurements were made at different locations within the compartment (see Fig. 7.10).
The data is presented below in terms of percent transmission per meter, 100(I/I0 )1/L , where I is the light
intensity and L is the beam pathlength in units of meters.
FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
100 100
Light Transmission, FAA Cargo Test 1 Light Transmission, FAA Cargo Test 1
80 80
Transmission (%/m)

Transmission (%/m)
60 60

40 Exp (LT_Fwd) 40 Exp (LT_High)

Exp (LT_Mid) Exp (LT_Med)
Exp (LT_Aft) Exp (LT_Low)
20 FDS (LT_Fwd) 20 FDS (LT_High)
FDS (LT_Mid) FDS (LT_Med)
FDS (LT_Aft) FDS (LT_Low)
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
100 100
Light Transmission, FAA Cargo Test 2 Light Transmission, FAA Cargo Test 2
80 80
Transmission (%/m)

Transmission (%/m)

60 60

40 Exp (LT_Fwd) 40 Exp (LT_High)

Exp (LT_Mid) Exp (LT_Med)
Exp (LT_Aft) Exp (LT_Low)
20 FDS (LT_Fwd) 20 FDS (LT_High)
FDS (LT_Mid) FDS (LT_Med)
FDS (LT_Aft) FDS (LT_Low)
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
100 100
Light Transmission, FAA Cargo Test 3 Light Transmission, FAA Cargo Test 3
80 80
Transmission (%/m)

Transmission (%/m)

60 60

40 Exp (LT_Fwd) 40 Exp (LT_High)

Exp (LT_Mid) Exp (LT_Med)
Exp (LT_Aft) Exp (LT_Low)
20 FDS (LT_Fwd) 20 FDS (LT_High)
FDS (LT_Mid) FDS (LT_Med)
FDS (LT_Aft) FDS (LT_Low)
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.50: FAA Cargo Compartments experiments, smoke obscuration.

510
 100
Smoke Obscuration
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.14
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.14
Model Bias Factor: 1.05
Predicted Obscuration (%/m)

10 FAA Cargo Compartments

1
1 10 100
Measured Obscuration (%/m)

Figure 9.51: Summary of smoke obscuration predictions.

511
9.3 Aerosols
9.3.1 Sippola Aerosol Deposition Experiments
Figure 9.52 compares the measured and predicted aerosol deposition velocities in the Sippola experiments,
and Figure 9.53 shows a summary of the results. Details of the experiment and simulation are found in
Section 3.68
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

10 0 Sippola Aerosol Deposition, Ceiling

Exp (16 µm particles)
Deposition Velocity (m/s)

Exp (9 µm particles)
Exp (5 µm particles)
Exp (3 µm particles)
Exp (1 µm particles)
FDS (16 µm particles)
FDS (9 µm particles)
10 -5 FDS (5 µm particles)
FDS (3 µm particles)
FDS (1 µm particles)

0 2 4 6 8 10
Air Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

10 0 Sippola Aerosol Deposition, Wall

Exp (16 µm particles)
Deposition Velocity (m/s)

Exp (9 µm particles)
Exp (5 µm particles)
Exp (3 µm particles)
Exp (1 µm particles)
FDS (16 µm particles)
FDS (9 µm particles)
10 -5 FDS (5 µm particles)
FDS (3 µm particles)
FDS (1 µm particles)

0 2 4 6 8 10
Air Velocity (m/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

10 0 Sippola Aerosol Deposition, Floor

Exp (16 µm particles)
Deposition Velocity (m/s)

Exp (9 µm particles)
Exp (5 µm particles)
Exp (3 µm particles)
Exp (1 µm particles)
FDS (16 µm particles)
FDS (9 µm particles)
-5 FDS (5 µm particles)
10
FDS (3 µm particles)
FDS (1 µm particles)

0 2 4 6 8 10
Air Velocity (m/s)

Figure 9.52: Predicted and measured aerosol deposition velocities, Sippola experiments.

512
 Aerosol Deposition Velocity

0.01
Predicted Deposition Velocity (m/s)

Sippola, Ceiling
0.0001 Sippola, Floor
Sippola, Wall

1e-06

1e-06 0.0001 0.01

Measured Deposition Velocity (m/s)

Figure 9.53: Summary of aerosol deposition velocity predictions.

9.3.2 NIST Soot Deposition Gauge Experiments

Figure 9.54 compares the measured and predicted aerosol mass deposition velocities in the NIST Soot
Deposition Gauge experiments, and Figure 9.55 shows a summary of the results. Details of the experiment
and simulation are found in Section 3.53

513
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1
NIST Soot Deposition Gauge dT=100°C
0.08
Deposited Soot (mg)

0.06
Exp 1
Exp 2
0.04 Exp 3
Exp 4
FDS 1
0.02 FDS 2
FDS 3
FDS 4
0
0 5 10 15
Flow Rate (SLPM)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15
NIST Soot Deposition Gauge dT=200°C
Deposited Soot (mg)

0.1

Exp 1
Exp 2
Exp 3
0.05 Exp 4
FDS 1
FDS 2
FDS 3
FDS 4
0
0 5 10 15
Flow Rate (SLPM)

Figure 9.54: Predicted and measured aerosol deposited mass, NIST Soot Deposition Gauge experiments.

514
 0.15
Aerosol Deposition
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.12
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.49
Model Bias Factor: 1.08

0.1
Predicted Mass (mg)

NIST SDG 100

NIST SDG 200

0.05

0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15
Measured Mass (mg)

Figure 9.55: Summary of aerosol deposited mass predictions.

515
9.4 Droplet Evaporation
This section presents the results of simulations of liquid droplet evaporation experiments. The titles of the
sections below are named for the experimentalists.

9.4.1 Ranz and Marshall

A description of the experiments is included in Sec. 3.62. Figure 9.56 shows the results of predicting the
drop diameter of a single droplet evaporating in dry air.

10 -3
1.2
Exp
Ranz Marshall, Figure 8 FDS
1

0.8
Diameter (m)

0.6

0.4

0.2

0
0 200 400 600 800
Time (s)

Figure 9.56: Measured and predicted droplet diameter for the Ranz and Marshall experiment shown in Fig. 8 of [268].

Figure 9.57 compares the measured and predicted evaporation rates for Table 1 through Table 4 in [268].
The Table 1 experiments were water droplets in ambient air, the Table 2 experiments were water droplets at
in warm air (less than boiling), the Table 3 experiments were water droplets in hot air (greater than boiling),
and the Table 4 experiments were benzene droplets in ambient air. A summary of the results is shown in
Fig. 9.58.

9.4.2 Fujita et al.

A description of the experiments is included in Sec. 3.19. Figure 9.59 shows the droplet area normalized by
its initial area, and Fig. 9.60 shows the droplet temperature change.

516
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
-7 -7
10 10
Exp
Ranz Marshall, Table 1 FDS
Ranz Marshall, Table 2
Evaporation Rate (dD²/dt)

Evaporation Rate (dD²/dt)

10 -8 10 -8

Exp
FDS
10 -9 10 -9
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 10
Test Number Test Number

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 -7 10 -7
Ranz Marshall, Table 3 Ranz Marshall, Table 4
Evaporation Rate (dD²/dt)

Evaporation Rate (dD²/dt)

10 -8 10 -8

Exp Exp
FDS FDS
10 -9 10 -9
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10 12 14
Test Number Test Number

Figure 9.57: Evaporation rates for the Ranz and Marshall experiments [268].

517
 1e-07
Evaporation Rate
Predicted Rate (dD²/dt)

RM Table 1
RM Table 2
1e-08
RM Table 3
RM Table 4

1e-09
1e-09 1e-08 1e-07
Measured Rate (dD²/dt)

Figure 9.58: Summary of evaporation rates for the Ranz and Marshall experiments [268].

518
 1 1
Exp Exp
FDS FDS

0.95 0.95
Normalized Area

Normalized Area
0.9 0.9

0.85 0.85

Fujita et al., Re=60, H=0 Fujita et al., Re=60, H=30

0.8 0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Exp Exp
FDS FDS

0.95 0.95
Normalized Area

Normalized Area

0.9 0.9

0.85 0.85

Fujita et al., Re=150, H=0 Fujita et al., Re=150, H=30

0.8 0.8
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.59: Normalized droplet area for the Fujita experiments for varying Reynolds number (Re) and Humidty (H)

519
 0 5
Exp Exp
Fujita et al., Re=60, H=0 FDS
Fujita et al., Re=60, H=30 FDS
-1 4
Temperature Change (°C)

Temperature Change (°C)

-2 3

-3 2

-4 1

-5 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0 5
Exp Exp
Fujita et al., Re=150, H=0 FDS
Fujita et al., Re=150, H=30 FDS
-1 4
Temperature Change (°C)

Temperature Change (°C)

-2 3

-3 2

-4 1

-5 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.60: Droplet temperature change for the Fujita experiments for varying Reynolds number (Re) and Humidity
(H).

520
9.4.3 Gavin
A description of the experiments is included in Sec. 3.19. Figure 9.61 shows the simulation results for the
droplet terminal velocity.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 4
Exp Exp
Gavin, 557 µm FDS
Gavin, 769 µm FDS

3 3
Velocity (m/s)

Velocity (m/s)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.61: Droplet terminal velocity for the Gavin experiments.

521
9.4.4 Kolaitis and Founti
A description of the experiments is included in Sec. 3.19. Figure 9.62 shows the simulation results for the
squared droplet diameter. Figure 9.63 shows the simulation results for the droplet surface temperature.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 2
Exp Exp
Kolaitis and Founti, Decane FDS
Kolaitis and Founti, Ethanol FDS

1.5
1
d² (mm²)

d² (mm²)
1

0.5
0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 2.5
Exp Exp
Kolaitis and Founti, Heptane 1 FDS
Kolaitis and Founti, Heptane 2 FDS
2

1
1.5
d² (mm²)

d² (mm²)

1
0.5

0.5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.62: Square of the droplet diameter, Kolaitis and Founti.

522
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 100
Exp Exp
Kolaitis and Founti, Decane FDS
Kolaitis and Founti, Ethanol FDS

80
Droplet Temperature (°C)

Droplet Temperature (°C)

100 60

40

50 20
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 25
Kolaitis and Founti, Heptane 1 Kolaitis and Founti, Heptane 2

80 20
Droplet Temperature (°C)

Droplet Temperature (°C)

Exp Exp
60 FDS
15 FDS

40 10

20 5
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.63: Droplet surface temperature, Kolaitis and Founti.

523
9.4.5 Maqua et al.
A description of the experiments is included in Sec. 3.19. Figure 9.64 shows the droplet surface temperature
for the two experiments.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Exp Exp
Maqua et al., Acetone FDS
Maqua et al., Ethanol FDS
40 40
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.64: Droplet surface temperature for the Maqua et al. experiments.

524
9.4.6 Taflin Experiments
A description of the experiments is included in Sec. 3.19. Figure 9.65 shows the droplet diameter for the
two Taflin experiments.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Exp Exp
Taflin, 43.9 µm droplet FDS
Taflin, 56.6 µm droplet FDS
50 55

40 50
Diameter (µm)

Diameter (µm)
30 45

20 40

10 35

0 30
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 9.65: Droplet diameter for the Taflin experiments.

525
9.5 Products of Incomplete Combustion
Predicting the concentration of products of incomplete combustion is challenging because it requires infor-
mation about the chemical composition of the fuel and the multiple reactions that convert fuel to products.
FDS contains a fairly general framework by which users can specify the reaction mechanism, and the exam-
ples in the following subsections highlight some of the more commonly used schemes.

9.5.1 Smyth Slot Burner Experiment

Figure 9.66 shows predicted and measured temperatures at three elevations above the Smyth slot burner
(see Section 3.69 for details). Figures 9.67 through 9.69 show predicted and measured concentrations of
CH4 , O2 , CO, CO2 , H2 O and H2 at the same three elevations. The reported uncertainty in the species
concentration measurements ranges from 10 % to 20 %. The abbreviation “FR” in the labels means that the
conversion of CO to CO2 is modeled using a finite-rate, reversible reaction. The word “Fast” implies that
this reaction is infinitely fast, but occurs following the first reaction, also infinitely fast.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2000 Temperature (11 mm) 2000 Temperature (9 mm)

1500 1500
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

1000 1000
Exp Exp
FDS 0.250 mm, FR FDS 0.250 mm, FR
500 FDS 0.125 mm, FR 500 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

2000 Temperature (7 mm)

1500
Temperature (°C)

1000
Exp
FDS 0.250 mm, FR
500 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm)

Figure 9.66: Predicted and measured temperature at 7 mm, 9 mm, and 11 mm above a methane-air slot burner.

526
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 0.25
CH (11 mm) O (11 mm)
4 2
0.8 0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
Exp Exp
0.6 FDS 0.250 mm, FR
0.15 FDS 0.250 mm, FR
FDS 0.125 mm, FR FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
0.4 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast 0.1 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast

0.2 0.05

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 0.25
CH 4 (9 mm) O 2 (9 mm)
0.8 0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp Exp
0.6 FDS 0.250 mm, FR
0.15 FDS 0.250 mm, FR
FDS 0.125 mm, FR FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
0.4 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast 0.1 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast

0.2 0.05

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 0.25
CH 4 (7 mm) O 2 (7 mm)
0.8 0.2
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp Exp
0.6 FDS 0.250 mm, FR
0.15 FDS 0.250 mm, FR
FDS 0.125 mm, FR FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
0.4 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast 0.1 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast

0.2 0.05

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

Figure 9.67: Predicted and measured CH4 and O2 volume fractions at 11 mm, 9 mm, and 7 mm above a methane-air
slot burner.

527
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 0.04
CO (11 mm) CO (11 mm)
2
0.08
0.03
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
Exp
0.06
FDS 0.250 mm, FR
0.02 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
0.04 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
Exp
FDS 0.250 mm, FR 0.01
0.02 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 0.04
CO 2 (9 mm) CO (9 mm)
0.08
0.03
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp
0.06
FDS 0.250 mm, FR
0.02 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
0.04 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
Exp
FDS 0.250 mm, FR 0.01
0.02 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 0.04
CO 2 (7 mm) CO (7 mm)
0.08
0.03
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp
0.06
FDS 0.250 mm, FR
0.02 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
0.04 FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
Exp
FDS 0.250 mm, FR 0.01
0.02 FDS 0.125 mm, FR
FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

Figure 9.68: Predicted and measured CO2 and CO volume fractions at 11 mm, 9 mm, and 7 mm above a methane-air
slot burner.

528
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.05
H O (11 mm) H (11 mm)
2 2
0.04
0.15
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
Exp
0.03 Exp
0.1 FDS 0.250 mm, Fast FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0.02

0.05
0.01

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.05
H 2 O (9 mm) H 2 (9 mm)
0.04
0.15
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp
0.03 Exp
0.1 FDS 0.250 mm, Fast FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0.02

0.05
0.01

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.05
H 2 O (7 mm) H 2 (7 mm)
0.04
0.15
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

Exp
0.03 Exp
0.1 FDS 0.250 mm, Fast FDS 0.250 mm, Fast
FDS 0.125 mm, Fast FDS 0.125 mm, Fast
0.02

0.05
0.01

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Distance from Centerline (mm) Distance from Centerline (mm)

Figure 9.69: Predicted and measured H2 O and H2 volume fractions at 11 mm, 9 mm, and 7 mm above a methane-air
slot burner.

529
9.5.2 Beyler Hood Experiments
Fig. 9.70 compares measured and predicted species mass fractions in the Beyler Hood experiments. Both
measured and predicted values are time-averaged. The FDS results are taken at the extraction vent, whereas
the measurements were made downstream of the vent. Details of the experiments can be found in Sec-
tion 3.5.

530
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
acetone acetone
ethanol ethanol
isopropanol isopropanol
0.2 methanol 0.2 methanol
propane propane

CO 2 (Mass Fraction)
O (Mass Fraction)

propylene propylene
toluene toluene
0.15 0.15
2

0.1 0.1
Predicted

Predicted
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25
Measured O 2 (Mass Fraction) Measured CO 2 (Mass Fraction)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.1
acetone acetone
0.18 ethanol 0.09 ethanol
isopropanol isopropanol
0.16 methanol 0.08 methanol
propane propane
H O (Mass Fraction)

0.14
propylene 0.07
propylene
Predicted CO (Mass Fraction)
toluene toluene
0.12 0.06

0.1 0.05
2

0.08 0.04
Predicted

0.06 0.03

0.04 0.02

0.02 0.01

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Measured H 2 O (Mass Fraction) Measured CO (Mass Fraction)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.02 0.1
acetone acetone
0.018 ethanol 0.09 ethanol
isopropanol isopropanol
0.016 methanol 0.08 methanol
propane propane
propylene propylene
Predicted UHC (Mass Fraction)

0.014 0.07
Predicted Soot (Mass Fraction)

toluene toluene
0.012 0.06

0.01 0.05

0.008 0.04

0.006 0.03

0.004 0.02

0.002 0.01

0 0
0 0.005 0.01 0.015 0.02 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1
Measured Soot (Mass Fraction) Measured UHC (Mass Fraction)

Figure 9.70: Comparison of measured and predicted species concentrations in the Beyler hood experiments

531
9.5.3 NIST Reduced Scale Enclosure (RSE) Experiments, 1994
Figures 9.71 through 9.74 show the measured and predicted CO, CO2 and O2 , and H2 O concentrations.
Figure 9.75 shows the measured and predicted thermocouple temperatures in the front and rear of the com-
partment. The measurements were made 10 cm below the ceiling and 30 cm from the left side wall. The
front position was 10 cm from the wall with the door; the back position was 30 cm from the rear wall.
Details of the experiments are found in Section 3.44.1.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.04 0.04
CO, Front CO, Rear

0.03 0.03
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
Exp Exp
FDS (RI=5) FDS (RI=5)
0.02 FDS (RI=10)
0.02 FDS (RI=10)
FDS (RI=20) FDS (RI=20)

0.01 0.01

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Heat Release Rate (kW) Heat Release Rate (kW)

Figure 9.71: Comparison of measured and predicted CO concentration, NIST RSE experiments.

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 0.1
CO 2 , Front CO 2 , Rear
0.08 0.08
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.06 0.06

0.04 0.04

Exp Exp
0.02 FDS (RI=5) 0.02 FDS (RI=5)
FDS (RI=10) FDS (RI=10)
FDS (RI=20) FDS (RI=20)
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Heat Release Rate (kW) Heat Release Rate (kW)

Figure 9.72: Comparison of measured and predicted CO2 concentration, NIST RSE experiments.

532
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
O 2 , Front O 2 , Rear

0.15 0.15
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
Exp Exp
FDS (RI=5) FDS (RI=5)
0.1 FDS (RI=10)
0.1 FDS (RI=10)
FDS (RI=20) FDS (RI=20)

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Heat Release Rate (kW) Heat Release Rate (kW)

Figure 9.73: Comparison of measured and predicted O2 concentration, NIST RSE experiments.

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
H 2 O, Front H 2 O, Rear

0.15 0.15
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.1 0.1

0.05 Exp 0.05 Exp

FDS (RI=5) FDS (RI=5)
FDS (RI=10) FDS (RI=10)
FDS (RI=20) FDS (RI=20)
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Heat Release Rate (kW) Heat Release Rate (kW)

Figure 9.74: Comparison of measured and predicted H2 O concentration, NIST RSE experiments.

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
TC, Front TC, Rear
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400
Exp Exp
FDS (RI=5) FDS (RI=5)
200 FDS (RI=10)
200 FDS (RI=10)
FDS (RI=20) FDS (RI=20)
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Heat Release Rate (kW) Heat Release Rate (kW)

Figure 9.75: Comparison of measured and predicted temperature, NIST RSE experiments.

533
9.5.4 NIST Reduced-Scale Enclosure (RSE) Experiments, 2007
Species and temperature measurements were made in the front and rear of the compartment, 10 cm below the
ceiling, 29 cm from the right wall (looking into the compartment), and 10 cm from the front wall or 29 cm
from the rear wall. The compartment was 0.95 m wide by 1.42 m deep by 0.98 m tall with a door 0.48 m
wide by 0.81 m tall centered on one of the short walls. Measurements of temperature, O2 , CO2 , CO, and
unburned hydrocarbon concentration were made near the ceiling in the front and back of the compartment.
Details of the experiments are found in Section 3.44.2.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 1 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 1 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 1 Unburned HC, Test 1
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05
Exp (O2Front)
0.05 Exp (O2Rear)
FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 400
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 1 HRR, Test 1 FDS (HRR)

300
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000
Temperature (°C)

200

500
Exp (TFSampA) 100
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.76: Summary of Test 1, NIST RSE 2007.

534
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 2 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 2 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 2 Unburned HC, Test 2
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (O2Front)

Exp (O2Rear) Exp (THCRear)
FDS (O2Front) FDS (THCRear)
0.1 FDS (O2Rear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 2 HRR, Test 2 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.77: Summary of Test 2, NIST RSE 2007.

535
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 3 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 3 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 3 Unburned HC, Test 3
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (O2Front) Exp (THCFront)

Exp (O2Rear) Exp (THCRear)
FDS (O2Front) FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (O2Rear) FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 3 HRR, Test 3 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.78: Summary of Test 3, NIST RSE 2007.

536
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 4 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 4 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
Exp4(O2Front)
O 2 , Test
Exp (O2Rear)
Unburned HC, Test 4
0.2 FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 4 HRR, Test 4 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.79: Summary of Test 4, NIST RSE 2007.

537
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 5 Exp (COFront)
2 CO, Test 5 Exp (CORear)
FDS (COFront)
FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05
Exp (CO2Front)
Exp (CO2Rear)
FDS (CO2Front)
FDS (CO2Rear)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 5 Exp (O2Front)
Exp (O2Rear)
Unburned HC, Test 5
0.2 FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 400
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 5 HRR, Test 5 FDS (HRR)

300
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000
Temperature (°C)

200

500
Exp (TFSampA) 100
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.80: Summary of Test 5, NIST RSE 2007.

538
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 6 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 6 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 6 Exp (O2Front)
Exp (O2Rear)
Unburned HC, Test 6
0.2 FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 6 HRR, Test 6 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.81: Summary of Test 6, NIST RSE 2007.

539
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 7 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 7 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 7 Exp (O2Front)
Exp (O2Rear)
Unburned HC, Test 7
0.2 FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 7 HRR, Test 7 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.82: Summary of Test 7, NIST RSE 2007.

540
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
CO , Test 10 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 10 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
0.15 FDS (CO2Rear) 0.15 FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.2
O 2 , Test 10 Unburned HC, Test 10
0.2
0.15
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
0.1 FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)

Exp (O2Front) 0.05

0.05 Exp (O2Rear)
FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 10 HRR, Test 10 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200

Exp (TRSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.83: Summary of Test 10, NIST RSE 2007.

541
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 11 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 11 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 11 Exp (O2Front)
Exp (O2Rear)
Unburned HC, Test 11
0.2 FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 11 HRR, Test 11 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.84: Summary of Test 11, NIST RSE 2007.

542
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 12 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 12 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
Exp12
O 2 , Test (O2Front)
Exp (O2Rear)
Unburned HC, Test 12
0.2 FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 12 HRR, Test 12 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.85: Summary of Test 12, NIST RSE 2007.

543
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 15 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 15 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 15 Exp (O2Front)
Exp (O2Rear)
Unburned HC, Test 15
0.2 FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05

0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 15 HRR, Test 15 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

300

500 200
Exp (TFSampA)
Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TFSampA)
100
FDS (TRSampA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.86: Summary of Test 15, NIST RSE 2007.

544
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.15 0.15
CO , Test 16 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, Test 16 Exp (CORear)
FDS (CO2Front) FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
0.1 0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.15
O 2 , Test 16 Unburned HC, Test 16
0.2

0.1
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 Exp (THCFront)

Exp (THCRear)
FDS (THCFront)
0.1 FDS (THCRear)
0.05
Exp (O2Front)
0.05 Exp (O2Rear)
FDS (O2Front)
FDS (O2Rear)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 600
Exp (HRRcal)
Temperature, Test 16 HRR, Test 16 FDS (HRR)
500
Heat Release Rate (kW)

1000 400
Temperature (°C)

Exp (TRSampA)
FDS (TRSampA)
300

500 200

100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.87: Summary of Test 16, NIST RSE 2007.

545
9.5.5 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE) Experiments, 2008
Species concentrations and temperature measurements were made at the front and rear of the compartment.
Details of the experiments are found in Section 3.44.3.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISONG3 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISONG3 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISONG3 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISONG3 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISONG3 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISONG3 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.88: Summary of ISONG3, NIST FSE 2008.

546
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept4 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept4 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept4 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept4 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept4 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept4 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.89: Summary of ISOHept4, NIST FSE 2008.

547
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept5 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept5 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept5 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept5 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept5 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept5 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.90: Summary of ISOHept5, NIST FSE 2008.

548
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept8 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept8 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept8 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept8 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept8 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept8 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.91: Summary of ISOHept8, NIST FSE 2008.

549
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept9 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept9 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept9 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept9 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept9 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept9 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.92: Summary of ISOHept9, NIST FSE 2008.

550
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 0.1
CO , ISONylon10 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISONylon10 Exp (CORear)
0.08 FDS (CO2Front) 0.08 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.06 0.06

0.04 0.04

0.02 0.02

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , ISONylon10 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISONylon10 Exp (UHRear)
FDS (O2Front) 0.08 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.06
0.2
0.04

0.02

0.15 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 400
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISONylon10 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISONylon10 FDS (HRR)
400 FDS (TFront)
FDS (TRear) 300
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

300
200
200

100
100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.93: Summary of ISONylon10, NIST FSE 2008.

551
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOPP11 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOPP11 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOPP11 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOPP11 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOPP11 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOPP11 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.94: Summary of ISOPP11, NIST FSE 2008.

552
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHeptD12 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHeptD12 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHeptD12 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHRear)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHeptD12 FDS (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2
FDS (O2Rear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHeptD12 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHeptD12 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.95: Summary of ISOHeptD12, NIST FSE 2008.

553
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHeptD13 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHeptD13 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHeptD13 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHeptD13 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHeptD13 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHeptD13 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.96: Summary of ISOHeptD13, NIST FSE 2008.

554
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOPropD14 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOPropD14 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOPropD14 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOPropD14 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOPropD14 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOPropD14 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.97: Summary of ISOPropD14, NIST FSE 2008.

555
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOProp15 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOProp15 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOProp15 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOProp15 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOProp15 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOProp15 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.98: Summary of ISOProp15, NIST FSE 2008.

556
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 0.1
CO , ISOStyrene16 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOStyrene16 Exp (CORear)
0.08 FDS (CO2Front) 0.08 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.06 0.06

0.04 0.04

0.02 0.02

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.1
O 2 , ISOStyrene16 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHRear)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOStyrene16 FDS (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.08
FDS (O2Rear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.06

0.04
0.1

0.02
0.05

0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOStyrene16 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOStyrene16 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.99: Summary of ISOStyrene16, NIST FSE 2008.

557
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOStyrene17 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOStyrene17 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOStyrene17 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOStyrene17 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOStyrene17 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOStyrene17 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.100: Summary of ISOStyrene17, NIST FSE 2008.

558
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOPP18 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOPP18 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOPP18 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOPP18 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOPP18 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOPP18 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.101: Summary of ISOPP18, NIST FSE 2008.

559
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept19 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept19 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept19 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept19 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept19 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept19 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.102: Summary of ISOHept19, NIST FSE 2008.

560
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOToluene20 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOToluene20 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOToluene20 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOToluene20 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOToluene20 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOToluene20 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.103: Summary of ISOToluene20, NIST FSE 2008.

561
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOStyrene21 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOStyrene21 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOStyrene21 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOStyrene21 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOStyrene21 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOStyrene21 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.104: Summary of ISOStyrene21, NIST FSE 2008.

562
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept22 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept22 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept22 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept22 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept22 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept22 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.105: Summary of ISOHept22, NIST FSE 2008.

563
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept23 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept23 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept23 Exp (O2Rear) Exp (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept23 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept23 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept23 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.106: Summary of ISOHept23, NIST FSE 2008.

564
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept24 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept24 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept24 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept24 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept24 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept24 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.107: Summary of ISOHept24, NIST FSE 2008.

565
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept25 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept25 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept25 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept25 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept25 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept25 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.108: Summary of ISOHept25, NIST FSE 2008.

566
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept26 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept26 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept26 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept26 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept26 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept26 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.109: Summary of ISOHept26, NIST FSE 2008.

567
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept27 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept27 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept27 Exp (O2Front)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept27
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2
FDS (O2Rear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15 Exp (UHFront)

Exp (UHRear)
FDS (UHFront)
0.1 0.1 FDS (UHRear)

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TRear) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept27 FDS (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept27 FDS (HRR)
2500
1500
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.110: Summary of ISOHept27, NIST FSE 2008.

568
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOHept28 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOHept28 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOHept28 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOHept28 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOHept28 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOHept28 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.111: Summary of ISOHept28, NIST FSE 2008.

569
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOToluene29 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOToluene29 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOToluene29 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOToluene29 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOToluene29 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOToluene29 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.112: Summary of ISOToluene29, NIST FSE 2008.

570
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISOPropanol30 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISOPropanol30 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISOPropanol30 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISOPropanol30 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISOPropanol30 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISOPropanol30 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.113: Summary of ISOPropanol30, NIST FSE 2008.

571
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
CO , ISONG32 Exp (CO2Front) Exp (COFront)
2 Exp (CO2Rear)
CO, ISONG32 Exp (CORear)
0.2 FDS (CO2Front) 0.2 FDS (COFront)
FDS (CO2Rear) FDS (CORear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction
0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.25
O 2 , ISONG32 Exp (O2Front) Exp (UHFront)
Exp (O2Rear)
Hydrocarbons, ISONG32 Exp (UHRear)
0.2 FDS (O2Front) 0.2 FDS (UHFront)
FDS (O2Rear) FDS (UHRear)
Volume Fraction

Volume Fraction

0.15 0.15

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 3000
Exp (TFront) Exp (HRR2)
Temperature, ISONG32 Exp (TRear)
HRR, ISONG32 FDS (HRR)
FDS (TFront)
2500
1500 FDS (TRear)
2000
Temperature (°C)

HRR (kW)

1000 1500

1000
500
500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 9.114: Summary of ISONG32, NIST FSE 2008.

572
9.5.6 NIST Pool Fires
Falkenstein-Smith et al. [328] made mean temperature and product species concentration measurements
along the centerline above 30.5 cm diameter liquid pool fires of acetone, ethanol, and methanol; and
a 37.0 cm diameter burner of methane and propane. The measurements were made using a gas chro-
matograph/mass spectrometer system (GC/MSD). The volume fraction of each species was calculated via
the number of moles identified by the GC/MSD at each centerline point. Soot mass fractions were measured
during the gas sampling process. Note that the species measurements include the vapor form of the primary
fuel molecule, in addition to intermediate fuel species. FDS does not model the decomposition of the fuel
molecule into intermediate hydrocarbon species except for CO and H2 .
The mean centerline temperature profiles are found in Section 6.1.5. The species concentrations are
found in Figs. 9.115 through 9.120 on the following pages.

573
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 9.115: NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, acetone.

574
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-3
10

Figure 9.116: NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, ethanol.

575
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-3
10

Figure 9.117: NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, methanol.

576
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0.3 0 0.02 0.04 0.06 0.08 0.1

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
-3
10

Figure 9.118: NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, methane.

577
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 9.119: NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, propane, 20 kW.

578
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0.2 0.25 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.05 0.1 0.15 0 0.05 0.1 0.15

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
120 120

100 100

80 80

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 0 0.002 0.004 0.006 0.008 0.01

Figure 9.120: NIST Pool Fires, centerline product species, propane, 34 kW.

579
9.5.7 Summary, Products of Incomplete Combustion

0.1
Carbon Monoxide Concentration
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.19
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.56
Model Bias Factor: 0.95
Predicted Change in Volume Fraction

0.01
FAA Cargo Compartments
NIST FSE 2008
NIST Pool Fires
NIST RSE 1994
0.001 NIST RSE 2007
NIST/NRC
Smyth Slot Burner

0.0001

0.0001 0.001 0.01 0.1

Measured Change in Volume Fraction

Figure 9.121: Summary of carbon monoxide predictions.

580
9.6 Helium Release in a Reduced Scale Garage Geometry
FDS simulations were performed to predict the helium release and dispersion in a reduced scale garage
geometry. The figures on the following pages show the comparison between the FDS predictions and the
measured values for the eighteen experiments. Table 9.1 lists the experimental parameters, including the
release duration, release location (21 cm off the floor at the center of the compartment, 21 cm off the floor
and 5 cm from the center of the rear wall, and 2.5 cm below the ceiling at the center of the compartment),
and the leak area (single small vent, 2.4 cm by 2.4 cm, at the center of the front wall, single large vent,
3.05 cm by 3.05 cm, at the center of the front wall, and a pair of vents, 2.15 cm by 2.15 cm, centered on the
front wall, 2.5 cm from the floor and ceiling, respectively). The seven sensors were located 37.5 cm from the
front and side walls, at heights of 9 cm, 19 cm, 28 cm, 37 cm, 47 cm, 56 cm, and 65 cm off the floor. In the
figures on the following pages, the highest concentrations correspond to the highest measurement locations.

Table 9.1: Test parameters of the NIST_He_2009 experiments.

Test Release Release Leak

Label Duration (h) Location Configuration
3600-LC-SSV 1 Lower Center Single Small Vent
3600-LC-SLV 1 Lower Center Single Large Vent
3600-LC-ULV 1 Lower Center Dual Vents
3600-LR-SSV 1 Lower Rear Single Small Vent
3600-LR-SLV 1 Lower Rear Single Large Vent
3600-LR-ULV 1 Lower Rear Dual Vents
3600-UC-SSV 1 Upper Center Single Small Vent
3600-UC-SLV 1 Upper Center Single Large Vent
3600-UC-ULV 1 Upper Center Dual Vents
14400-LC-SSV 4 Lower Center Single Small Vent
14400-LC-SLV 4 Lower Center Single Large Vent
14400-LC-ULV 4 Lower Center Dual Vents
14400-LR-SSV 4 Lower Rear Single Small Vent
14400-LR-SLV 4 Lower Rear Single Large Vent
14400-LR-ULV 4 Lower Rear Dual Vents
14400-UC-SSV 4 Upper Center Single Small Vent
14400-UC-SLV 4 Upper Center Single Large Vent
14400-UC-ULV 4 Upper Center Dual Vents

581
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 3600-LC-SSV Helium Concentration, 3600-LC-SLV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 3600-LC-ULV Helium Concentration, 3600-LR-SSV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 3600-LR-SLV Helium Concentration, 3600-LR-ULV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

Figure 9.122: Comparison of measured (solid lines) and predicted (dashed lines) helium concentrations in the
NIST_He_2009 experiments.

582
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 3600-UC-SSV Helium Concentration, 3600-UC-SLV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 3600-UC-ULV Helium Concentration,14400-LC-SSV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 14400-LC-SLV Helium Concentration, 14400-LC-ULV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

Figure 9.123: Comparison of measured (solid lines) and predicted (dashed lines) helium concentrations in the
NIST_He_2009 experiments.

583
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 14400-LR-SSV Helium Concentration, 14400-LR-SLV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 14400-LR-ULV Helium Concentration, 14400-UC-SSV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
60 60
Helium Concentration, 14400-UC-SLV Helium Concentration, 14400-UC-ULV
50 50
Helium Concentration (percent)

Helium Concentration (percent)

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12 0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Time (h) Time (h)

Figure 9.124: Comparison of measured (solid lines) and predicted (dashed lines) helium concentrations in the
NIST_He_2009 experiments.

584
 100
Species Concentration
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.08
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.15
Model Bias Factor: 0.97
Predicted Change in Volume Fraction (%)

10 NIST He 2009

1
1 10 100
Measured Change in Volume Fraction (%)

Figure 9.125: Summary of species concentration predictions.

585
Chapter 10

Pressure

In FDS, the pressure is decomposed into a temporally-varying background pressure plus a temporally and
spatially-varying perturbation that drives the flow. The former can be thought of as the “over-pressure”
which increases if heat is introduced into a closed compartment. In real buildings, leakage and ventilation
affect the compartment “over-pressure” along with the fire.

10.1 FM/FPRF Datacenter Experiments

Measurements made during flow mapping in the FM datacenter mockup included two pairs of differential
pressure transmitters. One pair measured the pressure difference between the subfloor (SF) and the cold aisle
(CA). The other pair measured the pressure difference between the hot aisle (HA) and the ceiling plenum
(CP). A comparison of measured and predicted pressures for the exhaust rate (78 ACH) and high exhaust
rate (265 ACH) tests is shown in the figure below.

587
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 25

2.5
20
Differential Pressure (Pa)

Differential Pressure (Pa)

2
15
1.5
10
1
Exp SF-CA Exp SF-CA
Exp HA-CP 5 Exp HA-CP
0.5 Differential Pressure FDS SF-CA Differential Pressure FDS SF-CA
FDS HA-CP FDS HA-CP
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 10.1: FM/FPRF Data Center, differential pressure (Left - low exahust rate, Right - high exhaust rate)

588
10.2 NIST/NRC Experiments
Comparisons between measured and predicted pressures for the NIST/NRC series are shown on the follow-
ing pages. For those tests in which the door to the compartment was open, the over-pressures were only
a few Pascals, whereas when the door was closed, the over-pressures were several hundred Pascals. The
pressure within the compartment was measured at a single point, near the floor. For the simulations of the
closed door tests, the compartment is assumed to leak via a small uniform flow distributed over the walls
and ceiling. The flow rate is calculated based on the assumption that the leakage rate is proportional to the
measured leakage area times the square root of compartment over-pressure.
Note that for the closed door tests, there is often a dramatic drop in the predicted compartment pressure.
This is the result of the assumption in FDS that the heat release rate is decreased to zero in one second at
the time in the experiment when the fuel flow was stopped for safety reasons. In reality, the fire did not
extinguish immediately because there was an excess of fuel in the pan following the flow stoppage. For the
purpose of model comparison, the peak over-pressures are compared in the closed door tests, and the peak
(albeit small) under-pressures are compared in the open door tests.

589
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 1 Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 7

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (CompP) Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 2 Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 8

200 200
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-200 -200
Exp (CompP) Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-400 -400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 4 Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 10

100 100
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-100 -100
Exp (CompP) Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-200 -200
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 13 Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 16

200 200
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-200 -200
Exp (CompP) Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-400 -400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.2: NIST/NRC experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

590
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 17

200
Pressure (Pa)

-200
Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure)
-400
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 3 Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 9
0 0

-1 -1
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 Exp (CompP)
-4 Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 5 Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 14
0 0

-1 -1
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 Exp (CompP)
-4 Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 15 Pressure, NIST/NRC Test 18
0 0

-1 -1
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-2 -2

-3 -3

-4 Exp (CompP)
-4 Exp (CompP)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.3: NIST/NRC experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 17, 18.

591
10.3 LLNL Enclosure Experiments
The reported compartment pressure in the LLNL Enclosure experiments was taken near the ceiling of the
compartment, 0.6 m from the wall including the exhaust duct, and 0.6 m from the wall opposite the wall
with the door. Further details of the experiments can be found in Section 3.35.
In the figures on the following pages, the open circles represent the measured pressure; the solid line
represents the predicted pressure. The predicted pressures are time-averaged over a time interval of 30 s,
whereas the measurements appear to be instantaneous values separated by hundreds or thousands of seconds.
Because of this, the short-duration pressure spike that is typical of fires within relatively tight compartments
is seen in the model prediction but not necessarily the measured data. The comparison of measurement and
prediction is based on the final few pressure points, not the initial spike.
The results of all 64 experiments are plotted for completeness, but a few of the results were excluded
from the computation of the summary statistics because the fire self-extinguished near the time of the last
pressure measurement, sometimes leading to a reported final pressure being less than the initial pressure,
typical when there is a sudden decrease in the heat release rate. In other cases, the difference between initial
and final measured pressure was too small to make a meaningful comparison.
For cases where the door to the compartment was open, the measured gauge pressures at the start of the
experiment ranged from 0 Pa to 10 Pa. There is not enough information in the test report to explain why the
starting pressures were not 0 Pa; thus, the measured pressures were adjusted so that the starting pressure is
0 Pa.

592
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 1 Pressure, Test 2

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 3 Pressure, Test 4

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 5 Pressure, Test 6

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 7 Pressure, Test 8

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 5 10 15 20 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.4: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 1-8.

593
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
-200 100
Pressure, Test 9 Pressure, Test 10

-250 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-300 0

-350 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-400 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 0
Pressure, Test 11 Pressure, Test 12

50 -50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 -100

-50 -150
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -200
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
-100 -100
Pressure, Test 13 Pressure, Test 14

-150 -150
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-200 -200

-250 -250
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-300 -300
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0 0
Pressure, Test 15 Pressure, Test 16

-50 -50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-100 -100

-150 -150
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-200 -200
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.5: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 9-16.

594
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
-250 -100
Pressure, Test 17 Pressure, Test 18

-300 -150
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-350 -200

-400 -250
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-450 -300
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0 100
Pressure, Test 19 Pressure, Test 20

-50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-100 0

-150 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-200 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 50
Pressure, Test 21 Pressure, Test 22

50 0
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 -50

-50 -100
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -150
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Pressure, Test 23 Pressure, Test 24

0 0
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-50 -50

-100 -100
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-150 -150
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.6: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 17-24.

595
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 -250
Pressure, Test 25 Pressure, Test 26

0 -300
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-50 -350

-100 -400
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-150 -450
0 10 20 30 40 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 27 Pressure, Test 28

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0 0
Pressure, Test 29 Pressure, Test 30

-50 -50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-100 -100

-150 -150
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-200 -200
0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
-250 100
Pressure, Test 31 Pressure, Test 32

-300 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-350 0

-400 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-450 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.7: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 25-32.

596
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 0
Pressure, Test 33 Pressure, Test 34

0 -50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-50 -100

-100 -150
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-150 -200
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
-100 -300
Pressure, Test 35 Pressure, Test 36

-150 -350
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-200 -400

-250 -450
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-300 -500
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 0
Pressure, Test 37 Pressure, Test 38

50 -50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 -100

-50 -150
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -200
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 -100
Pressure, Test 39 Pressure, Test 40

50 -150
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 -200

-50 -250
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -300
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.8: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 33-40.

597
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 41 Pressure, Test 42

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 43 Pressure, Test 44

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 45 Pressure, Test 46

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 47 Pressure, Test 48

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.9: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 41-48.

598
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 49 Pressure, Test 50

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 51 Pressure, Test 52

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Pressure, Test 53 Pressure, Test 54

0 0
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

-50 -50

-100 -100
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-150 -150
0 5 10 15 20 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 50
Pressure, Test 55 Pressure, Test 56

50 0
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 -50

-50 -100
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -150
0 20 40 60 80 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.10: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 49-56.

599
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 100
Pressure, Test 57 Pressure, Test 58

0 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
-50 0

-100 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-150 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 59 Pressure, Test 60

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 61 Pressure, Test 62

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Pressure, Test 63 Pressure, Test 64

50 50
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-50 -50
Exp (Pressure) Exp (Pressure)
FDS (Pressure) FDS (Pressure)
-100 -100
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.11: LLNL Enclosure experiments, compartment pressure, Tests 57-64.

600
10.4 PRISME DOOR Experiments
The PRISME experiments were conducted in a relatively well-sealed set of compartments with a well-
controlled ventilation system. Supply air was forced into and exhaust products extracted from the test
compartments via two fans and a fairly extensive ventilation network. The air flow rates and nodal pressures
were measured throughout the system. The FDS simulations included the ventilation system, and for each
segment of the network a loss coefficient was calculated so as to match the initial conditions of the experi-
ments. The plots to follow show the predicted and measured compartment pressures and supply and exhaust
flows. These air flows were predicted by the model, based on the initial specification of the ventilation
system.

601
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.1
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Pressure DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Supply/Exhaust

500 0.05

Volume Flow (m³/s)

Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-500 -0.05 Exp (DADM_L1)

Exp (DEXT_L1)
Exp (P_L1_MIN) FDS (DADM_L1)
FDS (P_L1) FDS (DEXT_L1)
-1000 -0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.2
DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Pressure DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Supply/Exhaust
0.15
500
Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.1
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.05

0
-500 Exp (DADM_L1)
Exp (DEXT_L1)
Exp (P_L1_MIN)
-0.05 FDS (DADM_L1)
FDS (P_L1) FDS (DEXT_L1)
-1000 -0.1
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.3
DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Pressure DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Supply/Exhaust
0.25
500
Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.15

0.1
-500 Exp (DADM_L1)
Exp (DEXT_L1)
Exp (P_L1_MIN)
0.05 FDS (DADM_L1)
FDS (P_L1) FDS (DEXT_L1)
-1000 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.12: PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 1, Tests 1-3.

602
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.6
DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Pressure DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Supply/Exhaust
0.5
500

Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.4
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.3

0.2
-500 Exp (DADM_L1)
Exp (DEXT_L1)
Exp (P_L1_MIN)
0.1 FDS (DADM_L1)
FDS (P_L1) FDS (DEXT_L1)
-1000 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500
DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Pressure 0.4 DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Supply/Exhaust

1000 0.3
Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

500 0.1
0
0 -0.1 Exp (DADM_L1)
Exp (DEXT_L1)
Exp (P_L1_MIN) -0.2 FDS (DADM_L1)
FDS (P_L1) FDS (DEXT_L1)
-500 -0.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.6
DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Pressure DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Supply/Exhaust

500 0.4
Volume Flow (m³/s)
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.2

-500 0 Exp (DADM_L1)

Exp (DEXT_L1)
Exp (P_L1_MOY) FDS (DADM_L1)
FDS (P_L1) FDS (DEXT_L1)
-1000 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.13: PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 1, Tests 4-6.

603
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Pressure 0.4 DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Supply/Exhaust

500 0.3

Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.1
0
-500 -0.1 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (P_L2_MIN) -0.2 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (P_L2) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.2
DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Pressure DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Supply/Exhaust

500 0.1
Volume Flow (m³/s)
Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-500 -0.1 Exp (DADM_L2)

Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (P_L2_MIN) FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (P_L2) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.3
DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Pressure DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Supply/Exhaust
0.2
500
Volume Flow (m³/s)
Pressure (Pa)

0.1
0
0

-500 Exp (DADM_L2)

-0.1 Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (P_L2_MIN) FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (P_L2) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.2
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.14: PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 2, Tests 1-3.

604
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.5
DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Pressure DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Supply/Exhaust
0.4
500

Volume Flow (m³/s)

Pressure (Pa)

0.3
0
0.2

-500 Exp (DADM_L2)

0.1 Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (P_L2_MIN) FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (P_L2) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500
DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Pressure 0.4 DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Supply/Exhaust

1000 0.3
Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

500 0.1
0
0 -0.1 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (P_L2_MIN) -0.2 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (P_L2) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-500 -0.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000
DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Pressure 0.4 DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Supply/Exhaust

500 0.3
Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.1
0
-500 -0.1 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (P_L2_MOY) -0.2 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (P_L2) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.3
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.15: PRISME DOOR, compartment pressure and supply/exhaust, Room 2, Tests 4-6.

605
10.5 PRISME SOURCE Experiments
The PRISME SOURCE experiments were conducted in a single compartment with a well-controlled ven-
tilation system. Supply air was forced into and exhaust products extracted from the test compartment via
two fans and a fairly extensive ventilation network. The air flow rates and nodal pressures were measured
throughout the system. The FDS simulations included the ventilation system, and for each segment of the
network a loss coefficient was calculated so as to match the initial conditions of the experiments. The plots
to follow show the predicted and measured compartment pressures and supply and exhaust flows. These air
flows were predicted by the model, based on the initial specification of the ventilation system.

606
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.4
SOURCE Test 1, Pressure SOURCE Test 1, Supply/Exhaust
0.3
500

Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.1

0
-500 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
-0.1 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.5
SOURCE Test 2, Pressure SOURCE Test 2, Supply/Exhaust
0.4
500

Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.3
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.2

0.1
-500 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
0 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.1
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3000
SOURCE Test 3, Pressure SOURCE Test 3, Supply/Exhaust
2000 0.2
Volume Flow (m³/s)

1000 0.1
Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-1000 -0.1
Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
-2000 Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
-0.2 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-3000 -0.3
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.4
SOURCE Test 4, Pressure SOURCE Test 4, Supply/Exhaust
0.3
500
Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.1

0
-500 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
-0.1 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.16: PRISME SOURCE, pressure and supply/exhaust flow rates, Tests 1, 2, 3 and 4.

607
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.4
SOURCE Test 5, Pressure SOURCE Test 5, Supply/Exhaust
0.3
500

Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.1

0
-500 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
-0.1 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.4
SOURCE Test 5a, Pressure SOURCE Test 5a, Supply/Exhaust
0.3
500

Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.1

0
-500 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
-0.1 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 0.4
SOURCE Test 6, Pressure SOURCE Test 6, Supply/Exhaust
0.3
500
Volume Flow (m³/s)

0.2
Pressure (Pa)

0 0.1

0
-500 Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
-0.1 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-1000 -0.2
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3000
SOURCE Test 6a, Pressure SOURCE Test 6a, Supply/Exhaust
2000 0.2
Volume Flow (m³/s)

1000 0.1
Pressure (Pa)

0 0

-1000 -0.1
Exp (DADM_L2)
Exp (DEXT_L2)
-2000 Exp (PLOCAL2_MOY)
-0.2 FDS (DADM_L2)
FDS (PLOCAL2_MOY) FDS (DEXT_L2)
-3000 -0.3
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.17: PRISME SOURCE, pressure and supply/exhaust flow rates, Tests 5, 5a, 6 and 6a.

608
10.6 UL/NIJ House Experiments
A description and drawings from these experiments are included in Section 3.77
For both the one and two-story house experiments, pressures were measured at three elevations in var-
ious locations. All pressure taps were installed within 0.3 m of a wall. In the single-story house, the taps
were located 0.3 m (1 ft), 1.2 m (4 ft), and 2.1 m (7 ft) below the ceiling. In the two-story house, the taps
were located 0.3 m (1 ft), 2.4 m (8 ft), and 4.6 m (15 ft) below the ceiling in the family room atrium (9PT),
and 0.3 m (1 ft), 1.2 m (4 ft), and 2.1 m (7 ft) below the ceiling in all other rooms. Note that for the two-story
house, Test 6, the den was closed and no pressure measurements are reported for this room.
The plots on the following pages compare the measured pressures with corresponding model predictions.
Note that the pressures are reported relative to the ambient pressure at the given elevation. That is, all
reported pressures are zero at the time of ignition.

609
 20 20
Exp (Low)
Pressure 1, Single Story, Test 1 Pressure 2, Single Story, Test 1 Exp (Middle)
15 15 Exp (High)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Middle)
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
10 10 FDS (High)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 3, Single Story, Test 1 Pressure 4, Single Story, Test 1
15 15
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 5, Single Story, Test 1 Pressure 6, Single Story, Test 1
15 15
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.18: UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Single-Story (Ranch) House, Test 1.

610
 20 20
Exp (Low)
Pressure 1, Single Story, Test 2 Pressure 2, Single Story, Test 2 Exp (Middle)
15 15 Exp (High)
FDS (Low)
FDS (Middle)
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
10 10 FDS (High)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 3, Single Story, Test 2 Pressure 4, Single Story, Test 2
15 15
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 5, Single Story, Test 2 Pressure 6, Single Story, Test 2
15 15
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.19: UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Single-Story (Ranch) House, Test 2.

611
 20 20
Exp (High)
Pressure 1, Single Story, Test 5 FDS (High)
Pressure 2, Single Story, Test 5
15 15
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 3, Single Story, Test 5 Pressure 4, Single Story, Test 5
15 15
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 5, Single Story, Test 5 Pressure 6, Single Story, Test 5
15 15
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

10 10

5 5

0 0

-5 -5
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.20: UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Single-Story (Ranch) House, Test 5.

612
 20 20
Exp (Low)
Pressure 1, Two Story, Test 1 Exp (Middle)
Pressure 3, Two Story, Test 1
15 Exp (High)
15
FDS (Low)
10 FDS (Middle) 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
FDS (High)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 4, Two Story, Test 1 Pressure 5, Two Story, Test 1
15 15

10 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 6, Two Story, Test 1 Pressure 8, Two Story, Test 1
15 15

10 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20
Pressure 9, Two Story, Test 1
15

10
Pressure (Pa)

-5

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 10.21: UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Two-Story (Colonial) House, Test 1.

613
 20 20
Exp (Low)
Pressure 1, Two Story, Test 4 Exp (Middle)
Pressure 3, Two Story, Test 4
15 Exp (High)
15
FDS (Low)
10 FDS (Middle) 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
FDS (High)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 4, Two Story, Test 4 Pressure 5, Two Story, Test 4
15 15

10 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 6, Two Story, Test 4 Pressure 8, Two Story, Test 4
15 15

10 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20
Pressure 9, Two Story, Test 4
15

10
Pressure (Pa)

-5

-10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 10.22: UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Two-Story (Colonial) House, Test 4.

614
 20 20
Exp (Low)
Pressure 1, Two Story, Test 6 Exp (Middle)
Pressure 3, Two Story, Test 6
15 Exp (High)
15
FDS (Low)
10 FDS (Middle) 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)
FDS (High)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 4, Two Story, Test 6 Pressure 5, Two Story, Test 6
15 15

10 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

20 20
Pressure 6, Two Story, Test 6 Pressure 9, Two Story, Test 6
15 15

10 10
Pressure (Pa)

Pressure (Pa)

5 5

0 0

-5 -5

-10 -10
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 10.23: UL/NIJ Experiments, Pressure, Two-Story (Colonial) House, Test 6.

615
10.7 Summary of Pressure Predictions

Compartment Over-Pressure
1000 Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.20
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.20
Model Bias Factor: 0.96
Predicted Pressure Rise (Pa)

100 FM/FPRF Datacenter

LLNL Enclosure
NIST/NRC
PRISME
UL/NIJ Houses

10

1
1 10 100 1000
Measured Pressure Rise (Pa)

Figure 10.24: Summary of pressure predictions for open and closed compartments.

616
Chapter 11

Surface Temperature

All solid surfaces in an FDS model are assigned thermal boundary conditions. Heat and mass transfer to
and from surfaces is usually handled with empirical correlations, although it is possible to compute directly
the heat and mass transfer when performing a Direct Numerical Simulation (DNS). Heat conduction into a
solid surface is calculated via a one-dimensional solution of the heat equation in cartesian, cylindrical, or
spherical coordinates. The latter two are useful for predicting the thermal response of so-called “targets,”
which include structural steel, electrical cables, sensitive equipment, or any type of intervening combustible.
This chapter divides solid surfaces into two major categories – compartment linings (i.e., walls, ceiling,
floor) and targets (i.e., anything that is not a wall, ceiling, or floor). The reason for this distinction is that
some models treat the two categories differently. In general, FDS does not.

617
11.1 Wall, Ceiling and Floor Temperatures
11.1.1 FAA Cargo Compartments
Measurements of surface temperature were made at two ceiling locations (denoted A and B in Fig. 7.10).
The surface temperature measurements are shown below.
FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
15 5
Ceiling Temperature, FAA Cargo Test 1 Ceiling Temperature, FAA Cargo Test 2
4

10
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TW1) 3 Exp (TW1)
Exp (TW2) Exp (TW2)
FDS (TWALL1) FDS (TWALL1)
FDS (TWALL2) 2 FDS (TWALL2)
5

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
5
Ceiling Temperature, FAA Cargo Test 3
4
Temperature (°C)

3 Exp (TW1)
Exp (TW2)
FDS (TWALL1)
2 FDS (TWALL2)

0
0 50 100 150
Time (s)

Figure 11.1: FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, ceiling surface temperatures.

618
11.1.2 NIST Composite Beam
A brief description of the experiments is given in Section 3.41. The compartment interior dimensions are
12.4 m long, running east-west, 1.9 m wide, and 3.77 m high. Four experiments with fires were performed,
labeled as Tests 2-5. Test 1 did not include a fire.
Figures 11.2 through 11.3 display the under-surface temperature of the steel deck at Sections 3-6. Fig-
ures 11.4 through 11.7 display the temperatures of the concrete slab between the concrete and steel deck at
Sections 1-8.

619
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 3, Test 3

1000

Temperature (°C)
800

600

400
Exp (TC3_25)
Exp (TC3_26)
200 FDS (TC3_25)
FDS (TC3_26)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 3, Test 4 1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 3, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC3_25) 200 Exp (TC3_25)

FDS (TC3_25) FDS (TC3_25)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 4, Test 3

1000
Temperature (°C)

800

600

400
Exp (TC4_25)
Exp (TC4_26)
200 FDS (TC4_25)
FDS (TC4_26)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 4, Test 4 1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 4, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC4_26) 200 Exp (TC4_26)

FDS (TC4_26) FDS (TC4_26)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.2: NIST Composite Beam, under-deck temperatures, Sections 3 and 4.

620
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 5, Test 3

1000

Temperature (°C)
800

600

400
Exp (TC5_25)
Exp (TC5_26)
200 FDS (TC5_25)
FDS (TC5_26)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 5, Test 4 1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 5, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC5_25) 200 Exp (TC5_25)

FDS (TC5_25) FDS (TC5_25)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 6, Test 3

1000
Temperature (°C)

800

600

400
Exp (TC6_25)
Exp (TC6_26)
200 FDS (TC6_25)
FDS (TC6_26)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 6, Test 4 1200 Under-Deck Temps., Section 6, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (TC6_26) 200 Exp (TC6_26)

FDS (TC6_26) FDS (TC6_26)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.3: NIST Composite Beam, under-deck temperatures, Sections 5 and 6.

621
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 1, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 1, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC1_5) Exp (TC1_5)
Exp (TC1_20) Exp (TC1_20)
200 FDS (TC1_5) 200 FDS (TC1_5)
FDS (TC1_20) FDS (TC1_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 1, Test 4 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 1, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC1_5)
Exp (TC1_20)
200 FDS (TC1_5) 200 Exp (TC1_20)
FDS (TC1_20) FDS (TC1_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 2, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 2, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC2_5) Exp (TC2_5)
Exp (TC2_20) Exp (TC2_20)
200 FDS (TC2_5) 200 FDS (TC2_5)
FDS (TC2_20) FDS (TC2_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 2, Test 4

1000
Temperature (°C)

800

600

400
Exp (TC2_5)
Exp (TC2_20)
200 FDS (TC2_5)
FDS (TC2_20)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)

Figure 11.4: NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 1 and 2.

622
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 3, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 3, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC3_5) Exp (TC3_5)
Exp (TC3_20) Exp (TC3_20)
200 FDS (TC3_5) 200 FDS (TC3_5)
FDS (TC3_20) FDS (TC3_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 3, Test 4 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 3, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC3_5) Exp (TC3_5)
Exp (TC3_20) Exp (TC3_20)
200 FDS (TC3_5) 200 FDS (TC3_5)
FDS (TC3_20) FDS (TC3_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 4, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 4, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC4_5)
Exp (TC4_20)
200 Exp (TC4_5) 200 FDS (TC4_5)
FDS (TC4_5) FDS (TC4_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 4, Test 4 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 4, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC4_5) Exp (TC4_5)
Exp (TC4_20) Exp (TC4_20)
200 FDS (TC4_5) 200 FDS (TC4_5)
FDS (TC4_20) FDS (TC4_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.5: NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 3 and 4.

623
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 5, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 5, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC5_5) Exp (TC5_5)
Exp (TC5_20) Exp (TC5_20)
200 FDS (TC5_5) 200 FDS (TC5_5)
FDS (TC5_20) FDS (TC5_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 5, Test 4 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 5, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC5_5) Exp (TC5_5)
Exp (TC5_20) Exp (TC5_20)
200 FDS (TC5_5) 200 FDS (TC5_5)
FDS (TC5_20) FDS (TC5_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 6, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 6, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC6_5) Exp (TC6_5)
Exp (TC6_20) Exp (TC6_20)
200 FDS (TC6_5) 200 FDS (TC6_5)
FDS (TC6_20) FDS (TC6_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 6, Test 4 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 6, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC6_5) Exp (TC6_5)
Exp (TC6_20) Exp (TC6_20)
200 FDS (TC6_5) 200 FDS (TC6_5)
FDS (TC6_20) FDS (TC6_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.6: NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 5 and 6.

624
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 7, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 7, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC7_5) Exp (TC7_5)
Exp (TC7_20) Exp (TC7_20)
200 FDS (TC7_5) 200 FDS (TC7_5)
FDS (TC7_20) FDS (TC7_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 7, Test 4 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 7, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC7_5) Exp (TC7_5)
Exp (TC7_20) Exp (TC7_20)
200 FDS (TC7_5) 200 FDS (TC7_5)
FDS (TC7_20) FDS (TC7_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 8, Test 2 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 8, Test 3
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC8_5) Exp (TC8_5)
Exp (TC8_20) Exp (TC8_20)
200 FDS (TC8_5) 200 FDS (TC8_5)
FDS (TC8_20) FDS (TC8_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 8, Test 4 1200 Under-Slab Temps., Section 8, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400
Exp (TC8_5) Exp (TC8_5)
Exp (TC8_20) Exp (TC8_20)
200 FDS (TC8_5) 200 FDS (TC8_5)
FDS (TC8_20) FDS (TC8_20)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.7: NIST Composite Beam, inside-deck temperatures, Sections 7 and 8.

625
11.1.3 NIST Full-Scale Enclosure (FSE), 2008
Measurements of surface temperature were made at three ceiling and three floor locations in a standard
ISO 9705 compartment. In the plots on the following the pages, the ceiling measurements at the rear,
center and front of the compartment are denoted by TSHFRCE, TSHFCCE, and TSHFFCE, respectively
(Temperature Surface Heat Flux Rear CEiling, etc.). The floor measurements at the rear and front are
denoted TSHFRFL and TSHFFFL. The surface temperatures measurements that were made just outside the
door were faulty and are not used. All of the floor measurements for the experiment labeled ISOHept8 were
faulty.

626
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFFFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISONG3 FDS (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISONG3 Exp (TSHFCCE)
Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 20 40 60 0 20 40 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFFFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept4 FDS (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept4 Exp (TSHFCCE)
Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFFFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept5 FDS (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept5 Exp (TSHFCCE)
Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000
Exp (TSHFRCE)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept8 Exp (TSHFCCE)
Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000

500

0
0 2 4 6 8
Time (min)

Figure 11.8: NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 3-4, 8.

627
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept9 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept9 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISONylon10 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISONylon10 Exp (TSHFCCE)
400 FDS (TSHFRFL) 400 Exp (TSHFFCE)
FDS (TSHFFFL) FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300 FDS (TSHFFCE)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOPP11 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOPP11 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHeptD12 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHeptD12 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.9: NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 9-12.

628
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHeptD13 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHeptD13 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOPropD14 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOPropD14 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOProp15 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOProp15 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOStyrene16 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOStyrene16 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.10: NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 13-16.

629
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOStyrene17 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOStyrene17 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOPP18 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOPP18 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept19 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept19 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOToluene20 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOToluene20 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.11: NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 17-20.

630
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOStyrene21 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOStyrene21 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept22 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept22 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept23 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept23 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept24 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept24 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.12: NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 21-24.

631
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL)
Floor Temp., ISOHept25 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept25
FDS (TSHFRFL)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
1000 1000
Exp (TSHFRCE)
Exp (TSHFCCE)
500 500 Exp (TSHFFCE)
FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFFCE)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL)
Floor Temp., ISOHept26 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept26
FDS (TSHFRFL)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
1000 1000
Exp (TSHFRCE)
Exp (TSHFCCE)
500 500 Exp (TSHFFCE)
FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFFCE)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept27 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept27 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOHept28 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOHept28 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.13: NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 25-28.

632
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL)
Floor Temp., ISOToluene29 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOToluene29
FDS (TSHFRFL)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
1000 1000
Exp (TSHFRCE)
Exp (TSHFCCE)
500 500 Exp (TSHFFCE)
FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFFCE)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISOPropanol30 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISOPropanol30 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2000 2000
Exp (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFRCE)
Floor Temp., ISONG32 Exp (TSHFFFL)
Ceiling Temp., ISONG32 Exp (TSHFCCE)
FDS (TSHFRFL) Exp (TSHFFCE)
1500 FDS (TSHFFFL) 1500 FDS (TSHFRCE)
FDS (TSHFCCE)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

FDS (TSHFFCE)

1000 1000

500 500

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.14: NIST FSE experiments, floor and ceiling temperatures, Tests 29, 30, 32.

633
11.1.4 NIST/NRC Experiments
Thermocouples and heat flux gauges were positioned at various locations on all four walls of the test com-
partment, plus the ceiling and floor. Comparisons between measured and predicted surface temperatures
are shown on the following pages. Over the course of 15 experiments, a number of the thermocouples and
gauges failed, but because over half of the measurement points were in roughly the same relative location to
the fire, the faulty data was discarded based on examining replicate experiments or locations on the opposite
wall. Note that Position 8 for the floor and ceiling is not used, simply because the plotting routine is limited
to 7 distinct colors and Position 8 is on the opposite side of the compartment to Position 1. Table 11.1 lists
the locations for each test.
Table 11.1: Wall thermocouple and heat flux gauge positions for the NIST/NRC series. The origin of the
coordinate system lies on the floor in the southwest corner of the compartment. The designation “U” and
“C” is irrelevant, and the last digit “2” indicates that the thermocouple is measuring the wall temperature
rather than the heat flux gauge temperature.

Name x y z Name x y z
TC North U-1-2 3.85 7.04 1.49 TC South U-1-2 3.86 0 1.49
TC North U-2-2 3.86 7.04 3.71 TC South U-2-2 3.86 0 3.82
TC North U-3-2 9.48 7.04 1.86 TC South U-3-2 9.54 0 1.86
TC North U-4-2 12.07 7.04 1.88 TC South U-4-2 12.08 0 1.86
TC North U-5-2 17.69 7.04 1.49 TC South U-5-2 17.69 0 1.50
TC North U-6-2 17.69 7.04 3.69 TC South U-6-2 17.74 0 3.70
TC East U-1-2 21.66 1.52 1.12 TC West U-1-2 0 1.59 1.12
TC East U-2-2 21.66 1.52 2.40 TC West U-2-2 0 1.59 2.42
TC East U-3-2 21.66 5.68 1.13 TC West U-3-2 0 5.70 1.12
TC East U-4-2 21.66 5.70 2.42 TC West U-4-2 0 5.70 2.42
TC Floor U-1-2 3.08 3.51 0 TC Ceiling U-1-2 3.04 3.60 3.82
TC Floor U-2-2 9.08 1.94 0 TC Ceiling C-2-2 8.99 2.00 3.82
TC Floor U-3-2 9.06 5.97 0 TC Ceiling C-3-2 9.03 5.97 3.82
TC Floor U-4-2 10.86 2.38 0 TC Ceiling C-4-2 10.79 2.38 3.82
TC Floor C-5-2 10.93 5.20 0 TC Ceiling C-5-2 10.79 5.20 3.82
TC Floor U-6-2 13.13 1.99 0 TC Ceiling C-6-2 13.00 2.07 3.82
TC Floor U-7-2 13.00 5.92 0 TC Ceiling C-7-2 12.84 5.98 3.82
TC Floor U-8-2 18.63 3.54 0 TC Ceiling U-8-2 18.71 3.54 3.82

634
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (TC North U-1-2)
Exp (TC North U-2-2)
100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC North U-3-2)
Exp (TC North U-4-2)
Exp (TC North U-5-2)
Exp (TC North U-6-2)
FDS (TC N U-1)
50 FDS (TC N U-2) 50
FDS (TC N U-3)
FDS (TC N U-4)
FDS (TC N U-5)
FDS (TC N U-6)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.15: NIST/NRC experiments, north wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

635
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9
250 250
Exp (TC North U-1-2)
Exp (TC North U-2-2)
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC North U-3-2)
Exp (TC North U-4-2)
150 Exp (TC North U-5-2) 150
Exp (TC North U-6-2)
FDS (TC N U-1)
100 FDS (TC N U-2) 100
FDS (TC N U-3)
FDS (TC N U-4)
50 FDS (TC N U-5)
50
FDS (TC N U-6)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 400
North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14
250
300
200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 200

100
100
50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 North Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.16: NIST/NRC experiments, north wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

636
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (TC South U-1-2)
Exp (TC South U-2-2)
100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC South U-3-2)
Exp (TC South U-4-2)
Exp (TC South U-5-2)
Exp (TC South U-6-2)
FDS (TC S U-1)
50 FDS (TC S U-2) 50
FDS (TC S U-3)
FDS (TC S U-4)
FDS (TC S U-5)
FDS (TC S U-6)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.17: NIST/NRC experiments, south wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

637
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9
250 250
Exp (TC South U-1-2)
Exp (TC South U-2-2)
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC South U-3-2)
Exp (TC South U-4-2)
150 Exp (TC South U-5-2) 150
Exp (TC South U-6-2)
FDS (TC S U-1)
100 FDS (TC S U-2) 100
FDS (TC S U-3)
FDS (TC S U-4)
50 FDS (TC S U-5)
50
FDS (TC S U-6)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 South Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.18: NIST/NRC experiments, south wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

638
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (TC East U-1-2) 100
Exp (TC East U-2-2)
Exp (TC East U-3-2)
Exp (TC East U-4-2)
50 FDS (TC E U-1) 50
FDS (TC E U-2)
FDS (TC E U-3)
FDS (TC E U-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.19: NIST/NRC experiments, east wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

639
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (TC East U-1-2) 100
Exp (TC East U-2-2)
Exp (TC East U-3-2)
Exp (TC East U-4-2)
50 FDS (TC E U-1) 50
FDS (TC E U-2)
FDS (TC E U-3)
FDS (TC E U-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 East Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.20: NIST/NRC experiments, east wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

640
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (TC West U-1-2) 100
Exp (TC West U-2-2)
Exp (TC West U-3-2)
Exp (TC West U-4-2)
50 FDS (TC W U-1) 50
FDS (TC W U-2)
FDS (TC W U-3)
FDS (TC W U-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.21: NIST/NRC experiments, west wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

641
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (TC West U-1-2) 100
Exp (TC West U-2-2)
Exp (TC West U-3-2)
Exp (TC West U-4-2)
50 FDS (TC W U-1) 50
FDS (TC W U-2)
FDS (TC W U-3)
FDS (TC W U-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 West Wall Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.22: NIST/NRC experiments, west wall temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

642
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Ceiling Temperature,
Exp (TC Ceiling U-1-2)NIST/NRC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7
250 Exp (TC Ceiling C-2-2) 250
Exp (TC Ceiling C-3-2)
Exp (TC Ceiling C-4-2)
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC Ceiling C-5-2)
Exp (TC Ceiling C-6-2)
150 Exp (TC Ceiling C-7-2) 150
FDS (TC C U-1)
FDS (TC C C-2)
100 FDS (TC C C-3) 100
FDS (TC C C-4)
FDS (TC C C-5)
50 FDS (TC C C-6)
50
FDS (TC C C-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.23: NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

643
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Temperature,
Exp (TC Ceiling U-1-2)NIST/NRC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9
Exp (TC Ceiling C-2-2)
Exp (TC Ceiling C-3-2)
300 300
Exp (TC Ceiling C-4-2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC Ceiling C-5-2)
Exp (TC Ceiling C-6-2)
200 Exp (TC Ceiling C-7-2) 200
FDS (TC C U-1)
FDS (TC C C-2)
FDS (TC C C-3)
100 FDS (TC C C-4) 100
FDS (TC C C-5)
FDS (TC C C-6)
FDS (TC C C-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Ceiling Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.24: NIST/NRC experiments, ceiling temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

644
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 150
FloorExpTemperature,
(TC Floor U-1-2)NIST/NRC Test 1 Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (TC Floor U-2-2)
Exp (TC Floor U-3-2)
Exp (TC Floor U-4-2)
100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC Floor U-5-2)
Exp (TC Floor U-6-2)
Exp (TC Floor U-7-2)
FDS (TC F U-1)
FDS (TC F U-2)
50 FDS (TC F U-3) 50
FDS (TC F U-4)
FDS (TC F C-5)
FDS (TC F U-6)
FDS (TC F U-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.25: NIST/NRC experiments, floor wall temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

645
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
FloorExpTemperature,
(TC Floor U-1-2)NIST/NRC Test 3 Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9
250 Exp (TC Floor U-2-2) 250
Exp (TC Floor U-3-2)
Exp (TC Floor U-4-2)
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TC Floor U-5-2)
Exp (TC Floor U-6-2)
150 Exp (TC Floor U-7-2) 150
FDS (TC F U-1)
FDS (TC F U-2)
100 FDS (TC F U-3) 100
FDS (TC F U-4)
FDS (TC F C-5)
50 FDS (TC F U-6)
50
FDS (TC F U-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Floor Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.26: NIST/NRC experiments, floor temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

646
11.1.5 PRISME DOOR Experiments
Thermocouples were positioned at various points on the walls. Each room contained a vertical array labeled,
for example, TP_L1_NE265. The TP indicates a surface temperature measurement, L1 indicates compart-
ment 1, which is where the fire was located, NE indicates northeast corner of the room, and 265 indicates the
number of centimeters above the floor. In addition, each room contained four measurement points centered
on each wall at a height of approximately 260 cm. These points are labeled, for example, TP_L2_SC265,
compartment 2, center of south wall, 265 cm high.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Wall Temps.
250 250
Exp (TP_L1_NE355)
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TP_L1_NE265)
Exp (TP_L1_NE155)
Exp (TP_L1_NE040)
150 FDS (TP_L1_NE355)
150
FDS (TP_L1_NE265)
100 FDS (TP_L1_NE155) 100
FDS (TP_L1_NE040)

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Wall Temps.
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Wall Temps.
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.27: PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, vertical array, Room 1.

647
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Wall Temps.
250 250
Exp (TP_L1_WC260)
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TP_L1_NC265)
Exp (TP_L1_EC255)
Exp (TP_L1_SC265)
150 FDS (TP_L1_WC260)
150
FDS (TP_L1_NC265)
100 FDS (TP_L1_EC255) 100
FDS (TP_L1_SC265)

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Wall Temps.
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Wall Temps.
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.28: PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, four sides, Room 1.

648
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Wall Temps.
80 80
Exp (TP_L2_NE355)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TP_L2_NE260)
Exp (TP_L2_NE155)
60 Exp (TP_L2_NE030) 60
FDS (TP_L2_NE355)
FDS (TP_L2_NE260)
40 FDS (TP_L2_NE155) 40
FDS (TP_L2_NE030)

20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Wall Temps.
80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Wall Temps.
80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.29: PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, vertical array, Room 2.

649
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Wall Temps.
80 80
Exp (TP_L2_WC260)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TP_L2_NC265)
Exp (TP_L2_EC260)
60 Exp (TP_L2_SC260) 60
FDS (TP_L2_WC260)
FDS (TP_L2_NC265)
40 FDS (TP_L2_EC260) 40
FDS (TP_L2_SC260)

20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Wall Temps.
80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Wall Temps. DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Wall Temps.
80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40

20 20

0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.30: PRISME DOOR experiments, wall temperatures, four sides, Room 2.

650
11.1.6 PRISME SOURCE Experiments
Thermocouples were positioned at various points on the walls. The room contained a vertical array labeled,
for example, TP_L2_NE265. The TP indicates a surface temperature measurement, L2 indicates compart-
ment 2, which is where the fire was located, NE indicates northeast corner of the room, and 265 indicates the
number of centimeters above the floor. In addition, each room contained four measurement points centered
on each wall at a height of approximately 260 cm.

651
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
80 80
Exp (TP_L2_N355) Exp (TP_L2_N355)
60 Exp (TP_L2_N260) 60 Exp (TP_L2_N260)
Exp (TP_L2_N155) Exp (TP_L2_N155)
Exp (TP_L2_N030) Exp (TP_L2_N030)
40 FDS (TP_L2_N355) 40 FDS (TP_L2_N355)
FDS (TP_L2_N260) FDS (TP_L2_N260)
FDS (TP_L2_N155) FDS (TP_L2_N155)
20 FDS (TP_L2_N030) 20 FDS (TP_L2_N030)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
80 80
Exp (TP_L2_N355) Exp (TP_L2_N355)
60 Exp (TP_L2_N260) 60 Exp (TP_L2_N260)
Exp (TP_L2_N155) Exp (TP_L2_N155)
Exp (TP_L2_N030) Exp (TP_L2_N030)
40 FDS (TP_L2_N355) 40 FDS (TP_L2_N355)
FDS (TP_L2_N260) FDS (TP_L2_N260)
FDS (TP_L2_N155) FDS (TP_L2_N155)
20 FDS (TP_L2_N030) 20 FDS (TP_L2_N030)

0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

80 80
Exp (TP_L2_N355) Exp (TP_L2_N355)
60 Exp (TP_L2_N260) 60 Exp (TP_L2_N260)
Exp (TP_L2_N155) Exp (TP_L2_N155)
Exp (TP_L2_N030) Exp (TP_L2_N030)
40 FDS (TP_L2_N355) 40 FDS (TP_L2_N355)
FDS (TP_L2_N260) FDS (TP_L2_N260)
FDS (TP_L2_N155) FDS (TP_L2_N155)
20 FDS (TP_L2_N030) 20 FDS (TP_L2_N030)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

80 80
Exp (TP_L2_N355) Exp (TP_L2_N355)
60 Exp (TP_L2_N260) 60 Exp (TP_L2_N260)
Exp (TP_L2_N155) Exp (TP_L2_N155)
Exp (TP_L2_N030) Exp (TP_L2_N030)
40 FDS (TP_L2_N355) 40 FDS (TP_L2_N355)
FDS (TP_L2_N260) FDS (TP_L2_N260)
FDS (TP_L2_N155) FDS (TP_L2_N155)
20 FDS (TP_L2_N030) 20 FDS (TP_L2_N030)

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.31: PRISME SOURCE experiments, wall temperatures, vertical array, Room 2.

652
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Exp (TP_L2_WC260) Exp (TP_L2_WC260)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TP_L2_NC265) Exp (TP_L2_NC265)
80 80
Exp (TP_L2_EC260) Exp (TP_L2_EC260)
Exp (TP_L2_SC260) Exp (TP_L2_SC260)
60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260) 60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260)
FDS (TP_L2_NC265) FDS (TP_L2_NC265)
FDS (TP_L2_EC260) FDS (TP_L2_EC260)
40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260) 40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260)

20 20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Exp (TP_L2_WC260) Exp (TP_L2_WC260)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TP_L2_NC265) Exp (TP_L2_NC265)
80 80
Exp (TP_L2_EC260) Exp (TP_L2_EC260)
Exp (TP_L2_SC260) Exp (TP_L2_SC260)
60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260) 60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260)
FDS (TP_L2_NC265) FDS (TP_L2_NC265)
FDS (TP_L2_EC260) FDS (TP_L2_EC260)
40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260) 40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260)

20 20

0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Exp (TP_L2_WC260) Exp (TP_L2_WC260)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TP_L2_NC265) Exp (TP_L2_NC265)

80 80
Exp (TP_L2_EC260) Exp (TP_L2_EC260)
Exp (TP_L2_SC260) Exp (TP_L2_SC260)
60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260) 60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260)
FDS (TP_L2_NC265) FDS (TP_L2_NC265)
FDS (TP_L2_EC260) FDS (TP_L2_EC260)
40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260) 40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260)

20 20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
120 120
SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 Wall Temps. SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 Wall Temps.
100 100
Exp (TP_L2_WC260) Exp (TP_L2_WC260)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TP_L2_NC265) Exp (TP_L2_NC265)

80 80
Exp (TP_L2_EC260) Exp (TP_L2_EC260)
Exp (TP_L2_SC260) Exp (TP_L2_SC260)
60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260) 60 FDS (TP_L2_WC260)
FDS (TP_L2_NC265) FDS (TP_L2_NC265)
FDS (TP_L2_EC260) FDS (TP_L2_EC260)
40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260) 40 FDS (TP_L2_SC260)

20 20

0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.32: PRISME SOURCE experiments, wall temperatures, four sides, Room 2.

653
11.1.7 WTC Experiments
The following pages contain comparisons of predicted and measured ceiling temperatures, both at the sur-
face and beneath a layer of marinite board. Table 11.2 below lists the coordinates of the measurement
locations relative to the center of the fire pan. Names with “IN” appended are measurements made under
the marinite board.
Table 11.2: Locations of ceiling surface temperature measurements relative to the fire pan in the WTC series.

Name x (m) y (m) z (m)

TCC 0.62 0.07 3.82
TCN3 0.62 0.67 3.82
TCS3 0.62 -0.53 3.82
TCE7 2.18 0.07 3.82
TCW7 -1.15 0.07 3.82
TCCIN 0.62 0.07 3.83
TCN3IN 0.62 0.67 3.83
TCS3IN 0.62 -0.53 3.83
TCE4IN 1.28 0.07 3.83
TCW4IN 0.05 0.07 3.83

654
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (North), WTC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature (North), WTC Test 2
800 800
Exp (TCC) Exp (TCC)
Exp (TCN1) Exp (TCN1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 Exp (TCN2) 600 Exp (TCN2)
Exp (TCN3) Exp (TCN3)
FDS (TCC) FDS (TCC)
400 FDS (TCN1) 400 FDS (TCN1)
FDS (TCN2) FDS (TCN2)
FDS (TCN3) FDS (TCN3)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (North), WTC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature (North), WTC Test 4
800 800
Exp (TCC) Exp (TCC)
Exp (TCN1) Exp (TCN1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCN2) 600 Exp (TCN2)

Exp (TCN3) Exp (TCN3)
FDS (TCC) FDS (TCC)
400 FDS (TCN1) 400 FDS (TCN1)
FDS (TCN2) FDS (TCN2)
FDS (TCN3) FDS (TCN3)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 1200
Ceiling Temperature (North), WTC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature (North), WTC Test 6
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCC) 600 Exp (TCC)

Exp (TCN1) Exp (TCN1)
Exp (TCN2) Exp (TCN2)
400 Exp (TCN3) 400 Exp (TCN3)
FDS (TCC) FDS (TCC)
FDS (TCN1) FDS (TCN1)
200 FDS (TCN2)
200 FDS (TCN2)
FDS (TCN3) FDS (TCN3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.33: WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, north array.

655
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (South), WTC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature (South), WTC Test 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TCS1) Exp (TCS1)
600 Exp (TCS2) 600 Exp (TCS2)
Exp (TCS3) Exp (TCS3)
FDS (TCS1) FDS (TCS1)
400 FDS (TCS2) 400 FDS (TCS2)
FDS (TCS3) FDS (TCS3)

200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (South), WTC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature (South), WTC Test 4
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TCS1) Exp (TCS1)

600 Exp (TCS2) 600 Exp (TCS2)
Exp (TCS3) Exp (TCS3)
FDS (TCS1) FDS (TCS1)
400 FDS (TCS2) 400 FDS (TCS2)
FDS (TCS3) FDS (TCS3)

200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 1200
Ceiling Temperature (South), WTC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature (South), WTC Test 6
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600
Exp (TCS1) Exp (TCS1)
400 Exp (TCS2) 400 Exp (TCS2)
Exp (TCS3) Exp (TCS3)
FDS (TCS1) FDS (TCS1)
200 FDS (TCS2)
200 FDS (TCS2)
FDS (TCS3) FDS (TCS3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.34: WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, south array.

656
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 2
800 800
Exp (TCE1) Exp (TCE1)
Exp (TCE2) Exp (TCE2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 Exp (TCE3) 600 Exp (TCE3)
Exp (TCE4) Exp (TCE4)
FDS (TCE1) FDS (TCE1)
400 FDS (TCE2) 400 FDS (TCE2)
FDS (TCE3) FDS (TCE3)
FDS (TCE4) FDS (TCE4)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 4
800 800
Exp (TCE1) Exp (TCE1)
Exp (TCE2) Exp (TCE2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCE3) 600 Exp (TCE3)

Exp (TCE4) Exp (TCE4)
FDS (TCE1) FDS (TCE1)
400 FDS (TCE2) 400 FDS (TCE2)
FDS (TCE3) FDS (TCE3)
FDS (TCE4) FDS (TCE4)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 1200
Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 6
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCE1) 600 Exp (TCE1)

Exp (TCE2) Exp (TCE2)
Exp (TCE3) Exp (TCE3)
400 Exp (TCE4) 400 Exp (TCE4)
FDS (TCE1) FDS (TCE1)
FDS (TCE2) FDS (TCE2)
200 FDS (TCE3)
200 FDS (TCE3)
FDS (TCE4) FDS (TCE4)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.35: WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, east array, Points 1-4.

657
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TCE5) Exp (TCE5)
600 Exp (TCE6) 600 Exp (TCE6)
Exp (TCE7) Exp (TCE7)
FDS (TCE5) FDS (TCE5)
400 FDS (TCE6) 400 FDS (TCE6)
FDS (TCE7) FDS (TCE7)

200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 4
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TCE5) Exp (TCE5)

600 Exp (TCE6) 600 Exp (TCE6)
Exp (TCE7) Exp (TCE7)
FDS (TCE5) FDS (TCE5)
400 FDS (TCE6) 400 FDS (TCE6)
FDS (TCE7) FDS (TCE7)

200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 1200
Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature (East), WTC Test 6
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600
Exp (TCE5) Exp (TCE5)
400 Exp (TCE6) 400 Exp (TCE6)
Exp (TCE7) Exp (TCE7)
FDS (TCE5) FDS (TCE5)
200 FDS (TCE6)
200 FDS (TCE6)
FDS (TCE7) FDS (TCE7)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.36: WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, east array, Points 5-7.

658
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 2
800 800
Exp (TCW1) Exp (TCW1)
Exp (TCW2) Exp (TCW2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 Exp (TCW3) 600 Exp (TCW3)
Exp (TCW4) Exp (TCW4)
FDS (TCW1) FDS (TCW1)
400 FDS (TCW2) 400 FDS (TCW2)
FDS (TCW3) FDS (TCW3)
FDS (TCW4) FDS (TCW4)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 4
800 800
Exp (TCW1) Exp (TCW1)
Exp (TCW2) Exp (TCW2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCW3) 600 Exp (TCW3)

Exp (TCW4) Exp (TCW4)
FDS (TCW1) FDS (TCW1)
400 FDS (TCW2) 400 FDS (TCW2)
FDS (TCW3) FDS (TCW3)
FDS (TCW4) FDS (TCW4)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1200 1200
Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 6
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCW1) 600 Exp (TCW1)

Exp (TCW2) Exp (TCW2)
Exp (TCW3) Exp (TCW3)
400 Exp (TCW4) 400 Exp (TCW4)
FDS (TCW1) FDS (TCW1)
FDS (TCW2) FDS (TCW2)
200 FDS (TCW3)
200 FDS (TCW3)
FDS (TCW4) FDS (TCW4)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.37: WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, west array, Points 1-4.

659
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 2
800 800
Exp (TCW5) Exp (TCW5)
Exp (TCW6) Exp (TCW6)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 Exp (TCW7) 600 Exp (TCW7)
Exp (TCW8) Exp (TCW8)
FDS (TCW5) FDS (TCW5)
400 FDS (TCW6) 400 FDS (TCW6)
FDS (TCW7) FDS (TCW7)
FDS (TCW8) FDS (TCW8)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 4
800 800
Exp (TCW5) Exp (TCW5)
Exp (TCW6) Exp (TCW6)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCW7) 600 Exp (TCW7)

Exp (TCW8) Exp (TCW8)
FDS (TCW5) FDS (TCW5)
400 FDS (TCW6) 400 FDS (TCW6)
FDS (TCW7) FDS (TCW7)
FDS (TCW8) FDS (TCW8)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature (West), WTC Test 6
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600
Exp (TCW5) Exp (TCW5)
Exp (TCW6) Exp (TCW6)
400 Exp (TCW7) 400 Exp (TCW7)
Exp (TCW8) Exp (TCW8)
FDS (TCW5) FDS (TCW5)
200 FDS (TCW6) 200 FDS (TCW6)
FDS (TCW7) FDS (TCW7)
FDS (TCW8) FDS (TCW8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.38: WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, west array, Points 5-8.

660
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (Misc), WTC Test 1 Ceiling Temperature (Misc), WTC Test 2
800 800
Exp (TCEN1) Exp (TCEN1)
Exp (TCES1) Exp (TCES1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 Exp (TCWS1) 600 Exp (TCWS1)
Exp (TCWN1) Exp (TCWN1)
FDS (TCEN1) FDS (TCEN1)
400 FDS (TCES1) 400 FDS (TCES1)
FDS (TCWS1) FDS (TCWS1)
FDS (TCWN1) FDS (TCWN1)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (Misc), WTC Test 3 Ceiling Temperature (Misc), WTC Test 4
800 800
Exp (TCEN1) Exp (TCEN1)
Exp (TCES1) Exp (TCES1)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 Exp (TCWS1) 600 Exp (TCWS1)

Exp (TCWN1) Exp (TCWN1)
FDS (TCEN1) FDS (TCEN1)
400 FDS (TCES1) 400 FDS (TCES1)
FDS (TCWS1) FDS (TCWS1)
FDS (TCWN1) FDS (TCWN1)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Ceiling Temperature (Misc), WTC Test 5 Ceiling Temperature (Misc), WTC Test 6
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600
Exp (TCEN1) Exp (TCEN1)
Exp (TCES1) Exp (TCES1)
400 Exp (TCWS1) 400 Exp (TCWS1)
Exp (TCWN1) Exp (TCWN1)
FDS (TCEN1) FDS (TCEN1)
200 FDS (TCES1) 200 FDS (TCES1)
FDS (TCWS1) FDS (TCWS1)
FDS (TCWN1) FDS (TCWN1)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.39: WTC experiments, ceiling temperatures, diagonal array.

661
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 1 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 Exp (TC98) 400 Exp (TC98)

Exp (TC100) Exp (TC100)
Exp (TC102) Exp (TC102)
200 FDS (TC98) 200 FDS (TC98)
FDS (TC100) FDS (TC100)
FDS (TC102) FDS (TC102)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 3 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 4
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (TC98) 400 Exp (TC98)

Exp (TC100) Exp (TC100)
Exp (TC102) Exp (TC102)
200 FDS (TC98) 200 FDS (TC98)
FDS (TC100) FDS (TC100)
FDS (TC102) FDS (TC102)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 5 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 6
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (TC98) 400 Exp (TC98)

Exp (TC100) Exp (TC100)
Exp (TC102) Exp (TC102)
200 FDS (TC98) 200 FDS (TC98)
FDS (TC100) FDS (TC100)
FDS (TC102) FDS (TC102)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.40: WTC experiments, wall temperatures, Points 98, 100, 102.

662
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 1 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 Exp (TC103) 400 Exp (TC103)

Exp (TC105) Exp (TC105)
Exp (TC106) Exp (TC106)
200 FDS (TC103) 200 FDS (TC103)
FDS (TC105) FDS (TC105)
FDS (TC106) FDS (TC106)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 3 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 4
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (TC103) 400 Exp (TC103)

Exp (TC105) Exp (TC105)
Exp (TC106) Exp (TC106)
200 FDS (TC103) 200 FDS (TC103)
FDS (TC105) FDS (TC105)
FDS (TC106) FDS (TC106)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 5 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 6
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (TC103) 400 Exp (TC103)

Exp (TC105) Exp (TC105)
Exp (TC106) Exp (TC106)
200 FDS (TC103) 200 FDS (TC103)
FDS (TC105) FDS (TC105)
FDS (TC106) FDS (TC106)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.41: WTC experiments, wall temperatures, Points 103, 105, 106.

663
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 1 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 2
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 Exp (TC107) 400 Exp (TC107)

Exp (TC109) Exp (TC109)
Exp (TC110) Exp (TC110)
200 FDS (TC107) 200 FDS (TC107)
FDS (TC109) FDS (TC109)
FDS (TC110) FDS (TC110)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 3 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 4
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (TC107) 400 Exp (TC107)

Exp (TC109) Exp (TC109)
Exp (TC110) Exp (TC110)
200 FDS (TC107) 200 FDS (TC107)
FDS (TC109) FDS (TC109)
FDS (TC110) FDS (TC110)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Wall Temperature, WTC Test 5 Wall Temperature, WTC Test 6
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (TC107) 400 Exp (TC107)

Exp (TC109) Exp (TC109)
Exp (TC110) Exp (TC110)
200 FDS (TC107) 200 FDS (TC107)
FDS (TC109) FDS (TC109)
FDS (TC110) FDS (TC110)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.42: WTC experiments, wall temperatures, Points 107, 109, 110.

664
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Inner Ceiling Temp. (N-S) WTC Test 1 Inner Ceiling Temp. (N-S) WTC Test 2
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 Exp (TCCIN) 200 Exp (TCCIN)

Exp (TCN3IN) Exp (TCN3IN)
Exp (TCS3IN) Exp (TCS3IN)
100 FDS (TCCIN) 100 FDS (TCCIN)
FDS (TCN3IN) FDS (TCN3IN)
FDS (TCS3IN) FDS (TCS3IN)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Inner Ceiling Temp. (N-S) WTC Test 3 Inner Ceiling Temp. (N-S) WTC Test 4
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 Exp (TCCIN) 200 Exp (TCCIN)

Exp (TCN3IN) Exp (TCN3IN)
Exp (TCS3IN) Exp (TCS3IN)
100 FDS (TCCIN) 100 FDS (TCCIN)
FDS (TCN3IN) FDS (TCN3IN)
FDS (TCS3IN) FDS (TCS3IN)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Inner Ceiling Temp. (N-S) WTC Test 5 Inner Ceiling Temp. (N-S) WTC Test 6

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 400
Exp (TCCIN) Exp (TCCIN)
Exp (TCN3IN) Exp (TCN3IN)
200 Exp (TCS3IN) 200 Exp (TCS3IN)
FDS (TCCIN) FDS (TCCIN)
FDS (TCN3IN) FDS (TCN3IN)
FDS (TCS3IN) FDS (TCS3IN)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.43: WTC experiments, inner ceiling temperatures, north-south axis.

665
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Inner Ceiling Temp. (E-W) WTC Test 1 Inner Ceiling Temp. (E-W) WTC Test 2
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 Exp (TCE4IN) 200 Exp (TCE4IN)

Exp (TCE7IN) Exp (TCE7IN)
Exp (TCW4IN) Exp (TCW4IN)
100 FDS (TCE4IN) 100 FDS (TCE4IN)
FDS (TCE7IN) FDS (TCE7IN)
FDS (TCW4IN) FDS (TCW4IN)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Inner Ceiling Temp. (E-W) WTC Test 3 Inner Ceiling Temp. (E-W) WTC Test 4
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 Exp (TCE4IN) 200 Exp (TCE4IN)

Exp (TCE7IN) Exp (TCE7IN)
Exp (TCW4IN) Exp (TCW4IN)
100 FDS (TCE4IN) 100 FDS (TCE4IN)
FDS (TCE7IN) FDS (TCE7IN)
FDS (TCW4IN) FDS (TCW4IN)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Inner Ceiling Temp. (E-W) WTC Test 5 Inner Ceiling Temp. (E-W) WTC Test 6

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 400
Exp (TCE4IN) Exp (TCE4IN)
Exp (TCE7IN) Exp (TCE7IN)
200 Exp (TCW4IN) 200 Exp (TCW4IN)
FDS (TCE4IN) FDS (TCE4IN)
FDS (TCE7IN) FDS (TCE7IN)
FDS (TCW4IN) FDS (TCW4IN)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.44: WTC experiments, inner ceiling temperatures, east-west axis.

666
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Inner Wall Temperature, WTC Test 1 Inner Wall Temperature, WTC Test 2
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300
Exp (TC99) Exp (TC99)
Exp (TC101) Exp (TC101)
200 Exp (TC104) 200 Exp (TC104)
Exp (TC108) Exp (TC108)
FDS (TC99) FDS (TC99)
100 FDS (TC101) 100 FDS (TC101)
FDS (TC104) FDS (TC104)
FDS (TC108) FDS (TC108)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Inner Wall Temperature, WTC Test 3 Inner Wall Temperature, WTC Test 4
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300
Exp (TC99) Exp (TC99)
Exp (TC101) Exp (TC101)
200 Exp (TC104) 200 Exp (TC104)
Exp (TC108) Exp (TC108)
FDS (TC99) FDS (TC99)
100 FDS (TC101) 100 FDS (TC101)
FDS (TC104) FDS (TC104)
FDS (TC108) FDS (TC108)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Inner Wall Temperature, WTC Test 5 Inner Wall Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 Exp (TC99) 400 Exp (TC99)

Exp (TC101) Exp (TC101)
Exp (TC104) Exp (TC104)
Exp (TC108) Exp (TC108)
200 FDS (TC99) 200 FDS (TC99)
FDS (TC101) FDS (TC101)
FDS (TC104) FDS (TC104)
FDS (TC108) FDS (TC108)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.45: WTC experiments, inner wall temperatures.

667
11.1.8 Insulation Materials Fire Resistance Tests
Figures 11.46 through 11.49 contain comparisons of predicted and measured cold side temperatures of stone
wool insulation samples in small-scale fire resistance tests. The measured temperatures are the average of
8 thermocouples. The physical properties of the materials are given in Table 11.3. Further details on the
experiments and modeling can be found in Section 3.33.

Table 11.3: Physical properties of stone wool insulation materials [211].

Test Thickness Density Loss

No. (mm) (kg/m3 ) (%)
1 61.9 101.4 1.5
2 62.4 100.5 1.3
3 60.0 97.2 1.4
4 63.2 95.3 1.2
5 61.7 100.7 1.2
6 60.5 100.2 1.1
7 60.0 99.6 1.1
8 61.8 90.2 1.3
9 61.1 69.8 1.3
10 61.7 79.3 1.5
11 60.1 90.3 1.3
12 60.1 90.3 1.4
13 61.4 100.0 1.4
14 60.3 100.9 1.5
15 61.0 138.8 2.1
16 41.2 107.2 1.3
17 72.7 78.9 1.6
18 61.3 141.2 1.9
19 61.9 147.7 1.5
20 52.0 38.3 0.7
21 60.5 147.3 1.3
22 75.7 66.3 6.9
23 75.2 71.1 9.0
24 76.2 51.4 9.8
25 71.5 63.9 1.1
26 72.8 75.1 1.2
27 60.4 85.0 1.3
28 75.0 68.5 4.7
29 75.7 48.7 6.7
30 75.3 48.2 4.8

668
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 1 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 2
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 3 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 4
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 5 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 6
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.46: Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 1-6.

669
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 7 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 8
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 9 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 10
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 11 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 12
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 13 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 14
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.47: Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 7-14.

670
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 15 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 16
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 17 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 18
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 19 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 20
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 600
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 21 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 22
500
200

400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150
300
100
200

50
Exp
100 Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.48: Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 15-22.

671
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
700 600
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 23 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 24
600 500
500
400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
400
300
300
200
200

100 Exp
100 Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 250
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 25 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 26
200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 500
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 27 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 28
200 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 300

100 200

50 100
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 400
Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 29 Cold Side Temperature, SW Test 30
400
300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300
200
200

100
100
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.49: Insulation material cold side temperatures, Tests 23-30.

672
11.1.9 Summary of Wall, Ceiling, and Floor Temperature Predictions
Figure 11.50 summarizes the temperature predictions for walls, ceilings, and floors.

Surface Temperature
1000 Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.17
Model Bias Factor: 1.08
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

FAA Cargo Compartments

100 Insulation Materials
NIST Composite Beam
NIST FSE 2008
NIST/NRC
NIST/NRC Corner Effects
PRISME
WTC
10

1
1 10 100 1000
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

Figure 11.50: Summary of compartment surface temperature predictions.

673
11.2 Target Temperature
A “target” refers to any object that is not a wall, ceiling, or floor. In the sections to follow, the targets consist
of structural steel members, electrical cables, and various other objects.

11.2.1 NIST Composite Beam

A brief description of the experiments is given in Section 3.41. The compartment interior dimensions are
12.4 m long, running east-west, 1.9 m wide, and 3.77 m high. Four experiments with fires were performed,
labeled as Tests 2-5. Test 1 did not include a fire.
Figure 11.51 displays the plate thermometer temperatures at three locations. PT1 is mounted on the east
wall facing west. PT2 is mounted just north of the beam at mid-span, pointing north. PT3 is also mounted
at mid-span, just below the beam and facing downward.
Figure 11.52 displays the steel temperature at Sections 1, 3-8 for Test 5 only. TCC11 is the upper
flange temperature. TCC12, TCC13, and TCC14 are the web temperatures, and TCC15 is the lower flange
temperature.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Plate Thermometers 1200 Plate Thermometers

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600
Exp (PT1) Exp (PT1)
400 Exp (PT2) 400 Exp (PT2)
Exp (PT3) Exp (PT3)
FDS (PT1) FDS (PT1)
200 FDS (PT2) 200 FDS (PT2)
FDS (PT3) FDS (PT3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.51: NIST Composite Beam, beam temperatures.

674
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Beam Temperatures, Section 1, Test 5

1000 Exp (TC1_11)
Exp (TC1_12)
Temperature (°C)

Exp (TC1_13)
800 Exp (TC1_14)
Exp (TC1_15)
600 FDS (TC1_11)
FDS (TC1_12)
FDS (TC1_13)
400 FDS (TC1_14)
FDS (TC1_15)
200

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Beam Temperatures, Section 3, Test 5 1200 Beam Temperatures, Section 4, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Beam Temperatures, Section 5, Test 5 1200 Beam Temperatures, Section 6, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Beam Temperatures, Section 7, Test 5 1200 Beam Temperatures, Section 8, Test 5
1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.52: NIST Composite Beam, beam temperatures.

675
11.2.2 NIST E119 Compartment
A brief description of the experiments is given in Section 3.42. The compartment interior dimensions are
10.8 m long, running east-west, 7.0 m wide, and 3.8 m high. Three fire experiments were performed, labeled
as Tests 1-3.
Figure 11.53 displays the plate thermometer temperatures at three locations. Locations of PT1 through
PT3 were shown in Fig. 3.22.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Plate Thermometers, Test 1 1200 Plate Thermometers, Test 2

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
800 800

600 600
Exp (PT1) Exp (PT1)
400 Exp (PT2) 400 Exp (PT2)
Exp (PT3) Exp (PT3)
FDS (PT1) FDS (PT1)
200 FDS (PT2) 200 FDS (PT2)
FDS (PT3) FDS (PT3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 Plate Thermometers, Test 3

1000
Temperature (°C)

800

600
Exp (PT1)
400 Exp (PT2)
Exp (PT3)
FDS (PT1)
200 FDS (PT2)
FDS (PT3)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Figure 11.53: NIST E119 Compartment, Plate temperatures.

676
11.2.3 NIST/NRC Experiments
Electrical cables of various types (power and control), and configurations (horizontal or vertical; in tray
or free-hanging), were installed in the test compartment. For each of the four cable targets considered,
measurements of the local gas temperature, surface temperature, radiative heat flux, and total heat flux are
available. The following pages display comparisons of surface temperature for Control Cable B, Horizontal
Cable Tray D, Power Cable F, and Vertical Cable Tray G. For the bundled cables within horizontal and
vertical trays (Targets D and G), FDS assumes them to be rectangular slabs of thickness comparable to the
diameter of the individual cables. For the free-hanging cables B and F, FDS assumes them to be cylinders
of uniform composition.

677
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (A-Ts-6) 100
Exp (A-Ts-18)
Exp (A-Tc-19)
Exp (A-Ts-29)
50 FDS (A Ts-6) 50
FDS (A Ts-18)
FDS (A Tc-19)
FDS (A Ts-29)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.54: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable A temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

678
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 Exp (A-Ts-6) 200
Exp (A-Ts-18)
Exp (A-Tc-19)
Exp (A-Ts-29)
100 FDS (A Ts-6) 100
FDS (A Ts-18)
FDS (A Tc-19)
FDS (A Ts-29)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 400
Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Cable A Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18
800
300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600
200
400

100
200

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.55: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable A temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

679
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (B-Ts-4) 100
Exp (B-Ts-14)
Exp (B-Tc-15)
Exp (B-Ts-27)
50 FDS (B Ts-4) 50
FDS (B Ts-14)
FDS (B Tc-15)
FDS (B Ts-27)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.56: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable B temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

680
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 Exp (B-Ts-4) 200
Exp (B-Ts-14)
Exp (B-Tc-15)
Exp (B-Ts-27)
100 FDS (B Ts-4) 100
FDS (B Ts-14)
FDS (B Tc-15)
FDS (B Ts-27)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 400
Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Cable B Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18
800
300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600
200
400

100
200

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.57: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable B temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

681
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (C-Ts-1)
150 150
Exp (C-Tc-2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (C-Ts-8)
Exp (C-Tc-9)
100 Exp (C-Ts-10) 100
Exp (C-Tc-11)
FDS (C Ts-1)
FDS (C Tc-2)
50 FDS (C Ts-8) 50
FDS (C Tc-9)
FDS (C Ts-10)
FDS (C Tc-11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.58: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Ca temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

682
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9
Exp (C-Ts-1)
300 300
Exp (C-Tc-2)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (C-Ts-8)
Exp (C-Tc-9)
200 Exp (C-Ts-10) 200
Exp (C-Tc-11)
FDS (C Ts-1)
FDS (C Tc-2)
100 FDS (C Ts-8) 100
FDS (C Tc-9)
FDS (C Ts-10)
FDS (C Tc-11)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.59: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Ca temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

683
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (C-Ts-22) 100
Exp (C-Tc-23)
Exp (C-Ts-24)
Exp (C-Tc-25)
50 FDS (C Ts-22) 50
FDS (C Tc-23)
FDS (C Ts-24)
FDS (C Tc-25)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.60: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Cb temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

684
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 Exp (C-Ts-22) 200
Exp (C-Tc-23)
Exp (C-Ts-24)
Exp (C-Tc-25)
100 FDS (C Ts-22) 100
FDS (C Tc-23)
FDS (C Ts-24)
FDS (C Tc-25)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Cable C Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.61: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable Cb temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

685
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100
Exp (D-Ts-3)
Exp (D-Tc-13)
50 Exp (D-Ts-26) 50
FDS (D Ts-3)
FDS (D Tc-13)
FDS (D Ts-26)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.62: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable D temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

686
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 Exp (D-Ts-3) 200
Exp (D-Ts-12)
Exp (D-Tc-13)
Exp (D-Ts-26)
100 FDS (D Ts-3) 100
FDS (D Ts-12)
FDS (D Tc-13)
FDS (D Ts-26)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Cable D Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.63: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable D temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

687
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 Exp (F-Ts-7) 100
Exp (F-Ts-20)
Exp (F-Tc-21)
Exp (F-Ts-30)
50 FDS (F Ts-7) 50
FDS (F Ts-20)
FDS (F Tc-21)
FDS (F Ts-30)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 300
Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10
250 250

200 200
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.64: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable F temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

688
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 Exp (F-Ts-7) 200
Exp (F-Ts-20)
Exp (F-Tc-21)
Exp (F-Ts-30)
100 FDS (F Ts-7) 100
FDS (F Ts-20)
FDS (F Tc-21)
FDS (F Ts-30)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 400
Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Cable F Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

600 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 200

200 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.65: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable F temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

689
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 1 Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (G-Ts-31)
150 150
Exp (G-Ts-32)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (G-Ts-33)
Exp (G-Tc-34)
100 Exp (G-Ts-35) 100
Exp (G-Ts-36)
FDS (G Ts-31)
FDS (G Ts-32)
50 FDS (G Ts-33) 50
FDS (G Tc-34)
FDS (G Ts-35)
FDS (G Ts-36)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 2 Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 8

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 4 Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 10

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 13 Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.66: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable G temperatures, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

690
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 3 Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 9
Exp (G-Ts-31)
300 300
Exp (G-Ts-32)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (G-Ts-33)
Exp (G-Tc-34)
200 Exp (G-Ts-35) 200
Exp (G-Ts-36)
FDS (G Ts-31)
FDS (G Ts-32)
100 FDS (G Ts-33) 100
FDS (G Tc-34)
FDS (G Ts-35)
FDS (G Ts-36)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 5 Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 15 Cable G Temperature, NIST/NRC Test 18

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.67: NIST/NRC experiments, Cable G temperatures, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

691
11.2.4 NIST/NRC Corner Effects Experiments
The plots on the following pages display comparisons of plate thermometer (PT) temperatures for the cabinet
experiments. Two PTs were positioned facing each side of the cabinets, at a distance of 60 cm and heights
of 76 cm and 137 cm, on center. In addition, a Type K thermocouple (TC) was welded to the back of the
cabinet, centered both horizontally and vertically.

692
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 1
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 1

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 1 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 1

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 1

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Figure 11.68: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 1.

693
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 2
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 2

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 2 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 2

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 2

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Figure 11.69: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 2.

694
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 3
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 3

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 3 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 3

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 3

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Figure 11.70: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 3.

695
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 4
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 4

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 4 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 4

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 4

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Figure 11.71: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 4.

696
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 5
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
PT Temperature, Back, Test 5
500

400
Temperature (°C)

300

200
Exp (PT-3)
Exp (PT-4)
100 FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 5 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 5
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200
Exp (PT-1) Exp (PT-7)
Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
100 FDS (PT-1)
100 FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
PT Temperature, Front, Test 5
500

400
Temperature (°C)

300

200
Exp (PT-5)
Exp (PT-6)
100 FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

Figure 11.72: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 5.

697
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 6
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
PT Temperature, Back, Test 6
500

400
Temperature (°C)

300

200
Exp (PT-3)
Exp (PT-4)
100 FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 6 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 6
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200
Exp (PT-1) Exp (PT-7)
Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
100 FDS (PT-1)
100 FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
PT Temperature, Front, Test 6
500

400
Temperature (°C)

300

200
Exp (PT-5)
Exp (PT-6)
100 FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

Figure 11.73: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 6.

698
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 7
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 7

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 7 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 7

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 7

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 11.74: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 7.

699
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 8
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 8

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 8 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 8

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 8

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 11.75: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 8.

700
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 9
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 9

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 9 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 9

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 9

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 11.76: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 9.

701
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
Cabinet Temperature, Test 10
500

400

Temperature (°C)
300

200

100 Exp (TC-Cab)

FDS (TC-Cab)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 10

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 10 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 10

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 10

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min)

Figure 11.77: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 10.

702
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
PT Temperature, Back, Test 11
500

400

Temperature (°C) 300

200
Exp (PT-3)
Exp (PT-4)
100 FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 11 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 11
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200
Exp (PT-1) Exp (PT-7)
Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
100 FDS (PT-1)
100 FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600
PT Temperature, Front, Test 11
500

400
Temperature (°C)

300

200
Exp (PT-5)
Exp (PT-6)
100 FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min)

Figure 11.78: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 11.

703
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Back, Test 12

300

Temperature (°C) 200

100 Exp (PT-3)

Exp (PT-4)
FDS (PT-3)
FDS (PT-4)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PT Temperature, Left Side, Test 12 PT Temperature, Right Side, Test 12

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (PT-1) 100 Exp (PT-7)

Exp (PT-2) Exp (PT-8)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (PT-7)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (PT-8)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PT Temperature, Front, Test 12

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (PT-5)

Exp (PT-6)
FDS (PT-5)
FDS (PT-6)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Figure 11.79: NIST/NRC Corner Effects, plate and cabinet temperatures, Test 12.

704
11.2.5 SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature Experiments
Comparisons of FDS predictions of gas, plate thermometer, and steel temperatures for compartment and
pool fire experiments conducted at SP, Sweden, are presented on the following pages.

Compartment Fire Experiments

Three experiments were conducted in a standard compartment, 3.6 m long by 2.4 m wide by 2.4 m high,
with a 0.8 m wide by 2.0 m high door centered on the narrow wall. Each experiment used a constant
450 kW propane burner and a single beam suspended 20 cm below the ceiling along the centerline of the
compartment. There were three measurement stations along the beam at lengths of 0.9 m (Position A),
1.8 m (Position B), and 2.7 m (Position C) from the far wall where the fire was either positioned in the
corner (Tests 1 and 2), or the center (Test 3). The beam in Test 1 was a rectangular steel tube filled with an
insulation material. The beam in Tests 2 and 3 was an I-beam. Details can be found in the test report [283].
Each page to follow contains the results for a single experiment and measuring station. There are nine in
all. In addition to predictions plate thermometer and steel temperatures, there are predictions of the adiabatic
surface temperature (AST) for the locations and orientations of the plate thermometers. The AST is a useful
quantity that serves as a boundary condition for thermal resistance calculations of structures. The basic
idea is as follows. The net heat flux to the solid surface is given as the sum of radiative and convective
components:
q̇00r + q̇00c = ε q̇00r,inc − σ Ts4 + h(Tg − Ts )


(11.1)
where q̇00r,inc is the incident radiative flux, Ts the surface temperature, Tg the gas temperature near the surface,
and h the convective heat transfer coefficient. Following the idea proposed by Wickström [339], the AST
is defined as the surface temperature of a perfectly insulated solid. This is equivalent to saying that the net
heat flux to this (hypothetical) surface is zero:

0 = ε q̇00r,inc − σ TAST
4


+ h(Tg − TAST ) (11.2)

This definition of the AST forms the theory behind the plate thermometer, a 10 cm by 10 cm thin metal plate
with an insulated backing that is designed to measure the AST, albeit with a slight time lag due to the fact
that it is not a perfect insulator.
FDS calculates the AST by solving the following equation implicitly for TAST :

q̇00r + q̇00c = ε σ TAST

4
− σ Ts4 + h(TAST − Ts )


(11.3)

Equation (11.3) is simply Eq. (11.1) minus Eq. (11.2). As such, it shows that the AST can be regarded as
an effective gas temperature for the purpose of providing boundary conditions for a detailed heat conduction
calculation within the solid.
FDS calculates the AST using Eq. (11.3) and the plate thermometer temperature via its standard one-
dimensional heat conduction calculation for a two layer solid of metal and insulating material. In the exper-
iments, the plate thermometer temperature was obtained from a thermocouple attached to the back side of
the thin metal plate, and the AST was derived from the measured plate thermometer temperature by a back
calculation involving only the thermal lag due to the plate, not the insulation material.

705
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 1 Station A Plate Thermometer, SP Test 1 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C21,PT1) Exp (C23,PT3)

200 Exp (C22,PT2) 200 Exp (C24,PT4)
FDS (PT A-1) FDS (PT A-3)
FDS (PT A-2) FDS (PT A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 1 Station A AST, SP Test 1 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST1) Exp (AST3)

200 Exp (AST2) 200 Exp (AST4)
FDS (AST A-1) FDS (AST A-3)
FDS (AST A-2) FDS (AST A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 1 Station A Steel, SP Test 1 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C1,A1) Exp (C5,A5)

200 Exp (C3,A3) 200 Exp (C6,A6)
FDS (Steel A1) FDS (Steel A5)
FDS (Steel A3) FDS (Steel A6)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.80: SP AST experiments, Station A plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 1.

706
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 1 Station B Plate Thermometer, SP Test 1 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C25,PT5) Exp (C27,PT7)

200 Exp (C26,PT6) 200 Exp (C28,PT8)
FDS (PT B-1) FDS (PT B-3)
FDS (PT B-2) FDS (PT B-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 1 Station B AST, SP Test 1 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST5) Exp (AST7)

200 Exp (AST6) 200 Exp (AST8)
FDS (AST B-1) FDS (AST B-3)
FDS (AST B-2) FDS (AST B-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 1 Station B Steel, SP Test 1 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C9,B1) Exp (C13,B5)

200 Exp (C11,B3) 200 Exp (C16,B8)
FDS (Steel B1) FDS (Steel B5)
FDS (Steel B3) FDS (Steel B8)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.81: SP AST experiments, Station B plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 1.

707
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 1 Station C Plate Thermometer, SP Test 1 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C29,PT9) Exp (C31,PT11)

200 Exp (C30,PT10) 200 Exp (C32,PT12)
FDS (PT C-1) FDS (PT C-3)
FDS (PT C-2) FDS (PT C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 1 Station C AST, SP Test 1 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST9) Exp (AST11)

200 Exp (AST10) 200 Exp (AST12)
FDS (AST C-1) FDS (AST C-3)
FDS (AST C-2) FDS (AST C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 1 Station C Steel, SP Test 1 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C17,C1) Exp (C33,C5)

200 Exp (C19,C3) 200 Exp (C34,C6)
FDS (Steel C1) FDS (Steel C5)
FDS (Steel C3) FDS (Steel C6)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.82: SP AST experiments, Station C plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 1.

708
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 2 Station A Plate Thermometer, SP Test 2 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C21,PT1) Exp (C23,PT3)

200 Exp (C22,PT2) 200 Exp (C24,PT4)
FDS (PT A-1) FDS (PT A-3)
FDS (PT A-2) FDS (PT A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 2 Station A AST, SP Test 2 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST1) Exp (AST3)

200 Exp (AST2) 200 Exp (AST4)
FDS (AST A-1) FDS (AST A-3)
FDS (AST A-2) FDS (AST A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 2 Station A Steel, SP Test 2 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C1,A1) Exp (C4,A4)

200 Exp (C3,A3) 200 Exp (C5,A5)
FDS (Steel A1) FDS (Steel A4)
FDS (Steel A3) FDS (Steel A5)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.83: SP AST experiments, Station A plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 2.

709
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 2 Station B Plate Thermometer, SP Test 2 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C25,PT5) Exp (C27,PT7)

200 Exp (C26,PT6) 200 Exp (C28,PT8)
FDS (PT B-1) FDS (PT B-3)
FDS (PT B-2) FDS (PT B-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 2 Station B AST, SP Test 2 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST7)
200 200 Exp (AST8)
Exp (AST5) FDS (AST B-3)
FDS (AST B-1) FDS (AST B-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 2 Station B Steel, SP Test 2 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C9,B1) Exp (C12,B4)

200 Exp (C11,B3) 200 Exp (C13,B5)
FDS (Steel B1) FDS (Steel B4)
FDS (Steel B3) FDS (Steel B5)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.84: SP AST experiments, Station B plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 2.

710
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 2 Station C Plate Thermometer, SP Test 2 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C29,PT9) Exp (C31,PT11)

200 Exp (C30,PT10) 200 Exp (C32,PT12)
FDS (PT C-1) FDS (PT C-3)
FDS (PT C-2) FDS (PT C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 2 Station C AST, SP Test 2 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST9) Exp (AST11)

200 Exp (AST10) 200 Exp (AST12)
FDS (AST C-1) FDS (AST C-3)
FDS (AST C-2) FDS (AST C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 2 Station C Steel, SP Test 2 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C17,C1) Exp (C20,C4)

200 Exp (C19,C3) 200 Exp (C33,C5)
FDS (Steel C1) FDS (Steel C4)
FDS (Steel C3) FDS (Steel C5)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.85: SP AST experiments, Station C plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 2.

711
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 3 Station A Plate Thermometer, SP Test 3 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C21,PT1) Exp (C23,PT3)

200 Exp (C22,PT2) 200 Exp (C24,PT4)
FDS (PT A-1) FDS (PT A-3)
FDS (PT A-2) FDS (PT A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 3 Station A AST, SP Test 3 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST1) Exp (AST3)

200 Exp (AST2) 200 Exp (AST4)
FDS (AST A-1) FDS (AST A-3)
FDS (AST A-2) FDS (AST A-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 3 Station A Steel, SP Test 3 Station A
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C1,A1) Exp (C4,A4)

200 Exp (C3,A3) 200 Exp (C5,A5)
FDS (Steel A1) FDS (Steel A4)
FDS (Steel A3) FDS (Steel A5)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.86: SP AST experiments, Station A plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 3.

712
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 3 Station B Plate Thermometer, SP Test 3 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C25,PT5) Exp (C27,PT7)

200 Exp (C26,PT6) 200 Exp (C28,PT8)
FDS (PT B-1) FDS (PT B-3)
FDS (PT B-2) FDS (PT B-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 3 Station B AST, SP Test 3 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST5) Exp (AST7)

200 Exp (AST6) 200 Exp (AST8)
FDS (AST B-1) FDS (AST B-3)
FDS (AST B-2) FDS (AST B-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 3 Station B Steel, SP Test 3 Station B
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C9,B1) Exp (C12,B4)

200 Exp (C11,B3) 200 Exp (C13,B5)
FDS (Steel B1) FDS (Steel B4)
FDS (Steel B3) FDS (Steel B5)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.87: SP AST experiments, Station B plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 3.

713
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, SP Test 3 Station C Plate Thermometer, SP Test 3 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

Exp (C29,PT9) Exp (C31,PT11)

200 Exp (C30,PT10) 200 Exp (C32,PT12)
FDS (PT C-1) FDS (PT C-3)
FDS (PT C-2) FDS (PT C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
AST, SP Test 3 Station C AST, SP Test 3 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (AST9) Exp (AST11)

200 Exp (AST10) 200 Exp (AST12)
FDS (AST C-1) FDS (AST C-3)
FDS (AST C-2) FDS (AST C-4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Steel, SP Test 3 Station C Steel, SP Test 3 Station C
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

Exp (C17,C1) Exp (C20,C4)

200 Exp (C19,C3) 200 Exp (C33,C5)
FDS (Steel C1) FDS (Steel C4)
FDS (Steel C3) FDS (Steel C5)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.88: SP AST experiments, Station C plate, adiabatic surface, and steel temperatures, Test 3.

714
Pool Fire Experiments
Three experiments were conducted at SP, Sweden, in 2011, in which a 6 m long, 20 cm diameter vertical
column was positioned in the middle of 1.1 m and 1.9 m diesel and 1.1 m heptane pool fires [284]. Gas, plate,
and steel surface temperature measurements were made at heights of 1 m, 2 m, 3 m, 4 m, and 5 m above the
pool surface. At heights of 1 m, 3 m, and 5 m, these measurements were made at only one angular position.
However, at 2 m and 4 m, the measurements were made at four positions. At these heights, two conventional
plates thermometers were positioned approximately 10 cm from the column surface, along with two special
plate thermometers (SPT) that were installed flush with the column surface. At each height, comparable
predictions were made with FDS, but at only one angular position because there is no predominant direction
of leaning in the simulation. In the experiments, the fire was reported to lean in the direction of Position 1.
The lean was significant for the 1.9 m diesel fuel fires, in which case only data from 1 m and 2 m above the
pool are used. Also, FDS assumes the column to be square in cross section (20 cm by 20 cm), rather than
circular. The grid spacing is 10 cm.

715
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 1 m Steel, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 1 m
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 Exp (PT 1m pos1)

200 Exp (steel 1m pos1)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (Steel-1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 2 m Steel, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 2 m
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (PT 2m pos1) Exp (steel 2m pos1)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (Steel-2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 800
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 3 m Steel, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 3 m

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 400

200 200
Exp (PT 3m pos1) Exp (steel 3m pos1)
FDS (PT-3) FDS (Steel-3)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 4 m Steel, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 4 m
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 Exp (PT 4m pos1)

100 Exp (steel 4m pos1)
FDS (PT-4) FDS (Steel-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.89: SP AST experiments, steel temperatures, 1.1 m diesel fire.

716
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 5 m Steel, 1.1 m Diesel Fire, 5 m

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 100
Exp (PT 5m pos1) Exp (steel 5m pos1)
FDS (PT-5) FDS (Steel-5)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
Plate Thermometer, 1.9 m Diesel Fire, 1 m Steel, 1.9 m Diesel Fire, 1 m
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 Exp (PT 1m pos1)

200 Exp (steel 1m pos1)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (Steel-1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
Plate Thermometer, 1.9 m Diesel Fire, 2 m Steel, 1.9 m Diesel Fire, 2 m
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (PT 2m pos1)

200 Exp (steel 2m pos1)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (Steel-2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 1 m Steel, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 1 m
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 400

200 Exp (PT 1m pos1)

200 Exp (steel 1m pos1)
FDS (PT-1) FDS (Steel-1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.90: SP AST experiments, steel temperatures, 1.1 m and 1.9 m diesel, 1.1 m heptane fires.

717
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 2 m Steel, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 2 m
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
600 600

400 400

200 200
Exp (PT 2m pos1) Exp (steel 2m pos1)
FDS (PT-2) FDS (Steel-2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 800
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 3 m Steel, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 3 m

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
400 400

200 200
Exp (PT 3m pos1) Exp (steel 3m pos1)
FDS (PT-3) FDS (Steel-3)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 4 m Steel, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 4 m
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200

100 Exp (PT 4m pos1)

100 Exp (steel 4m pos1)
FDS (PT-4) FDS (Steel-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
Plate Thermometer, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 5 m Steel, 1.1 m Heptane Fire, 5 m

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100
Exp (PT 5m pos1) Exp (steel 5m pos1)
FDS (PT-5) FDS (Steel-5)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.91: SP AST experiments, steel temperatures, 1.1 m heptane fire.

718
Insulated Room Experiments
The plots on the following pages display measured and predicted plate thermometer (PT) temperatures for
a series of single compartment experiments conducted by SP, Sweden [285]. The compartment was 2.7 m
long, 1.8 m wide, and 1.8 m tall, with a 0.6 m by 1.5 m door centered on one of the short walls. The PTs
were affixed to the walls. The designations of right and left wall are from the perspective of a person looking
into the room. The back wall is the short wall without the door; the front wall is opposite. When referring
to a given PT, the terms left/right, upper/lower, front/back refer to the quadrant where the PT is located.
The PTs are centered within each quadrant, and are thus located at one-fourth or three-fourths of the wall’s
length, width or height. The term “center” refers to the center point of the entire wall. The designation “back
wall upper” refers to the upper left quadrant of the back wall, and “back wall lower” refers to the lower right
quadrant of the back wall.
The 12 experiments were conducted with four different wall linings. In Series A, the compartment was
lined with a 10 cm thick light concrete block. In Series B, the compartment was lined with a 5 cm thick
layer of insulation backed by a 3 mm thick plate of steel. In Series C, the compartment was lined with an
uninsulated 3 mm thick steel plate. In Series D, the compartment was lined with a 3 mm thick steel plate
backed by a 5 cm thick layer of insulation (the opposite of Series B).

719
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A1, Left Wall PTs SP Room, A1, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 Exp (PT left wall back upper) 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT left wall center) Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT left wall front lower) Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT left wall back lower) Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
FDS (PT-LW-Ce) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-L) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-L) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A1, Ceiling PTs SP Room, A1, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center) Exp (PT floor front right)
Exp (PT ceiling back right) Exp (PT floor front left)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left) Exp (PT floor back right)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R) Exp (PT floor back left)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) FDS (PT-F-Fr-L)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A1, Back Wall PTs SP Room, A1, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800
Exp (PT front wall right upper)
Exp (PT front wall left upper)
600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper) Exp (PT front wall right lower)
Exp (PT back wall center) Exp (PT front wall left lower)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-U)
FDS (PT-BW-U) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-L)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.92: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A1.

720
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
SP Room, A2, Left Wall PTs SP Room, A2, Right Wall PTs
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) Exp (PT right wall front upper)
Exp (PT left wall back upper) Exp (PT right wall back upper)
600 Exp (PT left wall center) 600 Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT left wall front lower) Exp (PT right wall front lower)
Exp (PT left wall back lower) Exp (PT right wall back lower)
400 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
FDS (PT-LW-Ce) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-L)
200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-L) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
SP Room, A2, Ceiling PTs SP Room, A2, Floor PTs
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

Exp (PT ceiling front left)
600 Exp (PT ceiling center) 600 Exp (PT floor front right)
Exp (PT ceiling back right) Exp (PT floor front left)
Exp (PT ceiling back left) Exp (PT floor back right)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-R) 400 Exp (PT floor back left)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) FDS (PT-F-Fr-L)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R)
200 FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1200 1200
SP Room, A2, Back Wall PTs SP Room, A2, Front Wall PTs
1000 1000

800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600 Exp (PT front wall right upper)

Exp (PT front wall left upper)
Exp (PT back wall upper) Exp (PT front wall right lower)
400 Exp (PT back wall center) 400 Exp (PT front wall left lower)
Exp (PT back wall lower) FDS (PT-FW-Ri-U)
FDS (PT-BW-U) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M)
200 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-L)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.93: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A2.

721
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A3, Left Wall PTs SP Room, A3, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 Exp (PT left wall back upper) 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT left wall center) Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT left wall front lower) Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT left wall back lower) Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
FDS (PT-LW-Ce) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-L) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-L) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A3, Ceiling PTs SP Room, A3, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center) Exp (PT floor front right)
Exp (PT ceiling back right) Exp (PT floor front left)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left) Exp (PT floor back right)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R) Exp (PT floor back left)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) FDS (PT-F-Fr-L)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A3, Back Wall PTs SP Room, A3, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800
Exp (PT front wall right upper)
Exp (PT front wall left upper)
600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper) Exp (PT front wall right lower)
Exp (PT back wall center) Exp (PT front wall left lower)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-U)
FDS (PT-BW-U) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-L)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.94: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A3.

722
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A4, Left Wall PTs SP Room, A4, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 Exp (PT left wall back upper) 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT left wall center) Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT left wall front lower) Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT left wall back lower) Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
FDS (PT-LW-Ce) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-L) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-L) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A4, Ceiling PTs SP Room, A4, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center) Exp (PT floor front right)
Exp (PT ceiling back right) Exp (PT floor front left)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left) Exp (PT floor back right)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R) Exp (PT floor back left)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) FDS (PT-F-Fr-L)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-L)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A4, Back Wall PTs SP Room, A4, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800
Exp (PT front wall right upper)
Exp (PT front wall left upper)
600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper) Exp (PT front wall right lower)
Exp (PT back wall center) Exp (PT front wall left lower)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-U)
FDS (PT-BW-U) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-L)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-L)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.95: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A4.

723
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A5, Left Wall PTs SP Room, A5, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 Exp (PT left wall back upper) 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT left wall center) Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT left wall front lower) Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT left wall back lower) Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
FDS (PT-LW-Ce) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-L) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-L) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A5, Ceiling PTs SP Room, A5, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center) Exp (PT floor front right)
Exp (PT ceiling back right) Exp (PT floor front left)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left) Exp (PT floor back right)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R) Exp (PT floor back left)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) FDS (PT-F-Fr-L)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, A5, Back Wall PTs SP Room, A5, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800
Exp (PT front wall right upper)
Exp (PT front wall left upper)
600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper) Exp (PT front wall right lower)
Exp (PT back wall center) Exp (PT front wall left lower)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-U)
FDS (PT-BW-U) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 FDS (PT-FW-Ri-L)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 0 10 20 30 40 50 60 70
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.96: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test A5.

724
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, B1, Left Wall PTs SP Room, B1, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 Exp (PT left wall front upper) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
Exp (PT left wall back upper) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, B1, Ceiling PTs SP Room, B1, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center)
Exp (PT ceiling back right)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 Exp (PT floor front right)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) Exp (PT floor back right)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, B1, Back Wall PTs SP Room, B1, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper)
Exp (PT back wall center)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400
FDS (PT-BW-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 Exp (PT front wall upper)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.97: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test B1.

725
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, B2, Left Wall PTs SP Room, B2, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 Exp (PT left wall front upper) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
Exp (PT left wall back upper) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, B2, Ceiling PTs SP Room, B2, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center)
Exp (PT ceiling back right)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 Exp (PT floor front right)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) Exp (PT floor back right)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, B2, Back Wall PTs SP Room, B2, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper)
Exp (PT back wall center)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400
FDS (PT-BW-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 Exp (PT front wall upper)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.98: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test B2.

726
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C1, Left Wall PTs SP Room, C1, Right Wall PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT right wall front upper)
600 600 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT right wall front lower)
400 400 Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
200 Exp (PT left wall back upper) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C1, Ceiling PTs SP Room, C1, Floor PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

600 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 600
Exp (PT ceiling center)
Exp (PT ceiling back right)
400 Exp (PT ceiling back left) 400
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) Exp (PT floor front right)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ce) 200 Exp (PT floor back right)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C1, Back Wall PTs SP Room, C1, Front Wall PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (PT back wall upper) 400

Exp (PT back wall center)
Exp (PT back wall lower)
200 FDS (PT-BW-U) 200
FDS (PT-BW-M) Exp (PT front wall upper)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.99: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test C1.

727
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C2, Left Wall PTs SP Room, C2, Right Wall PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT right wall front upper)
600 600 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT right wall front lower)
400 400 Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
200 Exp (PT left wall back upper) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C2, Ceiling PTs SP Room, C2, Floor PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

600 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 600
Exp (PT ceiling center)
Exp (PT ceiling back right)
400 Exp (PT ceiling back left) 400
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) Exp (PT floor front right)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ce) 200 Exp (PT floor back right)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C2, Back Wall PTs SP Room, C2, Front Wall PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (PT back wall upper) 400

Exp (PT back wall center)
Exp (PT back wall lower)
200 FDS (PT-BW-U) 200
FDS (PT-BW-M) Exp (PT front wall upper)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.100: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test C2.

728
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C3, Left Wall PTs SP Room, C3, Right Wall PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT right wall front upper)
600 600 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT right wall front lower)
400 400 Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
Exp (PT left wall front upper) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
200 Exp (PT left wall back upper) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C3, Ceiling PTs SP Room, C3, Floor PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

600 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 600
Exp (PT ceiling center)
Exp (PT ceiling back right)
400 Exp (PT ceiling back left) 400
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) Exp (PT floor front right)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ce) 200 Exp (PT floor back right)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
SP Room, C3, Back Wall PTs SP Room, C3, Front Wall PTs
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600 600

400 Exp (PT back wall upper) 400

Exp (PT back wall center)
Exp (PT back wall lower)
200 FDS (PT-BW-U) 200
FDS (PT-BW-M) Exp (PT front wall upper)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35 0 5 10 15 20 25 30 35
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.101: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test C3.

729
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, D1, Left Wall PTs SP Room, D1, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 Exp (PT left wall front upper) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
Exp (PT left wall back upper) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, D1, Ceiling PTs SP Room, D1, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center)
Exp (PT ceiling back right)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 Exp (PT floor front right)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) Exp (PT floor back right)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, D1, Back Wall PTs SP Room, D1, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper)
Exp (PT back wall center)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400
FDS (PT-BW-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 Exp (PT front wall upper)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.102: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test D1.

730
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, D2, Left Wall PTs SP Room, D2, Right Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (PT right wall front upper)
800 800 Exp (PT right wall back upper)
Exp (PT right wall center)
Exp (PT right wall front lower)
600 600
Exp (PT right wall back lower)
FDS (PT-RW-Fr-U)
400 Exp (PT left wall front upper) 400 FDS (PT-RW-Ba-U)
Exp (PT left wall back upper) FDS (PT-RW-Ce)
200 FDS (PT-LW-Fr-U) 200 FDS (PT-RW-Fr-L)
FDS (PT-LW-Ba-U) FDS (PT-RW-Ba-L)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, D2, Ceiling PTs SP Room, D2, Floor PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (PT ceiling front right)

800 Exp (PT ceiling front left) 800
Exp (PT ceiling center)
Exp (PT ceiling back right)
600 600
Exp (PT ceiling back left)
FDS (PT-C-Fr-R)
400 FDS (PT-C-Fr-L) 400 Exp (PT floor front right)
FDS (PT-C-Ce) Exp (PT floor back right)
200 FDS (PT-C-Ba-R) 200 FDS (PT-F-Fr-R)
FDS (PT-C-Ba-L) FDS (PT-F-Ba-R)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1400 1400
SP Room, D2, Back Wall PTs SP Room, D2, Front Wall PTs
1200 1200

1000 1000
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

800 800

600 600
Exp (PT back wall upper)
Exp (PT back wall center)
400 Exp (PT back wall lower) 400
FDS (PT-BW-U)
200 FDS (PT-BW-M) 200 Exp (PT front wall upper)
FDS (PT-BW-L) FDS (PT-FW-Le-U)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.103: SP AST experiments, Insulated Room, Test D2.

731
Plate Thermometer Validation
The simulations of the SP Adiabatic Surface Temperature experiments include a 1-D model of a plate ther-
mometer (PT), a temperature measurement device constructed of a thin, 10 cm square sheet of Inconel with
a single thermocouple attached and backed by a layer of insulation material. To test the FDS PT model, a
PT designed by Anthony Putorti at NIST, shown in Fig. 11.104 and described in detail in Ref. [340], was
placed in a cone calorimeter and exposed to nominal heat fluxes of 25 kW/m2 and 75 kW/m2 . The measured
and predicted temperatures are shown in Fig. 11.105.

Figure 11.104: Exploded view of a plate thermometer.

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 1000
Plate Thermometer, 25 kW/m² Plate Thermometer, 75 kW/m²
500
800

400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

600
Experiment Experiment
300 FDS FDS
400
200

200
100

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.105: Predictions of plate thermometer temperatures in a cone calorimeter.

732
11.2.6 WTC Experiments
The compartment for the WTC experiments contained a hollow box column roughly 0.5 m from the fire
pan, two trusses over the top of the pan, and one or two steel bars resting on the lower truss flanges. In
Tests 1, 2 and 3, the steel was bare, and in Tests 4, 5 and 6, the steel was coated with various thicknesses
of sprayed fire-resistive materials. The column was instrumented near its base (about 0.5 m from the floor,
middle (1.5 m), and upper (2.5 m). Four measurements of steel (and insulation) temperatures were made at
each location, for each of its four sides. These elements were modeled using thin sheet obstructions with a
resolution of 10 cm.
In addition to the steel structural elements, five cylinders (“slugs”) of nickel 200 (≥ 99 % nickel),
25.4 cm long and 10.2 cm in diameter, were positioned 50 cm north of the centerline in the WTC ex-
periments. Slugs 1 through 5 were 2.92 m, 1.82 m, 0.57 m, 0.05 m, and 1.56 m, respectively, from the
longitudinal axis of the fire pan. All the slugs were 50 cm north of the lateral axis. The fire pan measured
2 m by 1 m. Four thermocouples were inserted into each slug at various locations. All four temperatures for
each slug were virtually indistinguishable. Rectangular obstructions were used to model the slugs, but the
one-dimensional heat conduction calculation was performed using cylindrical coordinates.

733
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Upper Column Temperature, WTC Test 1 Upper Column Temperature, WTC Test 2
400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TCU1S)
300 300 Exp (TCU2S)
Exp (TCU4S)
FDS (CU1S)
200 Exp (TCU1S) 200 FDS (CU2S)
Exp (TCU2S) FDS (CU4S)
Exp (TCU4S)
100 FDS (CU1S) 100
FDS (CU2S)
FDS (CU4S)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Upper Column Temperature, WTC Test 3 Upper Column Temperature, WTC Test 4
400 400
Exp (TCU1S)
Exp (TCU2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300 Exp (TCU3S)

Exp (TCU4S)
FDS (CU1S)
200 Exp (TCU1S) 200 FDS (CU2S)
Exp (TCU2S) FDS (CU3S)
Exp (TCU4S) FDS (CU4S)
100 FDS (CU1S) 100
FDS (CU2S)
FDS (CU4S)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Upper Column Temperature, WTC Test 5 Upper Column Temperature, WTC Test 6
400 400
Exp (TCU1S)
Exp (TCU2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 Exp (TCU3S) 300

Exp (TCU4S) Exp (TCU1S)
FDS (CU1S) Exp (TCU2S)
200 FDS (CU2S) 200 Exp (TCU3S)
FDS (CU3S) Exp (TCU4S)
FDS (CU4S) FDS (CU1S)
100 100 FDS (CU2S)
FDS (CU3S)
FDS (CU4S)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.106: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, upper column.

734
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Middle Column Temperature, WTC Test 1 Middle Column Temperature, WTC Test 2
400 400
Exp (TCM1S)
Exp (TCM2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300 Exp (TCM3S)
Exp (TCM1S) Exp (TCM4S)
Exp (TCM2S) FDS (CM1S)
200 Exp (TCM3S) 200 FDS (CM2S)
Exp (TCM4S) FDS (CM3S)
FDS (CM1S) FDS (CM4S)
100 FDS (CM2S) 100
FDS (CM3S)
FDS (CM4S)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Middle Column Temperature, WTC Test 3 Middle Column Temperature, WTC Test 4
400 400
Exp (TCM1S)
Exp (TCM2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300 Exp (TCM3S)

Exp (TCM1S) Exp (TCM4S)
Exp (TCM2S) FDS (CM1S)
200 Exp (TCM3S) 200 FDS (CM2S)
Exp (TCM4S) FDS (CM3S)
FDS (CM1S) FDS (CM4S)
100 FDS (CM2S) 100
FDS (CM3S)
FDS (CM4S)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Middle Column Temperature, WTC Test 5 Middle Column Temperature, WTC Test 6
400 400
Exp (TCM1S)
Exp (TCM2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 Exp (TCM3S) 300

Exp (TCM4S) Exp (TCM1S)
FDS (CM1S) Exp (TCM2S)
200 FDS (CM2S) 200 Exp (TCM3S)
FDS (CM3S) Exp (TCM4S)
FDS (CM4S) FDS (CM1S)
100 100 FDS (CM2S)
FDS (CM3S)
FDS (CM4S)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.107: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, middle column.

735
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Lower Column Temperature, WTC Test 1 Lower Column Temperature, WTC Test 2
400 400
Exp (TCL1S) Exp (TCL1S)
Exp (TCL2S) Exp (TCL2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 Exp (TCL3S) 300 Exp (TCL3S)
Exp (TCL4S) Exp (TCL4S)
FDS (CL1S) FDS (CL1S)
200 FDS (CL2S) 200 FDS (CL2S)
FDS (CL3S) FDS (CL3S)
FDS (CL4S) FDS (CL4S)
100 100

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Lower Column Temperature, WTC Test 3 Lower Column Temperature, WTC Test 4
400 400
Exp (TCL1S) Exp (TCL1S)
Exp (TCL2S) Exp (TCL2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 Exp (TCL3S) 300 Exp (TCL3S)

Exp (TCL4S) Exp (TCL4S)
FDS (CL1S) FDS (CL1S)
200 FDS (CL2S) 200 FDS (CL2S)
FDS (CL3S) FDS (CL3S)
FDS (CL4S) FDS (CL4S)
100 100

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
500 500
Lower Column Temperature, WTC Test 5 Lower Column Temperature, WTC Test 6
400 400
Exp (TCL1S) Exp (TCL1S)
Exp (TCL2S) Exp (TCL2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 Exp (TCL3S) 300 Exp (TCL3S)

Exp (TCL4S) Exp (TCL4S)
FDS (CL1S) FDS (CL1S)
200 FDS (CL2S) 200 FDS (CL2S)
FDS (CL3S) FDS (CL3S)
FDS (CL4S) FDS (CL4S)
100 100

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.108: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, lower column.

736
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Upper Temperature, WTC Test 1 Truss A Upper Temperature, WTC Test 2

600 Exp (TU1SA) 600 Exp (TU1SA)

Exp (TU2SA) Exp (TU2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TU3SA) Exp (TU3SA)
Exp (TU4SA) Exp (TU4SA)
400 FDS (TU1SA)
400 FDS (TU1SA)
FDS (TU2SA) FDS (TU2SA)
FDS (TU3SA) FDS (TU3SA)
FDS (TU4SA) FDS (TU4SA)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Upper Temperature, WTC Test 3 Truss A Upper Temperature, WTC Test 4

600 Exp (TU1SA) 600 Exp (TU1SA)

Exp (TU2SA) Exp (TU2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TU3SA) Exp (TU3SA)

Exp (TU4SA) Exp (TU4SA)
400 FDS (TU1SA)
400 FDS (TU1SA)
FDS (TU2SA) FDS (TU2SA)
FDS (TU3SA) FDS (TU3SA)
FDS (TU4SA) FDS (TU4SA)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Upper Temperature, WTC Test 5 Truss A Upper Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 Exp (TU1SA) 600

Exp (TU2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TU3SA)
Exp (TU4SA) Exp (TU1SA)
400 FDS (TU1SA)
400
Exp (TU2SA)
FDS (TU2SA) Exp (TU3SA)
FDS (TU3SA) Exp (TU4SA)
FDS (TU4SA) FDS (TU1SA)
200 200
FDS (TU2SA)
FDS (TU3SA)
FDS (TU4SA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.109: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, upper Truss A.

737
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Middle Temperature, WTC Test 1 Truss A Middle Temperature, WTC Test 2

600 Exp (TM1SA) 600 Exp (TM1SA)

Exp (TM2SA) Exp (TM2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TM3SA) Exp (TM3SA)
Exp (TM4SA) Exp (TM4SA)
400 FDS (TM1SA)
400 FDS (TM1SA)
FDS (TM2SA) FDS (TM2SA)
FDS (TM3SA) FDS (TM3SA)
FDS (TM4SA) FDS (TM4SA)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Middle Temperature, WTC Test 3 Truss A Middle Temperature, WTC Test 4

600 Exp (TM1SA) 600 Exp (TM1SA)

Exp (TM2SA) Exp (TM2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TM3SA) Exp (TM3SA)

Exp (TM4SA) Exp (TM4SA)
400 FDS (TM1SA)
400 FDS (TM1SA)
FDS (TM2SA) FDS (TM2SA)
FDS (TM3SA) FDS (TM3SA)
FDS (TM4SA) FDS (TM4SA)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Middle Temperature, WTC Test 5 Truss A Middle Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 Exp (TM1SA) 600

Exp (TM2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TM3SA)
Exp (TM4SA) Exp (TM1SA)
400 FDS (TM1SA)
400
Exp (TM2SA)
FDS (TM2SA) Exp (TM3SA)
FDS (TM3SA) Exp (TM4SA)
FDS (TM4SA) FDS (TM1SA)
200 200
FDS (TM2SA)
FDS (TM3SA)
FDS (TM4SA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.110: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, middle Truss A.

738
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Lower Temperature, WTC Test 1 Truss A Lower Temperature, WTC Test 2

600 Exp (TL1SA) 600 Exp (TL1SA)

Exp (TL2SA) Exp (TL2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TL3SA) Exp (TL3SA)
Exp (TL4SA) Exp (TL4SA)
400 FDS (TL1SA)
400 FDS (TL1SA)
FDS (TL2SA) FDS (TL2SA)
FDS (TL3SA) FDS (TL3SA)
FDS (TL4SA) FDS (TL4SA)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Lower Temperature, WTC Test 3 Truss A Lower Temperature, WTC Test 4

600 Exp (TL1SA) 600 Exp (TL1SA)

Exp (TL2SA) Exp (TL2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TL3SA) Exp (TL3SA)

Exp (TL4SA) Exp (TL4SA)
400 FDS (TL1SA)
400 FDS (TL1SA)
FDS (TL2SA) FDS (TL2SA)
FDS (TL3SA) FDS (TL3SA)
FDS (TL4SA) FDS (TL4SA)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss A Lower Temperature, WTC Test 5 Truss A Lower Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 Exp (TL1SA) 600

Exp (TL2SA)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TL3SA)
Exp (TL4SA) Exp (TL1SA)
400 FDS (TL1SA)
400
Exp (TL2SA)
FDS (TL2SA) Exp (TL3SA)
FDS (TL3SA) Exp (TL4SA)
FDS (TL4SA) FDS (TL1SA)
200 200
FDS (TL2SA)
FDS (TL3SA)
FDS (TL4SA)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.111: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, lower Truss A.

739
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Upper Temperature, WTC Test 1 Truss B Upper Temperature, WTC Test 2

600 Exp (TU1SB) 600 Exp (TU1SB)

Exp (TU2SB) Exp (TU2SB)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TU3SB) Exp (TU3SB)
Exp (TU4SB) Exp (TU4SB)
400 FDS (TU1SB)
400 FDS (TU1SB)
FDS (TU2SB) FDS (TU2SB)
FDS (TU3SB) FDS (TU3SB)
FDS (TU4SB) FDS (TU4SB)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Upper Temperature, WTC Test 3 Truss B Upper Temperature, WTC Test 4

600 Exp (TU1SB) 600 Exp (TU1SB)

Exp (TU2SB) Exp (TU2SB)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TU3SB) Exp (TU3SB)

Exp (TU4SB) Exp (TU4SB)
400 FDS (TU1SB)
400 FDS (TU1SB)
FDS (TU2SB) FDS (TU2SB)
FDS (TU3SB) FDS (TU3SB)
FDS (TU4SB) FDS (TU4SB)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Upper Temperature, WTC Test 5 Truss B Upper Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 Exp (TU1SB) 600

Exp (TU2SB)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TU3SB)
Exp (TU4SB) Exp (TU1SB)
400 FDS (TU1SB)
400
Exp (TU2SB)
FDS (TU2SB) Exp (TU3SB)
FDS (TU3SB) Exp (TU4SB)
FDS (TU4SB) FDS (TU1SB)
200 200
FDS (TU2SB)
FDS (TU3SB)
FDS (TU4SB)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.112: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, upper Truss B.

740
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Middle Temperature, WTC Test 1 Truss B Middle Temperature, WTC Test 2

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TM1SB) Exp (TM1SB)
Exp (TM2SB) Exp (TM2SB)
Exp (TM3SB) Exp (TM3SB)
400 FDS (TM1SB)
400 FDS (TM1SB)
FDS (TM2SB) FDS (TM2SB)
FDS (TM3SB) FDS (TM3SB)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Middle Temperature, WTC Test 3 Truss B Middle Temperature, WTC Test 4

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TM1SB)
Exp (TM2SB) Exp (TM1SB)
Exp (TM3SB) Exp (TM2SB)
400 FDS (TM1SB)
400 FDS (TM1SB)
FDS (TM2SB) FDS (TM2SB)
FDS (TM3SB)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Middle Temperature, WTC Test 5 Truss B Middle Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 Exp (TM1SB) 600

Exp (TM2SB)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TM3SB)
Exp (TM4SB) Exp (TM1SB)
400 FDS (TM1SB)
400
Exp (TM2SB)
FDS (TM2SB) Exp (TM3SB)
FDS (TM3SB) Exp (TM4SB)
FDS (TM4SB) FDS (TM1SB)
200 200
FDS (TM2SB)
FDS (TM3SB)
FDS (TM4SB)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.113: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, middle Truss B.

741
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Lower Temperature, WTC Test 1 Truss B Lower Temperature, WTC Test 2

600 Exp (TL1SB) 600 Exp (TL1SB)

Exp (TL2SB) Exp (TL2SB)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TL3SB) Exp (TL3SB)
Exp (TL4SB) Exp (TL4SB)
400 FDS (TL1SB)
400 FDS (TL1SB)
FDS (TL2SB) FDS (TL2SB)
FDS (TL3SB) FDS (TL3SB)
FDS (TL4SB) FDS (TL4SB)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Lower Temperature, WTC Test 3 Truss B Lower Temperature, WTC Test 4

600 Exp (TL1SB) 600 Exp (TL1SB)

Exp (TL2SB) Exp (TL2SB)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TL3SB) Exp (TL3SB)

Exp (TL4SB) Exp (TL4SB)
400 FDS (TL1SB)
400 FDS (TL1SB)
FDS (TL2SB) FDS (TL2SB)
FDS (TL3SB) FDS (TL3SB)
FDS (TL4SB) FDS (TL4SB)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Truss B Lower Temperature, WTC Test 5 Truss B Lower Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 Exp (TL1SB) 600

Exp (TL2SB)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TL3SB)
Exp (TL4SB) Exp (TL1SB)
400 FDS (TL1SB)
400
Exp (TL2SB)
FDS (TL2SB) Exp (TL3SB)
FDS (TL3SB) Exp (TL4SB)
FDS (TL4SB) FDS (TL1SB)
200 200
FDS (TL2SB)
FDS (TL3SB)
FDS (TL4SB)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.114: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, lower Truss B.

742
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Bar 1 Temperature, WTC Test 1 Bar 1 Temperature, WTC Test 2

600 Exp (TB1S) 600 Exp (TB1S)

Exp (TB2S) Exp (TB2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TB3S) Exp (TB3S)
Exp (TB4S) Exp (TB4S)
400 FDS (B1S)
400 FDS (B1S)
FDS (B2S) FDS (B2S)
FDS (B3S) FDS (B3S)
FDS (B4S) FDS (B4S)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Bar 1 Temperature, WTC Test 3 Bar 1 Temperature, WTC Test 4

600 Exp (TB1S) 600 Exp (TB1S)

Exp (TB2S) Exp (TB2S)
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TB3S) Exp (TB3S)

Exp (TB4S) Exp (TB4S)
400 FDS (B1S)
400 FDS (B1S)
FDS (B2S) FDS (B2S)
FDS (B3S) FDS (B3S)
FDS (B4S) FDS (B4S)
200 200

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
800 800
Bar 1 Temperature, WTC Test 5 Bar 1 Temperature, WTC Test 6

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TB2S)
Exp (TB3S)
400 FDS (B2S)
400
FDS (B3S) Exp (TB1S)
Exp (TB2S)
200 200 Exp (TB3S)
FDS (B1S)
FDS (B2S)
FDS (B3S)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.115: WTC experiments, steel temperatures, Bar 1.

743
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
400 400
Slug Temperatures, WTC Test 1 Slug Temperatures, WTC Test 2

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
Exp (TSL1-1) Exp (TSL1-1)
Exp (TSL2-1) Exp (TSL2-1)
200 Exp (TSL3-1) 200 Exp (TSL3-1)
Exp (TSL4-1) Exp (TSL4-1)
Exp (TSL5-1) Exp (TSL5-1)
FDS (TSL1U) FDS (TSL1U)
100 FDS (TSL2U) 100 FDS (TSL2U)
FDS (TSL3U) FDS (TSL3U)
FDS (TSL4U) FDS (TSL4U)
FDS (TSL5U) FDS (TSL5U)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
600 600
Slug Temperatures, WTC Test 3 Slug Temperatures, WTC Test 4
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TSL1-1) Exp (TSL1-1)

Exp (TSL2-1) Exp (TSL2-1)
300 Exp (TSL3-1) 300 Exp (TSL3-1)
Exp (TSL4-1) Exp (TSL4-1)
Exp (TSL5-1) Exp (TSL5-1)
200 FDS (TSL1U) 200 FDS (TSL1U)
FDS (TSL2U) FDS (TSL2U)
FDS (TSL3U) FDS (TSL3U)
100 FDS (TSL4U)
100 FDS (TSL4U)
FDS (TSL5U) FDS (TSL5U)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1000 1000
Slug Temperatures, WTC Test 5 Slug Temperatures, WTC Test 6
800 800
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

Exp (TSL1-1) Exp (TSL1-1)

600 Exp (TSL2-1) 600 Exp (TSL2-1)
Exp (TSL3-1) Exp (TSL3-1)
Exp (TSL4-1) Exp (TSL4-1)
400 Exp (TSL5-1) 400 Exp (TSL5-1)
FDS (TSL1U) FDS (TSL1U)
FDS (TSL2U) FDS (TSL2U)
200 FDS (TSL3U) 200 FDS (TSL3U)
FDS (TSL4U) FDS (TSL4U)
FDS (TSL5U) FDS (TSL5U)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.116: WTC experiments, slug temperatures.

744
11.2.7 CAROLFIRE Experiments
On the following pages are predictions of the THIEF (thermally-induced electrical failure) model compared
to 35 experiments conducted at Sandia National Laboratory [148]. In these experiments, an instrumented
electrical cable was run through a heated cylindrical “shroud.” The shroud temperature is an input for the
model, and the cable temperature (and in some cases that of the steel conduit enclosing the cable) is pre-
dicted. Note that the cables generally fall into two categories – thermoset and thermoplastic. Thermoset
cables form a char layer when burned and typically fail electrically at temperatures near 400 ◦ C. Thermo-
plastic cables typically melt and then burn, leaving little residue behind except the conductors. These cables
typically fail between 200 ◦ C and 250 ◦ C. Some cables, as in Tests 18 and 31, do not fall into either category.
The thermoset cables were exposed to temperatures in the neighborhood of 480 ◦ C, and the thermoplastics
were exposed to temperatures near 300 ◦ C.
Note in the plots to follow that the objective of the calculation is to predict the cable temperature just
inside of the jacket until the cable fails electrically. In some experiments, the short-circuiting of the cable
led to ignition of the pyrolyzates. This behavior is not captured in the model, which is why some of the
experimental data shows a rapid rise in temperature at a certain point in the test. In many cases, electrical
failure occurred very shortly, or at about the same time, as ignition.
Figure 11.131 compares the measured versus predicted time to a “threshold” temperature. The threshold
temperature is 400 ◦ C for thermoset cables and 200 ◦ C for thermoplastics.

745
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 1 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 2
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 3 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 7
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300
Exp (Shroud)
200 200 Exp (Conduit 2)
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Cable 4)
Exp (Cable 1) FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Conduit)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 9 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 11
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 12 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 13
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.117: CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 1, 2, 3, 7, 9, 11-13.

746
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 17 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 19
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 20 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 22
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 23 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 24
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
200 Exp (Conduit 2) 200 Exp (Conduit 2)
Exp (Cable 4) Exp (Cable 4)
FDS (Shroud) FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Conduit)
100 FDS (Conduit)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 27 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 28
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.118: CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 17, 19-20, 22-24, 27-28.

747
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 4 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 5

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200

100 Exp (Shroud) 100 Exp (Shroud)

Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
FDS (Shroud) FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 6 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 8

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200
Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Conduit 2)
100 Exp (Shroud) 100 Exp (Cable 4)
Exp (Cable 1) FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Shroud) FDS (Conduit)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 10 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 14

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (Shroud) 100 Exp (Shroud)

Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
FDS (Shroud) FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 15 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 16

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (Shroud) 100 Exp (Shroud)

Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
FDS (Shroud) FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.119: CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 4-6, 8, 10, 14-16.

748
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 21 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 25

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200
Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Conduit 2)
100 Exp (Shroud) 100 Exp (Cable 4)
Exp (Cable 1) FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Shroud) FDS (Conduit)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 26 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 29

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200
Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Conduit 2)
100 Exp (Cable 4) 100 Exp (Shroud)
FDS (Shroud) Exp (Cable 1)
FDS (Conduit) FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 30 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 63

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 Exp (Shroud) 100 Exp (Shroud)

Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
FDS (Shroud) FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 65

300
Temperature (°C)

200

100 Exp (Shroud)

Exp (Cable 1)
FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 11.120: CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 21, 25-26, 29-30, 63, 65.

749
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 62 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 64
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 18 CAROLFIRE Penlight Test 31
500 500

400 400
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

300 300

200 200
Exp (Shroud) Exp (Shroud)
Exp (Cable 1) Exp (Cable 1)
100 FDS (Shroud)
100 FDS (Shroud)
FDS (Cable) FDS (Cable)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.121: CAROLFIRE, electrical cable temperatures, Penlight Tests 18, 31, 62, 64.

750
11.2.8 Frankman Vegetation Experiments
Results of the Frankman vegetation experiments are shown in Fig. 11.122. Each plot represents a particular
fuel sample. “SmEx15”, for example, is the small excelsior at 15 cm from the burner. Details and references
can be found in Section 3.29.
FDS6.7.7-964-gdeb95347b-master FDS6.7.7-964-gdeb95347b-master
120 120
Small Excelsior Large Excelsior
100 100
Temperature Rise (°C)

Temperature Rise (°C)

80 80

60 Exp (SmEx15) 60 Exp (LgEx15)

Exp (SmEx25) Exp (LgEx25)
Exp (SmEx35) Exp (LgEx35)
40 Exp (SmEx45) 40 Exp (LgEx45)
FDS (SmEx15) FDS (LgEx15)
FDS (SmEx25) FDS (LgEx25)
20 FDS (SmEx35)
20 FDS (LgEx35)
FDS (SmEx45) FDS (LgEx45)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-964-gdeb95347b-master
120
Ponderosa Pine
100
Temperature Rise (°C)

80

60 Exp (Pine15)
Exp (Pine25)
Exp (Pine35)
40 Exp (Pine45)
FDS (Pine15)
FDS (Pine25)
20 FDS (Pine35)
FDS (Pine45)
0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s)

Figure 11.122: Frankman vegetation experiments, fuel temperatures.

751
11.2.9 PRISME Experiments
In most of the PRISME experiments, instrumented electrical cables were laid within trays at various heights
in the test compartment. For the PRISME LEAK series of experiments (Figs. 11.123 and 11.124), the
gas temperature in the vicinity of the cables was measured and served as the exposing heat source for
calculations using the THIEF (Thermally-Induced Electrical Failure) model [265].
For the PRISME Door experiments, the temperatures of surrogate cables were predicted directly from
the predicted thermal environment of the entire compartment. The measurement points in these experiments
were labeled, for example, TCA_L2_HE_SURF, meaning thermocouple of the “analytical” cable, compart-
ment 2, haut (high), east, surface. BW means bas (low) west, for example. Thermocouples were positioned
on the cable surface (SURF), halfway towards center (INTER), and center (CENTRE).

752
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 800
Test LK-1, Lower Tray Test LK-1, Upper Tray

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
400 400
Exp (Air)
Exp (GRS 1)
200 Exp (VTT 1) 200 Exp (Air)
FDS (Air) Exp (NRC 1)
FDS (GRS 1) FDS (Air)
FDS (VTT 1) FDS (NRC 1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 800
Test LK-2, Lower Tray Test LK-2, Upper Tray

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 Exp (Air) 400 Exp (Air)

Exp (IRSN 2) Exp (NRC 1)
Exp (TRAC 1) Exp (GRS 1)
Exp (TRAC 3) Exp (VTT 1)
200 FDS (Air) 200 FDS (Air)
FDS (IRSN 2) FDS (NRC 1)
FDS (TRAC 1) FDS (GRS 1)
FDS (TRAC 3) FDS (VTT 1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800
Test LK-2, Upper Tray

600
Temperature (°C)

400
Exp (Air)
Exp (TRAC 1)
200 Exp (IRSN 2)
FDS (Air)
FDS (TRAC 1)
FDS (IRSN 2)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 11.123: PRISME LEAK experiments, cable temperature, Tests 1 and 2.

753
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 800
Test LK-3 Test LK-3

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
400 Exp (Air) 400 Exp (Air)
Exp (NRC 2) Exp (TRAC 2)
Exp (GRS 2) Exp (TRAC 4)
Exp (VTT 1) Exp (IRSN 1)
200 FDS (Air) 200 FDS (Air)
FDS (NRC 2) FDS (TRAC 2)
FDS (GRS 2) FDS (TRAC 4)
FDS (VTT 1) FDS (IRSN 1)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 800
Test LK-4 Test LK-4

600 600
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

400 Exp (Air) 400 Exp (Air)

Exp (NRC 1) Exp (TRAC 2)
Exp (GRS 2) Exp (TRAC 3)
Exp (VTT 1) Exp (TRAC 4)
200 FDS (Air) 200 FDS (Air)
FDS (NRC 2) FDS (TRAC 2)
FDS (GRS 2) FDS (TRAC 3)
FDS (VTT 1) FDS (TRAC 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800
Test LK-4

600
Temperature (°C)

400
Exp (Air)
Exp (IRSN 1)
200 Exp (IRSN 2)
FDS (Air)
FDS (IRSN 1)
FDS (IRSN 2)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 11.124: PRISME LEAK experiments, cable temperature, Tests 3 and 4.

754
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100
Exp (TCA_L1_BW_SURF)
Exp (TCA_L1_BW_INTER)
50 Exp (TCA_L1_BW_CENTRE) 50
FDS (TCA_L1_BW_SURF)
FDS (TCA_L1_BW_INTER)
FDS (TCA_L1_BW_CENTRE)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.125: PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 1, Cable BW.

755
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp.

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
200 200
Exp (TCA_L1_HW_SURF)
Exp (TCA_L1_HW_INTER)
100 Exp (TCA_L1_HW_CENTRE) 100
FDS (TCA_L1_HW_SURF)
FDS (TCA_L1_HW_INTER)
FDS (TCA_L1_HW_CENTRE)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp.

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Target Temp.

300 300
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.126: PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 1, Cable HW.

756
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100
Exp (TCA_L2_BE_SURF)
Exp (TCA_L2_BE_INTER)
50 Exp (TCA_L2_BE_CENTRE) 50
FDS (TCA_L2_BE_SURF)
FDS (TCA_L2_BE_INTER)
FDS (TCA_L2_BE_CENTRE)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150
Temperature (°C)

100

50

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

Figure 11.127: PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 2, Cable BE.

757
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100
Exp (TCA_L2_HE_SURF)
Exp (TCA_L2_HE_INTER)
50 Exp (TCA_L2_HE_CENTRE) 50
FDS (TCA_L2_HE_SURF)
FDS (TCA_L2_HE_INTER)
FDS (TCA_L2_HE_CENTRE)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.128: PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 2, Cable HE.

758
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
100 100
Exp (TCA_L2_HW_SURF)
Exp (TCA_L2_HW_INTER)
50 Exp (TCA_L2_HW_CENTRE) 50
FDS (TCA_L2_HW_SURF)
FDS (TCA_L2_HW_INTER)
FDS (TCA_L2_HW_CENTRE)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp. DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Target Temp.

150 150
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 11.129: PRISME DOOR experiments, cable temperature, Room 2, Cable HW.

759
11.2.10 Summary of Target Temperature Predictions

1000 Target Temperature

Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.18
Model Bias Factor: 1.01

CAROLFIRE
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

Frankman Vegetation
100 NIST Composite Beam
NIST E119 Compartment
NIST/NRC
NIST/NRC Corner Effects
PRISME
SP AST
SP AST Column
10 SP Room
WTC

1
1 10 100 1000
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

Figure 11.130: Summary of target temperature predictions.

760
11.2.11 Time to Failure
In addition to comparing the peak temperature predictions and measurements for electrical cables, it is also
useful to consider the uncertainty in predicting the time to cable failure. Obviously, the two quantities are
related, but from a practical standpoint, it is the time to failure that is of interest in these types of analyses.
Figure 11.131 displays results for the CAROLFIRE experiments.

Cable Failure Time

Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.12
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.32
Model Bias Factor: 0.45
1000
Predicted Time to Threshold Temperature (s)

CAROLFIRE

100
100 1000
Measured Time to Threshold Temperature (s)

Figure 11.131: Summary of time to failure predictions for electrical cables.

761
11.3 Liquid Pool Surface Temperature
This section presents predicted liquid pool fire surface temperatures compared with the respective liquid
boiling temperatures. Mass loss rate comparisons are shown in Section 14.5.

11.3.1 Pool Fires

Figure 11.132 displays the surface temperature of a pan of boiling water. Figure 11.133 displays the surface
temperature of 1 m2 and 2 m2 heptane pool fires. Figure 11.134 displays the surface temperature of various
other liquid pool fires.
FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master
120
ASTM E2058 Water Evaporation 50 kW/m²
100
Surface Temperature (°C)

80

60

40
T boil
20 FDS (TMP WALL MEAN)
FDS (TMP WALL MAX)
0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 1200
Time (s)

Figure 11.132: ASTM E2058 water evaporation 50 kW/m2 , surface temperature.

FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master
120 120
Surface Temperature, VTT Heptane 1.07 m² Surface Temperature, VTT Heptane 2.0 m²
100 100

80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

T boil T boil
60 FDS (TMP_SURF_MEAN) 60 FDS (TMP_SURF_MEAN)
FDS (TMP_SURF_MAX) FDS (TMP_SURF_MAX)

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 11.133: VTT heptane pool fire surface temperatures.

762
 FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master
120 120
Pool Fires Surface Temperature, Acetone Pool Fires Surface Temperature, Benzene
100 100

80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)
60 60

40 40
T boil T boil
20 FDS (Tsurf mean)
20 FDS (Tsurf mean)
FDS (Tsurf max) FDS (Tsurf max)
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master
100 120
Pool Fires Surface Temperature, Butane Pool Fires Surface Temperature, Ethanol
80 100

60 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

T boil
40 FDS (Tsurf mean) 60
FDS (Tsurf max)

20 40
T boil
0 20 FDS (Tsurf mean)
FDS (Tsurf max)
-20 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master FDS6.7.7-925-g1ed329484-master
120 120
Pool Fires Surface Temperature, Heptane Pool Fires Surface Temperature, Methanol
100 100

80 80
Temperature (°C)

Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40
T boil T boil
20 FDS (Tsurf mean)
20 FDS (Tsurf mean)
FDS (Tsurf max) FDS (Tsurf max)
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 11.134: Pool fire experiments, surface temperatures.

763
11.3.2 NIST Pool Fires and Waterloo Methanol
Figure 11.135 displays the mean surface temperature for the 1 m NIST methanol pool fire [330] and the
30 cm Waterloo methanol pool fire [310]. The predicted surface temperatures are compared to the boiling
temperature of methanol, 64.7 ◦ C.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
NIST 1 m Methanol Pool Fire Waterloo 30 cm Methanol Pool Fire
80 80
Surface Temperature (°C)

Surface Temperature (°C)

60 60

40 40

T BOIL T BOIL
20 FDS (T_SURF_MEAN, 1 cm) 20 FDS (T_SURF_MEAN, 0.5 cm)
FDS (T_SURF_MEAN, 2 cm) FDS (T_SURF_MEAN, 1.0 cm)
FDS (T_SURF_MEAN, 4 cm) FDS (T_SURF_MEAN, 2.0 cm)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 120 0 20 40 60 80 100 120
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 11.135: NIST 1 m (left) and Waterloo 30 cm (right) methanol pool fires, surface temperature.

11.3.3 Summary of Liquid Pool Surface Temperature Predictions

Figure 11.136 summarizes the temperature predictions for liquid pool surface temperatures under high heat
flux conditions such as pool fires.

764
 Liquid Pool Surface Temperature
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.07
Model Bias Factor: 1.00
100
ASTM E2058 Water Evaporation
Predicted Temperature Rise (°C)

NIST Pool Fires

Pool Fires (Acetone)
Pool Fires (Benzene)
Pool Fires (Butane)
Pool Fires (Ethanol)
Pool Fires (Heptane)
10 Pool Fires (Methanol)
Pool Fires (VTT Heptane)
Waterloo Methanol

1
1 10 100
Measured Temperature Rise (°C)

Figure 11.136: Summary of liquid pool surface temperature predictions.

765
Chapter 12

Heat Flux

This chapter contains a wide variety of heat flux measurements, ranging from less than a kW/m2 from very
small methane gas burners up to about 150 kW/m2 in full-scale compartment fires. The results are broken
up into two broad categories—heat flux to compartment walls, ceiling, and floor, and heat flux to “targets”.
A target is any object of interest in a fire simulation, like a steel beam or electrical cable.
There are also sections that look at special cases, like the heat flux measured at a liquid fuel surface,
attenuation of thermal radiation by water sprays, and convective heat flux.

767
12.1 Heat Flux to Walls, Ceiling, and Floor
12.1.1 FAA Cargo Compartments
Measurements of heat flux and surface temperature were made at two ceiling locations (denoted A and B in
Fig. 7.10). The heat flux measurements are shown below.
FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
0.5 0.05
Heat Flux, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 1 Heat Flux, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 2
0.4 0.04
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3 Exp (HF1o) 0.03 Exp (HF1o)
Exp (HF2o) Exp (HF2o)
FDS (QCONVA) FDS (QCONVA)
0.2 FDS (QCONVB) 0.02 FDS (QCONVB)

0.1 0.01

0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-993-g9eb362ad9-master
0.08
Heat Flux, FAA Cargo Compartments Test 3

0.06
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (HF1o)
Exp (HF2o)
0.04 FDS (QCONVA)
FDS (QCONVB)

0.02

0
0 50 100 150
Time (s)

Figure 12.1: FAA Cargo Compartment experiments, heat flux to ceiling.

768
12.1.2 FM Parallel Panel Experiments
Predicted and measured vertical heat flux profiles for three propane and three propylene fires (30 kW, 60 kW,
and 100 kW) sandwiched between two 2.4 m high, 0.6 m wide panels are presented below.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

FM Parallel Panels, Propylene, 30 kW FM Parallel Panels, Propane, 30 kW

2 2

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Test 1 Flux) Exp (Test 4 Flux)
FDS (Flux) FDS (Flux)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

FM Parallel Panels, Propylene, 60 kW FM Parallel Panels, Propane, 60 kW

2 2

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Test 2 Flux) Exp (Test 5 Flux)

FDS (Flux) FDS (Flux)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

FM Parallel Panels, Propylene, 100 kW FM Parallel Panels, Propane, 100 kW

2 2

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Test 3 Flux) Exp (Test 6 Flux)

FDS (Flux) FDS (Flux)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.2: FM Parallel Panel experiments, side wall heat flux.

769
12.1.3 FM Vertical Wall Flame Experiments
Figure 12.3 displays the measured and predicted outward flame radiance at heights of 66, 330, 594, and
990 mm above the base of the burner, for a range of burning rates. The radiance is defined as the radiant flux
per unit solid angle in the outward normal direction. The radiance of an ideal black body at temperature T
is σ T 4 /π.
Figure 12.4 displays the measured and predicted heat flux from propylene, ethane, ethylene, and methane
wall fires. The fuel flow rates for propylene are 12.68, 17.05, and 22.37 g/m2 /s.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Radiance, 66 mm Radiance, 330 mm
8 8
Radiance (kW/m²/sr)

Radiance (kW/m²/sr)
6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp (Z=66mm) Exp (Z=330mm)
FDS (rad_066) FDS (rad_330)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s) Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Radiance, 594 mm Radiance, 990 mm
8 8
Radiance (kW/m²/sr)

Radiance (kW/m²/sr)

6 6

4 4

2 2
Exp (Z=594mm) Exp (Z=990mm)
FDS (rad_594) FDS (rad_990)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 0 5 10 15 20 25
Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s) Fuel Mass Flux (g/m²/s)

Figure 12.3: Flame radiance as a function of fuel flow rate at heights of 66, 330, 594, and 990 mm.

770
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.8-78-g5bcd33142-master
50 50

40 40

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1

Figure 12.4: Vertical profiles of heat flux to the burner surface for fuel flow rates of 12.68, 17.05, and 22.37 g/m2 /s.

771
12.1.4 NIST E119 Compartment
Heat flux gauges (Gardon, Model 64-20-18) were placed at three locations in the compartment, in water-
cooled steel pipes of 25 mm inside diameter. Results are shown in Fig. 12.5. Gauge locations are shown in
Fig. 3.22.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Gauge Heat Flux, Test 1 Gauge Heat Flux, Test 2
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 Exp (HG1) 40 Exp (HG1)

Exp (HG2) Exp (HG2)
Exp (HG3) Exp (HG3)
20 FDS (HG1) 20 FDS (HG1)
FDS (HG2) FDS (HG2)
FDS (HG3) FDS (HG3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200
Gauge Heat Flux, Test 3

150
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100
Exp (HG1)
Exp (HG2)
50 Exp (HG3)
FDS (HG1)
FDS (HG2)
FDS (HG3)
0
0 20 40 60 80
Time (min)

Figure 12.5: NIST E119 Compartment, wall heat fluxes.

772
12.1.5 NIST/NRC Experiments
Heat flux gauges and thermocouples were positioned at various locations on the walls, floor, and ceiling
of the compartment. The locations are given in Table 11.1. The heat flux gauges were not water cooled;
thus, they measured the net rather than the gauge heat flux. However, the net heat flux is a function of the
temperature of the heat flux gauge itself, which is not something that is modeled. To better compare model
and measurement, the measured net heat flux is converted into a gauge heat flux using the following formula:
 
q̇00gauge = q̇00net + σ Tgauge
4
− T∞4 + h Tgauge − T∞ kW/m2


(12.1)

where σ = 5.67 × 10−11 kW/m2 /K4 and h = 0.005 kW/m2 /K.

Also, over the course of 15 experiments, numerous heat flux gauges failed, most often due to loss of
contact with the wall or faulty thermocouples. All of the measurements from Test 13 and 16 were found to
be flawed.

773
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 4
North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 1 North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 7

3 3 Exp (N G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (N G-1) Exp (N G-2)
Exp (N G-5) Exp (N G-3)
Exp (N G-6) Exp (N G-5)
2 FDS (N G-1)
2 FDS (N G-1)
FDS (N G-5) FDS (N G-2)
FDS (N G-6) FDS (N G-3)
FDS (N G-5)
1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 2 North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 8

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (N G-1) 4
Exp (N G-3)
Exp (N G-5) Exp (N G-1)
Exp (N G-6) Exp (N G-5)
2 FDS (N G-1) 2 Exp (N G-6)
FDS (N G-3) FDS (N G-1)
FDS (N G-5) FDS (N G-5)
FDS (N G-6) FDS (N G-6)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 4 North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 10

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (N G-1) 4 Exp (N G-1)

Exp (N G-3) Exp (N G-2)
Exp (N G-5) Exp (N G-3)
Exp (N G-6) Exp (N G-5)
2 FDS (N G-1) 2 FDS (N G-1)
FDS (N G-3) FDS (N G-2)
FDS (N G-5) FDS (N G-3)
FDS (N G-6) FDS (N G-5)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.6: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to north wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10.

774
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 3 North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 9

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (N G-1)
Exp (N G-5) Exp (N G-1)
Exp (N G-6) Exp (N G-5)
4 FDS (N G-1)
4 FDS (N G-1)
FDS (N G-5) FDS (N G-5)
FDS (N G-6)
2 2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 5 North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 14

6 Exp (N G-1) 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (N G-3)
Exp (N G-5) Exp (N G-1)
Exp (N G-6) Exp (N G-5)
4 FDS (N G-1)
4 FDS (N G-1)
FDS (N G-3) FDS (N G-5)
FDS (N G-5)
FDS (N G-6)
2 2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 15 North Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 18

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (N G-1)
Exp (N G-2) Exp (N G-1)
Exp (N G-5) Exp (N G-5)
4 FDS (N G-1)
4 FDS (N G-1)
FDS (N G-2) FDS (N G-5)
FDS (N G-5)
2 2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.7: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to north wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

775
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 4
South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 1 South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (S G-1) Exp (S G-1)
3 Exp (S G-2) 3 Exp (S G-2)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (S G-4) Exp (S G-3)
Exp (S G-5) Exp (S G-4)
Exp (S G-6) Exp (S G-5)
2 FDS (S G-1)
2 FDS (S G-1)
FDS (S G-2) FDS (S G-2)
FDS (S G-4) FDS (S G-3)
FDS (S G-5) FDS (S G-4)
1 FDS (S G-6)
1 FDS (S G-5)

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 2 South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 8
Exp (S G-1)
6 6
Exp (S G-2)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (S G-3)
Exp (S G-4)
4 Exp (S G-5) 4 Exp (S G-1)
Exp (S G-6) Exp (S G-2)
FDS (S G-1) Exp (S G-5)
FDS (S G-2) Exp (S G-6)
2 FDS (S G-3) 2 FDS (S G-1)
FDS (S G-4) FDS (S G-2)
FDS (S G-5) FDS (S G-5)
FDS (S G-6) FDS (S G-6)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 4 South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 10
Exp (S G-1)
6 6
Exp (S G-2)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (S G-3) Exp (S G-1)

Exp (S G-4) Exp (S G-2)
4 Exp (S G-5) 4 Exp (S G-3)
Exp (S G-6) Exp (S G-4)
FDS (S G-1) Exp (S G-5)
FDS (S G-2) FDS (S G-1)
2 FDS (S G-3) 2 FDS (S G-2)
FDS (S G-4) FDS (S G-3)
FDS (S G-5) FDS (S G-4)
FDS (S G-6) FDS (S G-5)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.8: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to south wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10.

776
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 3 South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 9
Exp (S G-1)
6 Exp (S G-2) 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (S G-3)
Exp (S G-5) Exp (S G-1)
Exp (S G-6) Exp (S G-5)
4 FDS (S G-1)
4 FDS (S G-1)
FDS (S G-2) FDS (S G-5)
FDS (S G-3)
FDS (S G-5)
2 FDS (S G-6)
2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 5 South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 14
Exp (S G-1)
Exp (S G-2)
6 Exp (S G-3) 6 Exp (S G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (S G-4) Exp (S G-2)

Exp (S G-5) Exp (S G-5)
Exp (S G-6) Exp (S G-6)
4 FDS (S G-1)
4 FDS (S G-1)
FDS (S G-2) FDS (S G-2)
FDS (S G-3) FDS (S G-5)
FDS (S G-4) FDS (S G-6)
2 FDS (S G-5)
2
FDS (S G-6)

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 15 South Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 18

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (S G-1) Exp (S G-1)

Exp (S G-3) Exp (S G-2)
Exp (S G-5) Exp (S G-5)
4 FDS (S G-1)
4 FDS (S G-1)
FDS (S G-3) FDS (S G-2)
FDS (S G-5) FDS (S G-5)
2 2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.9: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to south wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

777
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 1 East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 7
2.5 2.5
Exp (E G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2 Exp (E G-2) 2 Exp (E G-2)
Exp (E G-3) Exp (E G-3)
Exp (E G-4) Exp (E G-4)
1.5 FDS (E G-1)
1.5 FDS (E G-2)
FDS (E G-2) FDS (E G-3)
1 FDS (E G-3) 1 FDS (E G-4)
FDS (E G-4)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 2 East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 8
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 Exp (E G-1) 3
Exp (E G-2)
Exp (E G-3) Exp (E G-2)
2 Exp (E G-4) 2 Exp (E G-3)
FDS (E G-1) Exp (E G-4)
FDS (E G-2) FDS (E G-2)
1 FDS (E G-3)
1 FDS (E G-3)
FDS (E G-4) FDS (E G-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 4 East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 10
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 Exp (E G-1) 3
Exp (E G-2)
Exp (E G-3) Exp (E G-2)
2 Exp (E G-4) 2 Exp (E G-3)
FDS (E G-1) Exp (E G-4)
FDS (E G-2) FDS (E G-2)
1 FDS (E G-3)
1 FDS (E G-3)
FDS (E G-4) FDS (E G-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.10: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to east wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10.

778
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 3 East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 9
5 5
Exp (E G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (E G-2) 4
Exp (E G-3)
Exp (E G-4) Exp (E G-3)
3 FDS (E G-1)
3 FDS (E G-3)
FDS (E G-2)
2 FDS (E G-3) 2
FDS (E G-4)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 5 East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 14
5 5
Exp (E G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (E G-2) 4
Exp (E G-3) Exp (E G-2)
Exp (E G-4) Exp (E G-3)
3 FDS (E G-1)
3 FDS (E G-2)
FDS (E G-2) FDS (E G-3)
2 FDS (E G-3) 2
FDS (E G-4)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 15 East Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 18
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4
Exp (E G-2) Exp (E G-2)
Exp (E G-3) Exp (E G-3)
3 FDS (E G-2)
3 FDS (E G-2)
FDS (E G-3) FDS (E G-3)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.11: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to east wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

779
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 1 West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 7
2.5 2.5
Exp (W G-1) Exp (W G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2 Exp (W G-2) 2 Exp (W G-2)
Exp (W G-3) Exp (W G-3)
Exp (W G-4) Exp (W G-4)
1.5 FDS (W G-1)
1.5 FDS (W G-1)
FDS (W G-2) FDS (W G-2)
1 FDS (W G-3) 1 FDS (W G-3)
FDS (W G-4) FDS (W G-4)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 2 West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 8
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 Exp (W G-1) 3 Exp (W G-1)

Exp (W G-2) Exp (W G-2)
Exp (W G-3) Exp (W G-3)
2 Exp (W G-4) 2 Exp (W G-4)
FDS (W G-1) FDS (W G-1)
FDS (W G-2) FDS (W G-2)
1 FDS (W G-3)
1 FDS (W G-3)
FDS (W G-4) FDS (W G-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 4 West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 10
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 Exp (W G-1) 3 Exp (W G-1)

Exp (W G-2) Exp (W G-2)
Exp (W G-3) Exp (W G-3)
2 Exp (W G-4) 2 Exp (W G-4)
FDS (W G-1) FDS (W G-1)
FDS (W G-2) FDS (W G-2)
1 FDS (W G-3)
1 FDS (W G-3)
FDS (W G-4) FDS (W G-4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.12: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to west wall, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10.

780
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 3 West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 9
5 5
Exp (W G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (W G-2) 4
Exp (W G-3) Exp (W G-1)
Exp (W G-4) Exp (W G-3)
3 FDS (W G-1)
3 FDS (W G-1)
FDS (W G-2) FDS (W G-3)
2 FDS (W G-3) 2
FDS (W G-4)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 5 West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 14
5 5
Exp (W G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (W G-2) 4 Exp (W G-1)

Exp (W G-3) Exp (W G-2)
Exp (W G-4) Exp (W G-3)
3 FDS (W G-1)
3 FDS (W G-1)
FDS (W G-2) FDS (W G-2)
2 FDS (W G-3) 2 FDS (W G-3)
FDS (W G-4)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 15 West Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 18
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (W G-1) 4 Exp (W G-1)

Exp (W G-2) Exp (W G-2)
Exp (W G-3) Exp (W G-3)
3 FDS (W G-1)
3 FDS (W G-1)
FDS (W G-2) FDS (W G-2)
2 FDS (W G-3) 2 FDS (W G-3)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.13: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to west wall, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

781
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 4
Exp (F
Surface G-1) Flux, NIST/NRC Test 1
Heat Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (F G-2)
Exp (F G-3) Exp (F G-1)
3 Exp (F G-4) 3 Exp (F G-2)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (F G-6) Exp (F G-3)
Exp (F G-7) Exp (F G-4)
Exp (F G-8) Exp (F G-8)
2 FDS (F G-1)
2 FDS (F G-1)
FDS (F G-2) FDS (F G-2)
FDS (F G-3) FDS (F G-3)
FDS (F G-4) FDS (F G-4)
1 FDS (F G-6)
1 FDS (F G-8)
FDS (F G-7)
FDS (F G-8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 2 Exp (F G-1) Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 8 Exp (F G-1)
Exp (F G-2) Exp (F G-2)
8 Exp (F G-3) 8 Exp (F G-3)
Exp (F G-4) Exp (F G-4)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (F G-6) Exp (F G-6)

6 Exp (F G-7) 6 Exp (F G-7)
Exp (F G-8) Exp (F G-8)
FDS (F G-1) FDS (F G-1)
4 FDS (F G-2) 4 FDS (F G-2)
FDS (F G-3) FDS (F G-3)
FDS (F G-4) FDS (F G-4)
2 FDS (F G-6) 2 FDS (F G-6)
FDS (F G-7) FDS (F G-7)
FDS (F G-8) FDS (F G-8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 4 Exp (F G-1) Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 10
Exp (F G-2)
Exp (F G-3)
Exp (F G-4)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 Exp (F G-6) 10 Exp (F G-1)

Exp (F G-7) Exp (F G-2)
Exp (F G-8) Exp (F G-3)
FDS (F G-1) Exp (F G-4)
FDS (F G-2) Exp (F G-8)
5 FDS (F G-3) 5 FDS (F G-1)
FDS (F G-4) FDS (F G-2)
FDS (F G-6) FDS (F G-3)
FDS (F G-7) FDS (F G-4)
FDS (F G-8) FDS (F G-8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.14: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the floor, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10.

782
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Exp (F
Surface G-1) Flux, NIST/NRC Test 3
Heat Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 9
Exp (F G-2) Exp (F G-1)
Exp (F G-3) Exp (F G-2)
Exp (F G-4) Exp (F G-3)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 Exp (F G-6) 10 Exp (F G-6)
Exp (F G-7) Exp (F G-7)
Exp (F G-8) Exp (F G-8)
FDS (F G-1) FDS (F G-1)
FDS (F G-2) FDS (F G-2)
5 FDS (F G-3) 5 FDS (F G-3)
FDS (F G-4) FDS (F G-6)
FDS (F G-6) FDS (F G-7)
FDS (F G-7) FDS (F G-8)
FDS (F G-8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Exp (F
Surface G-1) Flux, NIST/NRC Test 5
Heat Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 14
Exp (F G-2)
Exp (F G-3)
Exp (F G-4)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 Exp (F G-6) 10 Exp (F G-2)

Exp (F G-7) Exp (F G-6)
Exp (F G-8) Exp (F G-8)
FDS (F G-1) FDS (F G-2)
FDS (F G-2) FDS (F G-6)
5 FDS (F G-3) 5 FDS (F G-8)
FDS (F G-4)
FDS (F G-6)
FDS (F G-7)
FDS (F G-8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 15 Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 18
Exp (F G-1)
6 6 Exp (F G-2)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (F G-2) Exp (F G-3)

Exp (F G-3) Exp (F G-7)
Exp (F G-8) Exp (F G-8)
4 FDS (F G-2)
4 FDS (F G-1)
FDS (F G-3) FDS (F G-2)
FDS (F G-8) FDS (F G-3)
FDS (F G-7)
2 2 FDS (F G-8)

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.15: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the floor, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

783
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Exp (C
Surface G-1)Flux, NIST/NRC Test 1
Heat Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 7
Exp (C G-2)
Exp (C G-3)
6 Exp (C G-4) 6 Exp (C G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C G-5) Exp (C G-2)
Exp (C G-6) Exp (C G-3)
Exp (C G-7) Exp (C G-7)
4 FDS (C G-1)
4 FDS (C G-1)
FDS (C G-2) FDS (C G-2)
FDS (C G-3) FDS (C G-3)
FDS (C G-4) FDS (C G-7)
2 FDS (C G-5)
2
FDS (C G-6)
FDS (C G-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
25 25
Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 2 Exp (C G-1) Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 8 Exp (C G-1)
Exp (C G-2) Exp (C G-2)
20 Exp (C G-3) 20 Exp (C G-3)
Exp (C G-4) Exp (C G-4)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C G-5) Exp (C G-5)

15 Exp (C G-6) 15 Exp (C G-6)
Exp (C G-7) Exp (C G-7)
FDS (C G-1) FDS (C G-1)
10 FDS (C G-2) 10 FDS (C G-2)
FDS (C G-3) FDS (C G-3)
FDS (C G-4) FDS (C G-4)
5 FDS (C G-5) 5 FDS (C G-5)
FDS (C G-6) FDS (C G-6)
FDS (C G-7) FDS (C G-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
25 15
Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 4 Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 10
20 Exp (C G-1)
Exp (C G-2)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C G-3) 10
15 Exp (C G-5)
Exp (C G-6) Exp (C G-1)
Exp (C G-7) Exp (C G-2)
10 FDS (C G-1) Exp (C G-3)
FDS (C G-2) 5 Exp (C G-7)
FDS (C G-3) FDS (C G-1)
5 FDS (C G-5) FDS (C G-2)
FDS (C G-6) FDS (C G-3)
FDS (C G-7) FDS (C G-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.16: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10.

784
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Exp (C
Surface G-1)Flux, NIST/NRC Test 3
Heat Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 9
Exp (C G-2) Exp (C G-2)
Exp (C G-3) Exp (C G-3)
15 Exp (C G-4) 15 Exp (C G-4)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C G-5) Exp (C G-5)
Exp (C G-6) Exp (C G-6)
Exp (C G-7) Exp (C G-7)
10 FDS (C G-1)
10 FDS (C G-2)
FDS (C G-2) FDS (C G-3)
FDS (C G-3) FDS (C G-4)
FDS (C G-4) FDS (C G-5)
5 FDS (C G-5)
5 FDS (C G-6)
FDS (C G-6) FDS (C G-7)
FDS (C G-7)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 5 Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 14
Exp (C G-1)
Exp (C G-2) Exp (C G-1)
Exp (C G-3) Exp (C G-2)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 Exp (C G-5) 10 Exp (C G-3)

Exp (C G-6) Exp (C G-6)
Exp (C G-7) Exp (C G-7)
FDS (C G-1) FDS (C G-1)
FDS (C G-2) FDS (C G-2)
5 FDS (C G-3) 5 FDS (C G-3)
FDS (C G-5) FDS (C G-6)
FDS (C G-6) FDS (C G-7)
FDS (C G-7)

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 15 Surface Heat Flux, NIST/NRC Test 18
8 8
Exp (C G-1)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C G-2) Exp (C G-2)

6 Exp (C G-3) 6 Exp (C G-3)
Exp (C G-7) Exp (C G-7)
FDS (C G-2) FDS (C G-1)
4 FDS (C G-3) 4 FDS (C G-2)
FDS (C G-7) FDS (C G-3)
FDS (C G-7)
2 2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.17: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

785
12.1.6 NRCC Facade Experiments
Figure 12.18 displays the simulation of a 10.3 MW fire inside and outside of a small enclosure. The purpose
of the experiment was to measure the heat flux to the exterior facade. The FDS heat flux predictions are
made at the location of the green points.

Figure 12.18: Smokeview rendering of one of the NRCC Facade experiments. The door is 0.94 m by 2.70 m tall
(referred to as “Window 2” in the comparison plots). The fire is 10.3 MW.

786
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 1, 5.5 MW NRCC Facade, Window 1, 6.9 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Win_1_5_MW) Exp (Win_1_6_MW)
FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8
NRCC Facade, Window 1, 8.6 MW
7

6
Height (m)

Exp (Win_1_8_MW)
FDS (Tot_Flux)
5

3
0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 2, 5.5 MW NRCC Facade, Window 2, 6.9 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Win_2_5_MW) Exp (Win_2_6_MW)

FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 2, 8.6 MW NRCC Facade, Window 2, 10.3 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Win_2_8_MW) Exp (Win_2_10_MW)

FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.19: NRCC Facade experiments, heat flux, window configuration 1 and 2.

787
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 3, 5.5 MW NRCC Facade, Window 3, 6.9 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Win_3_5_MW) Exp (Win_3_6_MW)
FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 3, 8.6 MW NRCC Facade, Window 3, 10.3 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Win_3_8_MW) Exp (Win_3_10_MW)
FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 4, 5.5 MW NRCC Facade, Window 4, 6.9 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Win_4_5_MW) Exp (Win_4_6_MW)

FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 4, 8.6 MW NRCC Facade, Window 4, 10.3 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Win_4_8_MW) Exp (Win_4_10_MW)

FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.20: NRCC Facade experiments, heat flux, window configuration 3 and 4.

788
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 5, 5.5 MW NRCC Facade, Window 5, 6.9 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Win_5_5_MW) Exp (Win_5_6_MW)
FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
NRCC Facade, Window 5, 8.6 MW NRCC Facade, Window 5, 10.3 MW
7 7

6 6
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Win_5_8_MW) Exp (Win_5_10_MW)

FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
5 5

4 4

3 3
0 10 20 30 40 50 0 10 20 30 40 50
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.21: NRCC Facade experiments, heat flux, window configuration 5.

789
12.1.7 NRL/HAI Experiments
Predicted and measured vertical heat flux profiles from 9 propane sand burner fires are shown on the fol-
lowing pages. The parameters for each experiment are listed in Table 12.1 below. Note that all the FDS
simulations were performed with a grid resolution such that D∗ /δ x = 10.

Table 12.1: Summary of the NRL/HAI Wall Heat Flux Measurements.

Test D D∗ Q̇ Q∗ Observed Flame

Number (m) (m) (kW) Height (m)
1 0.28 0.30 53 0.85 0.79
2 0.70 0.30 56 0.09 0.36
3 0.48 0.33 68 0.28 0.60
4 0.37 0.39 106 0.84 1.00
5 0.48 0.43 136 0.57 0.87
6 0.48 0.51 204 0.85 1.45
7 0.70 0.52 220 0.36 1.20
8 0.57 0.60 313 0.85 2.20
9 0.70 0.74 523 0.85 2.9 (based on 500 ◦ C)

790
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 1 NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 2

2 2

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Test 1 Flux) Exp (Test 2 Flux)
FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 3 NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 4

2 2

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

Exp (Test 3 Flux) Exp (Test 4 Flux)

FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 5

2

1.5
Height (m)

Exp (Test 5 Flux)

FDS (Tot_Flux)
1

0.5

0
0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.22: NRL/HAI experiments, heat flux to the wall, Tests 1-5.

791
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 6 NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 7

2 2

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)
Exp (Test 6 Flux) Exp (Test 7 Flux)
FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
1 1

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 8 NRL/HAI Wall Fires, Test 9

2 2

1.5 1.5
Height (m)

Height (m)

1 1

0.5 0.5
Exp (Test 8 Flux) Exp (Test 9 Flux)
FDS (Tot_Flux) FDS (Tot_Flux)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 50 100 150
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.23: NRL/HAI experiments, heat flux to the wall, Tests 6-9.

792
12.1.8 PRISME DOOR Experiments
Total and radiative heat flux gauges were positioned at various points on the walls. Each room contained a
vertical array labeled, for example, FLT_L1_NC265. The FLT indicates a surface total heat flux measure-
ment, L1 indicates compartment 1, which is where the fire was located, NC indicates north wall center, and
265 indicates the number of centimeters above the floor. In addition, each room contained four measurement
points centered on each wall at a height of approximately 260 cm. These points are labeled, for example,
FLT_L2_SC265, compartment 2, center of south wall, 265 cm high.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Total Heat Flux

15 Exp (FLT_L1_NE355)
15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (FLT_L1_NE265)
Exp (FLT_L1_NE155)
Exp (FLT_L1_NE040)
10 FDS (FLT_L1_NE355)
10
FDS (FLT_L1_NE265)
FDS (FLT_L1_NE155)
FDS (FLT_L1_NE040)
5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Total Heat Flux

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Total Heat Flux

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.24: PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, vertical array, Room 1.

793
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Radiative Heat Flux DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Radiative Heat Flux

15 Exp (FLR_L1_NE355)
15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (FLR_L1_NE265)
Exp (FLR_L1_NE155)
Exp (FLR_L1_NE040)
10 FDS (FLR_L1_NE355)
10
FDS (FLR_L1_NE265)
FDS (FLR_L1_NE155)
FDS (FLR_L1_NE040)
5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Radiative Heat Flux DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Radiative Heat Flux

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Radiative Heat Flux DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Radiative Heat Flux

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.25: PRISME DOOR experiments, radiative heat flux, vertical array, Room 1.

794
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 1, Room 1 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 2, Room 1 Total Heat Flux

15 Exp (FLT_L1_WC265)
15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (FLT_L1_NC265)
Exp (FLT_L1_EC265)
Exp (FLT_L1_SC265)
10 FDS (FLT_L1_WC265)
10
FDS (FLT_L1_NC265)
FDS (FLT_L1_EC265)
FDS (FLT_L1_SC265)
5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 3, Room 1 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 4, Room 1 Total Heat Flux

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
DOOR Test 5, Room 1 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 6, Room 1 Total Heat Flux

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.26: PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, four walls, Room 1.

795
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_NE355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_NE260) 4
Exp (FLT_L2_NE155)
Exp (FLT_L2_NE030)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_NE355)
3
FDS (FLT_L2_NE260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_NE155) 2
FDS (FLT_L2_NE030)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.27: PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, vertical array, Room 2.

796
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLR_L2_NE355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLR_L2_NE260) 4
Exp (FLR_L2_NE155)
Exp (FLR_L2_NE030)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_NE355)
3
FDS (FLR_L2_NE260)
2 FDS (FLR_L2_NE155) 2
FDS (FLR_L2_NE030)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.28: PRISME DOOR experiments, radiative heat flux, vertical array, Room 2.

797
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 1, Room 2 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 2, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_WC260)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260) 4
Exp (FLT_L2_EC260)
Exp (FLT_L2_SC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
3
FDS (FLT_L2_NC260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260) 2
FDS (FLT_L2_SC260)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 3, Room 2 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 4, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
DOOR Test 5, Room 2 Total Heat Flux DOOR Test 6, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.29: PRISME DOOR experiments, total heat flux, four walls, Room 2.

798
12.1.9 PRISME SOURCE Experiments
Total and radiative heat flux gauges were positioned at various points on the walls. Each room contained a
vertical array labeled, for example, FLT_L1_NC265. The FLT indicates a surface total heat flux measure-
ment, L1 indicates compartment 1, which is where the fire was located, NC indicates north wall center, and
265 indicates the number of centimeters above the floor. In addition, each room contained four measurement
points centered on each wall at a height of approximately 260 cm. These points are labeled, for example,
FLT_L2_SC265, compartment 2, center of south wall, 265 cm high.

799
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_N355) Exp (FLT_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260)
Exp (FLT_L2_N155) Exp (FLT_L2_N155)
Exp (FLT_L2_N030) Exp (FLT_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
FDS (FLT_L2_N260) FDS (FLT_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155)
FDS (FLT_L2_N030) FDS (FLT_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_N355) Exp (FLT_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260)
Exp (FLT_L2_N155) Exp (FLT_L2_N155)
Exp (FLT_L2_N030) Exp (FLT_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
FDS (FLT_L2_N260) FDS (FLT_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155)
FDS (FLT_L2_N030) FDS (FLT_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_N355) Exp (FLT_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260)

Exp (FLT_L2_N155) Exp (FLT_L2_N155)
Exp (FLT_L2_N030) Exp (FLT_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
FDS (FLT_L2_N260) FDS (FLT_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155)
FDS (FLT_L2_N030) FDS (FLT_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_N355) Exp (FLT_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_N260)

Exp (FLT_L2_N155) Exp (FLT_L2_N155)
Exp (FLT_L2_N030) Exp (FLT_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_N355)
FDS (FLT_L2_N260) FDS (FLT_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_N155)
FDS (FLT_L2_N030) FDS (FLT_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.30: PRISME SOURCE experiments, total heat flux, vertical array, Room 2.

800
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLR_L2_N355) Exp (FLR_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260)
Exp (FLR_L2_N155) Exp (FLR_L2_N155)
Exp (FLR_L2_N030) Exp (FLR_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
FDS (FLR_L2_N260) FDS (FLR_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155)
FDS (FLR_L2_N030) FDS (FLR_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLR_L2_N355) Exp (FLR_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260)
Exp (FLR_L2_N155) Exp (FLR_L2_N155)
Exp (FLR_L2_N030) Exp (FLR_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
FDS (FLR_L2_N260) FDS (FLR_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155)
FDS (FLR_L2_N030) FDS (FLR_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLR_L2_N355) Exp (FLR_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260)

Exp (FLR_L2_N155) Exp (FLR_L2_N155)
Exp (FLR_L2_N030) Exp (FLR_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
FDS (FLR_L2_N260) FDS (FLR_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155)
FDS (FLR_L2_N030) FDS (FLR_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 Radiative Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLR_L2_N355) Exp (FLR_L2_N355)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260) 4 Exp (FLR_L2_N260)

Exp (FLR_L2_N155) Exp (FLR_L2_N155)
Exp (FLR_L2_N030) Exp (FLR_L2_N030)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
3 FDS (FLR_L2_N355)
FDS (FLR_L2_N260) FDS (FLR_L2_N260)
2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155) 2 FDS (FLR_L2_N155)
FDS (FLR_L2_N030) FDS (FLR_L2_N030)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.31: PRISME SOURCE experiments, radiative heat flux, vertical array, Room 2.

801
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 1, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 2, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_WC260) Exp (FLT_L2_WC260)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260)
Exp (FLT_L2_EC260) Exp (FLT_L2_EC260)
Exp (FLT_L2_SC260) Exp (FLT_L2_SC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_NC260) FDS (FLT_L2_NC260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_SC260) FDS (FLT_L2_SC260)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 3, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 4, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_WC260) Exp (FLT_L2_WC260)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260)
Exp (FLT_L2_EC260) Exp (FLT_L2_EC260)
Exp (FLT_L2_SC260) Exp (FLT_L2_SC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_NC260) FDS (FLT_L2_NC260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_SC260) FDS (FLT_L2_SC260)

1 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 5, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 5a, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_WC260) Exp (FLT_L2_WC260)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260)

Exp (FLT_L2_EC260) Exp (FLT_L2_EC260)
Exp (FLT_L2_SC260) Exp (FLT_L2_SC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_NC260) FDS (FLT_L2_NC260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_SC260) FDS (FLT_L2_SC260)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
SOURCE Test 6, Room 2 Total Heat Flux SOURCE Test 6a, Room 2 Total Heat Flux
5 5
Exp (FLT_L2_WC260) Exp (FLT_L2_WC260)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260) 4 Exp (FLT_L2_NC260)

Exp (FLT_L2_EC260) Exp (FLT_L2_EC260)
Exp (FLT_L2_SC260) Exp (FLT_L2_SC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
3 FDS (FLT_L2_WC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_NC260) FDS (FLT_L2_NC260)
2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260) 2 FDS (FLT_L2_EC260)
FDS (FLT_L2_SC260) FDS (FLT_L2_SC260)

1 1

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.32: PRISME SOURCE experiments, total heat flux, four walls, Room 2.

802
12.1.10 Ulster SBI Experiments
Predicted and measured vertical heat flux profiles for three propane fire sizes in the single burning item (SBI)
enclosure at the University of Ulster are shown on the following page. Measurements were made on two
vertical panels that form a corner, at the base of which was a triangular-shaped burner with sides of length
25 cm. Three vertical profiles were measured on each panel at distances of 3.25 cm, 16.5 cm, and 29 cm
from the corner.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 1.5
Ulster SBI, 30 kW, Left Panel Ulster SBI, 30 kW, Right Panel

1 1
Height (m)

Height (m)
0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 1.5
Ulster SBI, 45 kW, Left Panel Ulster SBI, 45 kW, Right Panel

1 1
Height (m)

Height (m)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 1.5
Ulster SBI, 60 kW, Left Panel Ulster SBI, 60 kW, Right Panel

1 1
Height (m)

Height (m)

0.5 0.5

0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.33: Comparison of predicted (lines) and measured (circles) heat fluxes to adjacent panels forming a corner
in the single burning item (SBI) apparatus at the University of Ulster.

803
12.1.11 WTC Experiments
There were a variety of heat flux gauges installed in the test compartment. Most were within 2 m of the fire.
Their locations and orientations are listed in Table 12.2. This section contains the measurements at the floor
and ceiling.

Table 12.2: Heat flux gauge positions relative to the center of the fire pan in the WTC series.

Name x (m) y (m) z (m) Orientation Location

H2FU 0.64 0.63 3.30 +z Truss Support
H2RU 0.64 0.51 3.30 +z Truss Support
H2FD 0.64 0.30 3.15 −z Truss Support
H2RD 0.64 0.42 3.15 −z Truss Support
HCoHF -0.90 0.84 3.46 +x Column, facing fire
HCoHW -0.97 0.92 3.27 +y Column, facing north
HCoLF -0.90 0.84 0.92 +x Column, facing fire
HCoLW -0.97 0.92 1.02 +y Column, facing north
HF1 1.06 0.13 0.13 +z Floor
HF2 1.56 0.10 0.13 +z Floor
HCe1 -0.45 0.35 3.82 −z Ceiling
HCe2 0.05 0.35 3.82 −z Ceiling
HCe3 0.80 0.35 3.82 −z Ceiling
HCe4 2.56 0.35 3.82 −z Ceiling

804
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 1 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 2
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HF1) Exp (HF1)

20 Exp (HF2) 20 Exp (HF2)
FDS (HF1) FDS (HF1)
FDS (HF2) FDS (HF2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 3 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 4
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HF1) Exp (HF1)

20 Exp (HF2) 20 Exp (HF2)
FDS (HF1) FDS (HF1)
FDS (HF2) FDS (HF2)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 5 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (HF1) Exp (HF1)
Exp (HF2) Exp (HF2)
FDS (HF1) FDS (HF1)
FDS (HF2) FDS (HF2)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.34: WTC experiments, heat flux to the floor.

805
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 1 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 2
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCe1) Exp (HCe1)

20 Exp (HCe4) 20 Exp (HCe4)
FDS (HCe1) FDS (HCe1)
FDS (HCe4) FDS (HCe4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 3 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 4
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCe1) Exp (HCe1)

20 Exp (HCe4) 20 Exp (HCe4)
FDS (HCe1) FDS (HCe1)
FDS (HCe4) FDS (HCe4)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 5 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 6
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCe1) Exp (HCe1)

20 Exp (HCe4) 20 Exp (HCe4)
FDS (HCe1) FDS (HCe1)
FDS (HCe4) FDS (HCe4)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.35: WTC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling.

806
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 1 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 2
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (HCe2) Exp (HCe2)
Exp (HCe3) Exp (HCe3)
FDS (HCe2) FDS (HCe2)
FDS (HCe3) FDS (HCe3)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 3 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (HCe2) Exp (HCe2)
Exp (HCe3) Exp (HCe3)
FDS (HCe2) FDS (HCe2)
FDS (HCe3) FDS (HCe3)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 5 Surface Heat Flux, WTC Test 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (HCe2) Exp (HCe2)
Exp (HCe3) Exp (HCe3)
FDS (HCe2) FDS (HCe2)
FDS (HCe3) FDS (HCe3)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.36: WTC experiments, heat flux to the ceiling.

807
12.1.12 Summary of Wall, Ceiling and Floor Heat Flux Predictions

Surface Heat Flux

100 Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.11
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.27
Model Bias Factor: 1.01
Predicted Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FM Parallel Panels
10 NIST/NRC
NRCC Facade
NRL/HAI
PRISME
Ulster SBI
WTC
1

0.1
0.1 1 10 100
Measured Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.37: Summary of surface heat flux predictions.

808
12.2 Heat Flux to Targets
The heat flux measurements are broken up into two broad categories—heat flux to walls, floors, and ceiling,
and heat flux to “targets”. A target is any object of interest in a fire, like a steel beam or electrical cable. The
following subsections consider heat flux to targets.

12.2.1 Fleury Experiments

The plots on the following pages contain comparisons of predicted and measured heat fluxes from a series
of propane burner fires. Heat flux gauges were mounted on moveable dollies that were placed in front of,
and to the side of, burners with dimensions of 0.3 m by 0.3 m (1:1 burner), 0.6 m by 0.3 m (2:1 burner),
and 0.9 m by 0.3 m (3:1 burner). The heat release rates were set to 100 kW, 150 kW, 200 kW, 250 kW, and
300 kW. The gauges were mounted at heights of 0 m, 0.5 m, 1.0 m, and 1.5 m relative to the top edge of the
burner. Each page contains the results for a given HRR.

809
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Fleury Heat Flux, 100 kW, Front, 1:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 100 kW, Side, 1:1 Burner
8 8
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)
6 Exp (1.0 m) 6 Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
4 FDS (0.5 m) 4 FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
2 2

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Fleury Heat Flux, 100 kW, Front, 2:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 100 kW, Side, 2:1 Burner
8 8
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)

6 Exp (1.0 m) 6 Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
4 FDS (0.5 m) 4 FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
2 2

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Fleury Heat Flux, 100 kW, Front, 3:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 100 kW, Side, 3:1 Burner
8 8
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)

6 Exp (1.0 m) 6 Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
4 FDS (0.5 m) 4 FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
2 2

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.38: Comparison of predicted (lines) and measured (circles) heat flux for the 100 kW Fleury fires.

810
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Fleury Heat Flux, 150 kW, Front, 1:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 150 kW, Side, 1:1 Burner

Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 Exp (0.5 m) 10 Exp (0.5 m)
Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
5 FDS (1.0 m) 5 FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Fleury Heat Flux, 150 kW, Front, 2:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 150 kW, Side, 2:1 Burner

Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 Exp (0.5 m) 10 Exp (0.5 m)

Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
5 FDS (1.0 m) 5 FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Fleury Heat Flux, 150 kW, Front, 3:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 150 kW, Side, 3:1 Burner

Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 Exp (0.5 m) 10 Exp (0.5 m)

Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
5 FDS (1.0 m) 5 FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.39: Comparison of predicted (lines) and measured (circles) heat flux for the 150 kW Fleury fires.

811
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Fleury Heat Flux, 200 kW, Front, 1:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 200 kW, Side, 1:1 Burner

15 Exp (0.0 m) 15 Exp (0.0 m)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)
Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
10 FDS (0.0 m)
10 FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Fleury Heat Flux, 200 kW, Front, 2:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 200 kW, Side, 2:1 Burner

15 Exp (0.0 m) 15 Exp (0.0 m)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)

Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
10 FDS (0.0 m)
10 FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Fleury Heat Flux, 200 kW, Front, 3:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 200 kW, Side, 3:1 Burner

15 Exp (0.0 m) 15 Exp (0.0 m)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)

Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
10 FDS (0.0 m)
10 FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.40: Comparison of predicted (lines) and measured (circles) heat flux for the 200 kW Fleury fires.

812
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
25 25
Fleury Heat Flux, 250 kW, Front, 1:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 250 kW, Side, 1:1 Burner
20 20
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)
15 Exp (1.0 m) 15 Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
10 FDS (0.5 m) 10 FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
25 25
Fleury Heat Flux, 250 kW, Front, 2:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 250 kW, Side, 2:1 Burner
20 20
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)

15 Exp (1.0 m) 15 Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
10 FDS (0.5 m) 10 FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
25 25
Fleury Heat Flux, 250 kW, Front, 3:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 250 kW, Side, 3:1 Burner
20 20
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (0.5 m) Exp (0.5 m)

15 Exp (1.0 m) 15 Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
FDS (0.0 m) FDS (0.0 m)
10 FDS (0.5 m) 10 FDS (0.5 m)
FDS (1.0 m) FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)
5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.41: Comparison of predicted (lines) and measured (circles) heat flux for the 250 kW Fleury fires.

813
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
30 30
Fleury Heat Flux, 300 kW, Front, 1:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 300 kW, Side, 1:1 Burner
25 25
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

20 Exp (0.5 m) 20 Exp (0.5 m)
Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
15 FDS (0.0 m)
15 FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
10 FDS (1.0 m) 10 FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)

5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
30 30
Fleury Heat Flux, 300 kW, Front, 2:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 300 kW, Side, 2:1 Burner
25 25
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

20 Exp (0.5 m) 20 Exp (0.5 m)

Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
15 FDS (0.0 m)
15 FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
10 FDS (1.0 m) 10 FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)

5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
30 30
Fleury Heat Flux, 300 kW, Front, 3:1 Burner Fleury Heat Flux, 300 kW, Side, 3:1 Burner
25 25
Exp (0.0 m) Exp (0.0 m)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

20 Exp (0.5 m) 20 Exp (0.5 m)

Exp (1.0 m) Exp (1.0 m)
Exp (1.5 m) Exp (1.5 m)
15 FDS (0.0 m)
15 FDS (0.0 m)
FDS (0.5 m) FDS (0.5 m)
10 FDS (1.0 m) 10 FDS (1.0 m)
FDS (1.5 m) FDS (1.5 m)

5 5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 2 0.5 1 1.5 2
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.42: Comparison of predicted (lines) and measured (circles) heat flux for the 300 kW Fleury fires.

814
12.2.2 Hamins Gas Burner Experiments
Predicted and measured radial and vertical heat flux profiles from 30 methane, 34 propane, and 16 acetylene
gas burner fire experiments conducted by Anthony Hamins [341] are displayed in this section. The relevant
information about the fires is included in Tables 12.3, 12.4, and 12.5. In each table, D is the diameter
of the burner and R0 is the radial distance from the burner centerline to the position of the vertical heat
flux measurements. Q̇ is the product of the mass loss rate, ṁ, and the heat of combustion. The heat of
combustion of acetylene is 48.2 kJ/g; and for propane, 46.4 kJ/g. For the methane experiments, either
methane (50.03 kJ/g) or natural gas (49.4 kJ/g) was used. Q̇00 is the heat release rate per unit area, and
 2/5
∗ Q̇ ∗ Q̇
Q̇ = √ ; D = √ (12.2)
ρ∞ T∞ c p gD D2 ρ∞ T∞ c p g

Note that in the test matrices, the values to the right of the double lines indicate parameters used in the
simulations. The values for radiative fraction, χrad , are suggested by Hamins [341]. The quantity D∗ /δ x is
an indicator of grid resolution, where D∗ is the characteristic burner dimension and δ x is the grid cell size.

815
Methane Experiments

Table 12.3: Parameters of the Hamins methane burner experiments. The asterisk after the Test No. indicates
that natural gas was used as fuel. The soot and CO yields were assumed to be zero.

Test D R0 Q̇ ṁ Q̇00
Q̇∗ χrad D∗ /δ x
No. (m) (m) (kW) (g/s) (kW/m2 )
1 0.1 0.13 0.42 0.0085 53.5 0.12 0.13 8.6
2 0.1 0.13 0.61 0.0122 77.7 0.18 0.13 10.0
3 0.1 0.13 0.78 0.0155 99.3 0.22 0.13 11.0
4 0.1 0.13 1.11 0.0222 141.3 0.32 0.16 12.7
5 0.1 0.13 1.89 0.0378 240.6 0.54 0.16 15.7
6* 0.35 0.40 11.2 0.226 115.9 0.14 0.08 6.4
7* 0.35 0.40 15.3 0.310 159.0 0.19 0.10 7.2
8* 0.35 0.40 10.5 0.212 109.0 0.13 0.08 6.2
9* 0.35 0.40 6.67 0.135 69.3 0.08 0.07 5.2
10* 0.35 0.64 19.3 0.391 200.7 0.24 0.12 7.9
11* 0.35 0.63 27.0 0.546 280.3 0.34 0.15 9.1
12* 0.35 0.81 40.6 0.822 422.2 0.51 0.18 10.7
13* 0.35 0.92 63.5 1.285 659.9 0.80 0.21 12.8
14* 0.35 0.92 90.3 1.828 938.7 1.13 0.22 14.7
15 0.35 0.92 178 3.567 1854.6 2.24 0.20 19.3
16 0.35 0.92 210 4.194 2180.8 2.63 0.20 20.6
17 0.35 0.92 34.0 0.679 353.2 0.43 0.16 9.9
18 0.35 0.90 145 2.904 1510.0 1.82 0.28 17.8
19 0.35 0.90 125 2.495 1297.7 1.56 0.23 16.7
20* 1.0 1.00 49.0 0.997 62.4 0.04 0.14 5.8
21* 1.0 1.00 81.0 1.648 103.1 0.07 0.15 7.0
22* 1.0 1.00 112 2.282 142.8 0.10 0.17 8.0
23* 1.0 1.00 129 2.635 164.8 0.12 0.18 8.5
24* 1.0 0.79 52.7 1.069 67.1 0.05 0.12 5.9
25* 1.0 0.79 69.7 1.414 88.8 0.06 0.12 6.6
26* 1.0 0.79 87.3 1.771 111.2 0.08 0.13 7.3
27* 1.0 0.79 102 2.081 130.6 0.09 0.13 7.7
28* 1.0 0.79 121 2.462 154.5 0.11 0.14 8.3
29* 1.0 0.79 138 2.793 175.3 0.12 0.16 8.7
30* 1.0 0.79 172 3.482 218.5 0.16 0.18 9.5

816
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05 0.5
Hamins CH 4 Test 1 Hamins CH 4 Test 1
0.04 0.4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.03 0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.02 0.2

0.01 0.1

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 0.8
Hamins CH 4 Test 2 Hamins CH 4 Test 2
0.2
0.6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.15
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
0.4 FDS (HF_vert)
0.1

0.2
0.05

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 1
Hamins CH 4 Test 3 Hamins CH 4 Test 3
0.2 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.15 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.1 0.4

0.05 0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 1
Hamins CH 4 Test 4 Hamins CH 4 Test 4
0.4 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.2 0.4

0.1 0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.43: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 1-4.

817
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1.5
Hamins CH 4 Test 5 Hamins CH 4 Test 5
0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1
0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4
0.5

0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 1.5
Hamins CH 4 Test 6 Hamins CH 4 Test 6
0.2
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1
0.15
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.1
0.5

0.05

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 1.5
Hamins CH 4 Test 7 Hamins CH 4 Test 7
0.4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1
0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.2
0.5

0.1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.25 1
Hamins CH 4 Test 8 Hamins CH 4 Test 8
0.2 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.15 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.1 0.4

0.05 0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.44: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 5-8.

818
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 1
Hamins CH 4 Test 9 Hamins CH 4 Test 9
0.08 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.06 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.04 0.4

0.02 0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 1
Hamins CH 4 Test 10 Hamins CH 4 Test 10
0.8 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 1
Hamins CH 4 Test 11 Hamins CH 4 Test 11
0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1
0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4
0.5

0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 2
Hamins CH 4 Test 12 Hamins CH 4 Test 12
2.5
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

1.5 FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)

1
0.5
0.5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.45: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 9-12.

819
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 2
Hamins CH 4 Test 13 Hamins CH 4 Test 13
4
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
2

0.5
1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 2
Hamins CH 4 Test 14 Hamins CH 4 Test 14
5
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

3 FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)

2
0.5
1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 4
Hamins CH 4 Test 15 Hamins CH 4 Test 15
5
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

3 FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

2
1
1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 4
Hamins CH 4 Test 16 Hamins CH 4 Test 16

6 3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

4 FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

2 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.46: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 13-16.

820
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1
2
Hamins CH 4 Test 17 Hamins CH 4 Test 17
0.8
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
1 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

0.5
0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
12 4
Hamins CH 4 Test 18 Hamins CH 4 Test 18
10
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

8

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

6 FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

4
1
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 4
Hamins CH 4 Test 19 Hamins CH 4 Test 19
8
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)
4

1
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 1 2 3 4
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 1.5
Hamins CH 4 Test 20 Hamins CH 4 Test 20
0.08
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1
0.06
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.04
0.5

0.02

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.47: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 17-20.

821
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 2
Hamins CH 4 Test 21 Hamins CH 4 Test 21
0.4
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.2

0.5
0.1

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 3
Hamins CH 4 Test 22 Hamins CH 4 Test 22
2.5
0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2
0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4
1

0.2
0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 3
Hamins CH 4 Test 23 Hamins CH 4 Test 23
2.5
0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2
0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4
1

0.2
0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 2
Hamins CH 4 Test 24 Hamins CH 4 Test 24
0.08
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.06
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.04

0.5
0.02

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.48: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 21-24.

822
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 2.5
Hamins CH 4 Test 25 Hamins CH 4 Test 25
2
0.15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1.5
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
0.1 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
1

0.05
0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 3
Hamins CH 4 Test 26 Hamins CH 4 Test 26
2.5
0.4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2
0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)
0.2
1

0.1
0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 3.5
Hamins CH 4 Test 27 Hamins CH 4 Test 27
3
0.4
2.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3 2
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.2 1.5

1
0.1
0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 4
Hamins CH 4 Test 28 Hamins CH 4 Test 28
0.8
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

1
0.2

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.49: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 25-28.

823
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 5
Hamins CH Test 29 Hamins CH Test 29
4 4
0.8 4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6 3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4 2

0.2 1

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 6
Hamins CH 4 Test 30 Hamins CH 4 Test 30
5
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

1 FDS (HF_radi)
3 FDS (HF_vert)

2
0.5
1

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.50: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Methane Tests 29-30.

824
Propane Experiments

Table 12.4: Parameters of the Hamins propane burner experiments. Note that in all cases, the soot and CO
yields were taken to be 0.024 and 0.005, respectively, based on the measurements of Tewarson [135].

Test D R0 Q̇ ṁ Q̇00
Q̇∗ χrad D∗ /δ x
No. (m) (m) (kW) (kg/s) (kW/m2 )
1 0.1 0.26 2.7 0.058 343.8 0.78 0.22 9.0
2 0.1 0.26 6.8 0.148 870.9 1.96 0.27 13.1
3 0.1 0.26 11.8 0.254 1499.9 3.38 0.29 16.3
4 0.1 0.37 17.9 0.386 2277.8 5.14 0.29 19.2
5 0.1 0.37 25.2 0.543 3203.5 7.22 0.30 22.1
6 0.1 0.49 36.9 0.796 4698.3 10.6 0.30 25.7
7 0.1 0.13 0.4 0.010 56.0 0.13 0.12 4.4
8 0.1 0.13 0.8 0.017 99.3 0.22 0.12 5.5
9 0.1 0.13 0.6 0.013 76.4 0.17 0.12 4.9
10 0.1 0.13 1.0 0.021 123.5 0.28 0.15 6.0
11 0.1 0.13 1.4 0.031 183.3 0.41 0.18 7.0
12 0.1 0.13 2.2 0.046 273.7 0.62 0.23 8.2
13 0.1 0.19 3.4 0.074 434.2 0.98 0.24 9.9
14 0.1 0.19 5.6 0.122 718.1 1.62 0.26 12.1
15 0.1 0.28 11.9 0.257 1513.9 3.41 0.26 16.3
16 0.1 0.28 24.8 0.535 3156.4 7.12 0.29 21.9
17 0.35 0.92 33.9 0.732 352.8 0.43 0.25 9.9
18 0.35 0.92 124.9 2.694 1298.1 1.56 0.30 16.7
19 0.35 0.57 20.0 0.431 207.9 0.25 0.18 8.0
20 0.35 0.57 15.6 0.336 162.0 0.20 0.14 7.3
21 0.35 0.39 19.0 0.409 197.3 0.24 0.13 7.9
22 0.35 0.39 14.6 0.316 152.2 0.18 0.10 7.1
23 0.35 0.68 108.2 2.334 1124.5 1.36 0.29 15.8
24 0.35 0.68 102.3 2.207 1063.7 1.28 0.31 15.5
25 0.35 0.68 79.7 1.719 828.4 1.00 0.28 14.0
26 0.35 0.51 12.0 0.258 124.5 0.15 0.08 6.6
27 1.0 0.81 55.2 1.190 70.2 0.05 0.11 6.0
28 1.0 0.81 81.7 1.761 104.0 0.07 0.15 7.1
29 1.0 0.81 107.3 2.315 136.7 0.10 0.18 7.9
30 1.0 1.00 136.4 2.943 173.7 0.12 0.22 8.7
31 1.0 0.97 55.6 1.199 70.8 0.05 0.12 6.1
32 1.0 0.97 82.5 1.779 105.0 0.07 0.14 7.1
33 1.0 0.97 107.9 2.326 137.3 0.10 0.17 7.9
34 1.0 0.97 137.3 2.963 174.9 0.12 0.23 8.7

825
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 1
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 1 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 1
0.8
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
1 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

0.5
0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 2 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 2

3 1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
2 FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)

1 0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 3 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 3
2.5
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

2 FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)

1
1
0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 4 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 4
5 2.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 2

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

3 FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)

2 1

1 0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.51: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 1-4.

826
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 4
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 5 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 5

6 3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
4 FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

2 1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 4
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 6 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 6

6 3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
4 FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

2 1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 1
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 7 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 7
0.08 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.06 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.04 0.4

0.02 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 1
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 8 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 8
0.4 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.2 0.4

0.1 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.52: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 5-8.

827
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 1
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 9 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 9
0.8
0.15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
0.1 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

0.05
0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 10 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 10
0.4
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.2

0.5
0.1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 11 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 11
0.8
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

0.5
0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 12 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 12
2.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1 2

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)

0.5 1

0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.53: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 9-12.

828
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 13 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 13
2.5
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

1 FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)

1
0.5
0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2.5 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 14 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 14
2.5
2
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2
1.5
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)
1
1

0.5
0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 4
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 15 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 15

3 3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

2 FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

1 1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 16 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 16
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

3 FDS (HF_radi)
3 FDS (HF_vert)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.54: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 13-16.

829
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
4 1
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 17 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 17
0.8
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
2 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

1
0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 4
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 18 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 18
8
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)
4

1
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 19 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 19

1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)

0.5
0.5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 20 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 20
0.8
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

0.5
0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.55: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 17-20.

830
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 21 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 21
2.5
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

1 FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)

1
0.5
0.5

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 22 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 22
0.8
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

0.5
0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 6
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 23 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 23
5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 4

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

FDS (HF_radi)
3 FDS (HF_vert)

5 2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 6
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 24 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 24
5
8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4
6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
3 FDS (HF_vert)
4
2

2
1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.56: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 21-24.

831
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 5
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 25 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 25
8 4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6 3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
4 2

2 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.4 1
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 26 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 26
0.8
0.3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
0.2 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

0.1
0.2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 27 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 27

0.15 1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

0.1 FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)

0.05 0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 28 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 28
2.5
0.4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2
0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)
0.2
1

0.1
0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.57: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 25-28.

832
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 4
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 29 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 29
0.8
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4

1
0.2

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 4
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 30 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 30

1.5 3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
1 FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

0.5 1

0 0
0.5 0.6 0.7 0.8 0.9 1 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 2
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 31 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 31
0.08
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.06
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.04

0.5
0.02

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.4 3
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 32 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 32
2.5
0.3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

0.2 FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)

1
0.1
0.5

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.58: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 29-32.

833
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 4
Hamins C H Test 33 Hamins C H Test 33
3 8 3 8
0.4
3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)
0.2

1
0.1

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 5
Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 34 Hamins C 3 H 8 Test 34
0.8 4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6 3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.4 2

0.2 1

0 0
0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.59: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Propane Tests 33-34.

834
Acetylene Experiments

Table 12.5: Parameters of the Hamins acetylene burner experiments. Note that in all cases, the soot and CO
yields were taken to be 0.096 and 0.042, respectively, based on the measurements of Tewarson [135].

Test D R0 Q̇ ṁ Q̇00
Q̇∗ χrad D∗ /δ x
No. (m) (m) (kW) (kg/s) (kW/m2 )
1 0.10 0.13 0.45 0.009 57.3 0.13 0.12 4.4
2 0.10 0.13 0.56 0.012 71.3 0.16 0.15 4.8
3 0.10 0.13 0.90 0.019 114.6 0.26 0.18 5.8
4 0.10 0.13 1.29 0.027 164.2 0.37 0.27 6.7
5 0.10 0.13 1.54 0.032 196.1 0.44 0.31 7.2
6 0.35 0.39 12.5 0.259 129.9 0.16 0.13 6.7
7 0.35 0.51 11.0 0.229 114.3 0.14 0.09 6.3
8 0.35 0.51 20.4 0.424 212.0 0.26 0.22 8.1
9 0.35 0.51 31.3 0.648 325.3 0.39 0.33 9.6
10 0.35 0.69 38.2 0.793 397.0 0.48 0.38 10.4
11 0.35 0.69 48.0 1.000 498.9 0.60 0.41 11.4
12 0.35 0.69 62.4 1.290 648.6 0.78 0.42 12.7
13 0.35 0.69 76.3 1.580 793.0 0.96 0.43 13.8
14 0.35 0.69 109.2 2.270 1135.0 1.37 0.44 15.9
15 0.35 0.69 117.2 2.430 1218.2 1.47 0.43 16.3
16 0.35 0.69 134.7 2.790 1400.0 1.69 0.46 17.3

835
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 1
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 1 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 1
0.08 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.06 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.04 0.4

0.02 0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 1
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 2 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 2
0.08 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.06 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.04 0.4

0.02 0.2

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.3 2
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 3 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 3
0.25
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.2

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

0.15 FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)

0.1
0.5
0.05

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1 3
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 4 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 4
2.5
0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2
0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)
0.4
1

0.2
0.5

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.60: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Acetylene Tests 1-4.

836
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1.5 4
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 5 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 5

3
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

FDS (HF_radi)
2 FDS (HF_vert)

0.5
1

0 0
0 0.1 0.2 0.3 0.4 0.5 0.6 0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 2
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 6 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 6
0.4
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi)
1 FDS (HF_vert)
0.2

0.5
0.1

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.5 1
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 7 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 7
0.4 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.3 0.6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
0.2 0.4

0.1 0.2

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 3
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 8 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 8
2.5
1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))

1 FDS (HF_radi)
1.5 FDS (HF_vert)

1
0.5
0.5

0 0
0 0.2 0.4 0.6 0.8 1 1.2 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.61: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Acetylene Tests 5-8.

837
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 5
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 9 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 9
5
Heat Flux (kW/m²) 4

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4
3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
3 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
2
2

1
1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 5
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 10 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 10
4
6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
4 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
2

2
1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 5
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 11 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 11
8 4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6 3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
4 2

2 1

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
12 5
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 12 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 12
10
4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

8
3
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
6 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
2
4

1
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.62: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Acetylene Tests 9-12.

838
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 10
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 13 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 13
8
15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
10 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
4

5
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 10
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 14 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 14
8
15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
10 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
4

5
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 10
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 15 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 15
8
15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
10 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
4

5
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 10
Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 16 Hamins C 2 H 2 Test 16
8
15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6
Exp (Q(r)) Exp (Q(z))
10 FDS (HF_radi) FDS (HF_vert)
4

5
2

0 0
0 0.5 1 1.5 0 0.5 1 1.5 2 2.5 3
Radial Location (m) Vertical Location (m)

Figure 12.63: Comparison of predicted and measured heat fluxes, Hamins Acetylene Tests 13-16.

839
12.2.3 BGC/GRI LNG Fires
A description of the 13 LNG trench fire experiments is given in Section 3.6.
Figures 12.65 and 12.66 compare predicted and measured heat fluxes to radiometers at various distances
from the LNG trench fire. The general layout of the facility is shown in Fig. 12.64. The radiometers were
positioned approximately 1.2 m off the ground along the axis lines shown in the figure. The wind direction
was typically perpendicular to the longer dimension of the trench.

6
Trench Dimensions
Test Length (m) Width (m)
1 23.53 1.81
Downwind Radiometers
2 15.52 1.81
3 9.23 1.83
4 23.50 1.83
5 9.05 1.82
 r Trench 6 23.45 3.94
Lateral Radiometers 7 23.45 0.82
8 11.82 0.82
9 9.10 0.82
Upwind Radiometers 10 52.05 3.89
11 4.37 0.81
12 52.15 1.82
13 23.10 0.77
?
Figure 12.64: Schematic diagram of BGC/GRI test facility.

840
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Exp (Upwind) Exp (Upwind)
Test 1 Exp (Lateral)
Test 2 Exp (Lateral)
Exp (Downwind) Exp (Downwind)
15 FDS (Upwind) 15 FDS (Upwind)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (Lateral) FDS (Lateral)
FDS (Downwind) FDS (Downwind)

10 10

5 5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 15
Exp (Upwind) Exp (Upwind)
Test 3 Exp (Lateral)
Test 4 Exp (Lateral)
Exp (Downwind) Exp (Downwind)
15 FDS (Upwind) FDS (Upwind)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (Lateral) 10 FDS (Lateral)
FDS (Downwind) FDS (Downwind)

10

5
5

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 10 20 30 40
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 20
Exp (Upwind) Exp (Upwind)
Test 5 Exp (Lateral)
Test 6 Exp (Lateral)
8 Exp (Downwind) Exp (Downwind)
FDS (Upwind) 15 FDS (Upwind)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (Lateral) FDS (Lateral)

6 FDS (Downwind) FDS (Downwind)

10
4

5
2

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40 50
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 10
Exp (Upwind) Exp (Upwind)
Test 7 Exp (Lateral)
Test 8 Exp (Lateral)
4 Exp (Downwind) 8 Exp (Downwind)
FDS (Upwind) FDS (Upwind)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (Lateral) FDS (Lateral)

3 FDS (Downwind) 6 FDS (Downwind)

2 4

1 2

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.65: BGC/GRI LNG Fires, heat flux profiles for Tests 1-8.

841
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Exp (Upwind) Exp (Upwind)
Test 9 Exp (Lateral)
Test 10 Exp (Lateral)
8 Exp (Downwind) 8 Exp (Downwind)
FDS (Upwind) FDS (Upwind)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (Lateral) FDS (Lateral)
6 FDS (Downwind) 6 FDS (Downwind)

4 4

2 2

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 20 40 60 80
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 5
Exp (Upwind) Exp (Upwind)
Test 11 Exp (Lateral)
Test 12 Exp (Lateral)
8 Exp (Downwind) 4 Exp (Downwind)
FDS (Upwind) FDS (Upwind)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (Lateral) FDS (Lateral)

6 FDS (Downwind) 3 FDS (Downwind)

4 2

2 1

0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5
Exp (Upwind)
Test 13 Exp (Lateral)
4 Exp (Downwind)
FDS (Upwind)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (Lateral)
3 FDS (Downwind)

0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Distance (m)

Figure 12.66: BGC/GRI LNG Fires, heat flux profiles for Tests 9-13.

842
12.2.4 Loughborough Jet Fire Experiments
A brief description of the experiments and modeling is found in Section 3.37.
The plots on the following pages present near-field and far-field heat flux measurements of natural gas
jet fires. Figures 12.68 through 12.70 compare measured and predicted heat fluxes to a 0.9 m diameter, 16 m
long pipe segment engulfed in the fire. The locations of the gauges are shown in Fig. 12.67.
Figure 12.71 presents the far-field radiometer predictions and measurements. Table 12.6 lists the ra-
diometer coordinates relative to the center of the target pipe.

Top rC01 rC02 rC03 rC04 rC05 rC06 rC07 rC08

Front rC12 rC13 rC14 rC15 rC16 rC17 rC18 rC19 rC20 rC21

Bottom rC25 rC26 rC27 rC28 rC29 rC30

Back rC32 rC33 rC34 rC35 rC36 rC37

Top rC01 rC02 rC03 rC04 rC05 rC06 rC07 rC08

-3.8 m -3.0 -2.4 -1.8 -1.2 -0.6 0.0 0.6 1.2 2.4 3.6

Figure 12.67: Location of the heat flux gauges mounted on the target pipe segment for the Loughborough Jet Fires.
The pipe is oriented in the north-south direction, with the negative positions to the north. The “Front” of the pipe faces
the jet.

Table 12.6: Radiometer positions (m) relative to the center of the target pipe, Loughborough Jet Fires.

Test Rad 1 Rad 2 Rad 3 Rad 4 Rad 5 Rad 6 Rad 7 Rad 8 Rad 9
No. (N,W) (N,W) (N,W) (S,W) (S,W) (S,W) (S,W) (S,W) (S,W)
1 (20,5) (15,0) (15,5) (15,0) (15,5) (20,0) (20,5) (25,0) (30,0)
2 (30,0) (20,0) (20,5) (15,0) (20,0) (20,5) (30,0) (30,5) (40,0)
3 (35,0) (25,0) (25,5) (20,0) (25,0) (25,5) (35,0) (35,5) (52,0)

843
 FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 1; Top; North Test 1; Top; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300
Exp (C01) Exp (C05)
Exp (C02) Exp (C06)
200 Exp (C03) 200 Exp (C07)
Exp (C04) Exp (C08)
FDS (C01) FDS (C05)
100 FDS (C02) 100 FDS (C06)
FDS (C03) FDS (C07)
FDS (C04) FDS (C08)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 1; Front; North Test 1; Front; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C13)
300 Exp (C14) 300
Exp (C15) Exp (C18)
Exp (C16) Exp (C19)
200 Exp (C17) 200 Exp (C20)
FDS (C13) Exp (C21)
FDS (C14) FDS (C18)
100 FDS (C15) 100 FDS (C19)
FDS (C16) FDS (C20)
FDS (C17) FDS (C21)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 1; Bottom; North Test 1; Bottom: South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300

200 200 Exp (C28)

Exp (C29)
Exp (C26) Exp (C30)
100 Exp (C27) 100 FDS (C28)
FDS (C26) FDS (C29)
FDS (C27) FDS (C30)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 1; Back; North Test 1; Back; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300

200 200

Exp (C32) Exp (C35)

100 Exp (C33) 100 Exp (C37)
FDS (C32) FDS (C35)
FDS (C33) FDS (C37)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.68: Loughborough Jet Fires, heat flux to pipe, Test 1.

844
 FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 2; Top; North Test 2; Top; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300

200 Exp (C01) 200 Exp (C05)

Exp (C03) Exp (C06)
Exp (C04) Exp (C07)
100 FDS (C01) 100 FDS (C05)
FDS (C03) FDS (C06)
FDS (C04) FDS (C07)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 2; Front; North Test 2; Front; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C12)
300 Exp (C13) 300
Exp (C14)
Exp (C15)
200 Exp (C16) 200 Exp (C17)
FDS (C12) Exp (C20)
FDS (C13) Exp (C21)
100 FDS (C14) 100 FDS (C17)
FDS (C15) FDS (C20)
FDS (C16) FDS (C21)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 2; Bottom; North Test 2; Bottom: South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300

200 200 Exp (C28)

Exp (C29)
Exp (C26) Exp (C30)
100 Exp (C27) 100 FDS (C28)
FDS (C26) FDS (C29)
FDS (C27) FDS (C30)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500
Test 2; Back; North
400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300

200 Exp (C32)

Exp (C33)
Exp (C34)
100 FDS (C32)
FDS (C33)
FDS (C34)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s)

Figure 12.69: Loughborough Jet Fires, heat flux to pipe, Test 2.

845
 FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 3; Top; North Test 3; Top; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300
Exp (C01)
Exp (C02)
200 Exp (C04) 200 Exp (C06)
Exp (C05) Exp (C07)
FDS (C01) Exp (C08)
100 FDS (C02) 100 FDS (C06)
FDS (C04) FDS (C07)
FDS (C05) FDS (C08)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 3; Front; North Test 3; Front; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (C12) Exp (C17)
300 Exp (C13) 300 Exp (C18)
Exp (C14) Exp (C19)
Exp (C15) Exp (C20)
200 Exp (C16) 200 Exp (C21)
FDS (C12) FDS (C17)
FDS (C13) FDS (C18)
100 FDS (C14) 100 FDS (C19)
FDS (C15) FDS (C20)
FDS (C16) FDS (C21)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 3; Bottom; North Test 3; Bottom: South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300

200 200 Exp (C28)

Exp (C29)
Exp (C26) Exp (C30)
100 Exp (C27) 100 FDS (C28)
FDS (C26) FDS (C29)
FDS (C27) FDS (C30)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
500 500
Test 3; Back; North Test 3; Back; South
400 400
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

300 300

200 200

Exp (C36)
100 100 Exp (C37)
Exp (C32) FDS (C36)
FDS (C32) FDS (C37)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.70: Loughborough Jet Fires, heat flux to pipe, Test 3.

846
 FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
8 8
Test 1; North Radiometers Test 1; South Radiometers
Exp (R4)
6 6
Exp (R5)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (R6)
Exp (R7)
4 4 Exp (R8)
Exp (R9)
Exp (R1) FDS (R4)
Exp (R2) FDS (R5)
2 Exp (R3) 2 FDS (R6)
FDS (R1) FDS (R7)
FDS (R2) FDS (R8)
FDS (R3) FDS (R9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
20 20
Test 2; North Radiometers Test 2; South Radiometers
Exp (R4)
15 15
Exp (R5)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (R6)
Exp (R7)
10 10 Exp (R8)
Exp (R9)
Exp (R1) FDS (R4)
Exp (R2) FDS (R5)
5 Exp (R3) 5 FDS (R6)
FDS (R1) FDS (R7)
FDS (R2) FDS (R8)
FDS (R3) FDS (R9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master FDS6.7.8-88-g922085eba-master
25 25
Test 3; North Radiometers Test 3; South Radiometers
20 20 Exp (R4)
Exp (R5)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (R6)
15 15 Exp (R7)
Exp (R8)
Exp (R9)
10 Exp (R1) 10 FDS (R4)
Exp (R2) FDS (R5)
Exp (R3) FDS (R6)
5 FDS (R1) 5 FDS (R7)
FDS (R2) FDS (R8)
FDS (R3) FDS (R9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.71: Loughborough Jet Fires, far-field radiometers.

847
12.2.5 Montoir LNG Fires
A brief description of these experiments can be found in Section 3.39. Figure 12.72 indicates the radial
lines emanating outwards from the 35 m pool along which the radiometers were positioned. Figures 12.73
through 12.75 display the results of measured and predicted heat fluxes along the radial lines.

0◦
33◦
315◦

@


61◦
@
@  ""
@  ""
@  "
""
@ i
270◦ 90◦
b
b
b
b
b
bb
120◦
225◦

Figure 12.72: Layout of the Montoir LNG Fires.

848
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 1; 0° wide angle radiometers Test 1; 33° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (60-100 s) Exp (60-100 s)
Exp (130-170 s) Exp (130-170 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
FDS (130-170 s) FDS (130-170 s)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 1; 61° wide angle radiometers Test 1; 90° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (60-100 s) Exp (60-100 s)
Exp (130-170 s) Exp (130-170 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
FDS (130-170 s) FDS (130-170 s)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 1; 120° wide angle radiometers Test 1; 225° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (60-100 s) Exp (60-100 s)

Exp (130-170 s) Exp (130-170 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
FDS (130-170 s) FDS (130-170 s)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 1; 270° wide angle radiometers Test 1; 315° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (60-100 s) Exp (60-100 s)

Exp (130-170 s) Exp (130-170 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
10 FDS (60-100 s)
FDS (130-170 s) FDS (130-170 s)

5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.73: Montoir LNG Fires, far-field radiometers, Test 1.

849
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 2; 0° wide angle radiometers Test 2; 33° wide angle radiometers

15 Exp (25-50 s) 15 Exp (25-50 s)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (65-85 s) Exp (65-85 s)
Exp (100-130 s) Exp (100-130 s)
Exp (165-185 s) Exp (165-185 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
FDS (65-85 s) FDS (65-85 s)
FDS (100-130 s) FDS (100-130 s)
FDS (165-185 s) FDS (165-185 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 2; 61° wide angle radiometers Test 2; 90° wide angle radiometers

15 Exp (25-50 s) 15 Exp (25-50 s)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (65-85 s) Exp (65-85 s)
Exp (100-130 s) Exp (100-130 s)
Exp (165-185 s) Exp (165-185 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
FDS (65-85 s) FDS (65-85 s)
FDS (100-130 s) FDS (100-130 s)
FDS (165-185 s) FDS (165-185 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 2; 120° wide angle radiometers Test 2; 225° wide angle radiometers

15 Exp (25-50 s) 15 Exp (25-50 s)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (65-85 s) Exp (65-85 s)

Exp (100-130 s) Exp (100-130 s)
Exp (165-185 s) Exp (165-185 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
FDS (65-85 s) FDS (65-85 s)
FDS (100-130 s) FDS (100-130 s)
FDS (165-185 s) FDS (165-185 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 2; 270° wide angle radiometers Test 2; 315° wide angle radiometers

15 Exp (25-50 s) 15 Exp (25-50 s)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (65-85 s) Exp (65-85 s)

Exp (100-130 s) Exp (100-130 s)
Exp (165-185 s) Exp (165-185 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
10 FDS (25-50 s)
FDS (65-85 s) FDS (65-85 s)
FDS (100-130 s) FDS (100-130 s)
FDS (165-185 s) FDS (165-185 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.74: Montoir LNG Fires, far-field radiometers, Test 2.

850
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 3; 0° wide angle radiometers Test 3; 33° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (57-70 s) Exp (57-70 s)
Exp (90-120 s) Exp (90-120 s)
Exp (130-160 s) Exp (130-160 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
FDS (90-120 s) FDS (90-120 s)
FDS (130-160 s) FDS (130-160 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 3; 61° wide angle radiometers Test 3; 90° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (57-70 s) Exp (57-70 s)
Exp (90-120 s) Exp (90-120 s)
Exp (130-160 s) Exp (130-160 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
FDS (90-120 s) FDS (90-120 s)
FDS (130-160 s) FDS (130-160 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 3; 120° wide angle radiometers Test 3; 225° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (57-70 s) Exp (57-70 s)

Exp (90-120 s) Exp (90-120 s)
Exp (130-160 s) Exp (130-160 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
FDS (90-120 s) FDS (90-120 s)
FDS (130-160 s) FDS (130-160 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
20 20
Test 3; 270° wide angle radiometers Test 3; 315° wide angle radiometers

15 15
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp (57-70 s) Exp (57-70 s)

Exp (90-120 s) Exp (90-120 s)
Exp (130-160 s) Exp (130-160 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
10 FDS (57-70 s)
FDS (90-120 s) FDS (90-120 s)
FDS (130-160 s) FDS (130-160 s)
5 5

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.75: Montoir LNG Fires, far-field radiometers, Test 3.

851
12.2.6 NIST Douglas Firs
A description of the experiments and modeling assumptions are given in Section 3.43. Heat flux gauges were
positioned on two vertical arrays, a distance of 2 m and 3 m from the burning trees. Average experimental
values for test condition are shown below.
FDS6.7.8-17-g370a845d4-master FDS6.7.8-17-g370a845d4-master
40 40
2 m tree; 14% moisture; r=2 m 2 m tree; 14% moisture; r=3 m
Exp z=0.2 m Exp z=0.2 m
30 Exp z=1.2 m 30 Exp z=1.2 m
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp z=2.3 m Exp z=2.3 m
Exp z=3.2 m Exp z=3.2 m
Exp z=4.5 m Exp z=4.5 m
20 FDS z=0.2 m
20 FDS z=0.2 m
FDS z=1.2 m FDS z=1.2 m
FDS z=2.3 m FDS z=2.3 m
FDS z=3.2 m FDS z=3.2 m
10 FDS z=4.5 m
10 FDS z=4.5 m

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 0 10 20 30 40
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-17-g370a845d4-master FDS6.7.8-17-g370a845d4-master
40 40
2 m tree; 49% moisture; r=2 m 2 m tree; 49% moisture; r=3 m
Exp z=0.2 m Exp z=0.2 m
30 Exp z=1.2 m 30 Exp z=1.2 m
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp z=2.3 m Exp z=2.3 m

Exp z=3.2 m Exp z=3.2 m
Exp z=4.5 m Exp z=4.5 m
20 FDS z=0.2 m
20 FDS z=0.2 m
FDS z=1.2 m FDS z=1.2 m
FDS z=2.3 m FDS z=2.3 m
FDS z=3.2 m FDS z=3.2 m
10 FDS z=4.5 m
10 FDS z=4.5 m

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-17-g370a845d4-master FDS6.7.8-17-g370a845d4-master
100 100
5 m tree; 26% moisture; r=2 m 5 m tree; 26% moisture; r=3 m
80 Exp z=0.2 m 80 Exp z=0.2 m
Exp z=1.2 m Exp z=1.2 m
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Exp z=2.3 m Exp z=2.3 m

60 Exp z=3.2 m 60 Exp z=3.2 m
Exp z=4.5 m Exp z=4.5 m
FDS z=0.2 m FDS z=0.2 m
40 FDS z=1.2 m 40 FDS z=1.2 m
FDS z=2.3 m FDS z=2.3 m
FDS z=3.2 m FDS z=3.2 m
20 FDS z=4.5 m 20 FDS z=4.5 m

0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.76: NIST Douglas Firs, heat flux at a distance of x = 2 m and x = 3 m

852
12.2.7 NIST/NRC Experiments
Cables of various types (power and control), and configurations (horizontal, vertical, in trays or free-
hanging), were installed in the test compartment. For each of the four cable targets considered, measure-
ments of the radiative and total heat flux were made with gauges positioned near the cables themselves. The
following pages display comparisons of these heat flux predictions and measurements for Control Cable B,
Horizontal Cable Tray D, Power Cable F and Vertical Cable Tray G.

853
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 1 Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 7
Heat Flux (kW/m²) 2.5 2.5

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 4) Exp (Cable Total Flux 4)
0.5 FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
0.5 FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 2 Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 8

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3)

Exp (Cable Total Flux 4) Exp (Cable Total Flux 4)
FDS (Rad Gauge 3) FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 4 Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 10

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3)

Exp (Cable Total Flux 4) Exp (Cable Total Flux 4)
FDS (Rad Gauge 3) FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 13 Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 16
8 8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6 6

4 4

Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3)

2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 4) 2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 4)
FDS (Rad Gauge 3) FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.77: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable B, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

854
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 3 Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 9

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3)

Exp (Cable Total Flux 4) Exp (Cable Total Flux 4)
FDS (Rad Gauge 3) FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 5 Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 14

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3)

Exp (Cable Total Flux 4) Exp (Cable Total Flux 4)
FDS (Rad Gauge 3) FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
80 10
Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 15 Heat Flux, Cable B, NIST/NRC Test 18
8
60
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6
40
4

20 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 3)

Exp (Cable Total Flux 4) 2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 4)
FDS (Rad Gauge 3) FDS (Rad Gauge 3)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 4)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.78: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable B, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

855
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 1 Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 7
Heat Flux (kW/m²) 2.5 2.5

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 8)
0.5 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7)
0.5 FDS (Rad Gauge 7)
FDS (Rad Gauge 7) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 2 Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 8
8 8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6 6

4 4

Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7)

2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 8) 2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 8)
FDS (Rad Gauge 7) FDS (Rad Gauge 7)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 4 Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 10
8 8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6 6

4 4

Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7)

2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 8) 2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 8)
FDS (Rad Gauge 7) FDS (Rad Gauge 7)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 13 Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 16
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 8) Exp (Cable Total Flux 8)
FDS (Rad Gauge 7) FDS (Rad Gauge 7)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.79: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable D, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

856
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10
Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 9
8

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6

Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7)

2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 8)
FDS (Rad Gauge 7)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8)
0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 10
Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 5 Heat Flux, Cable D, NIST/NRC Test 14
8 8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

6 6

4 4

Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 7)

2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 8) 2 Exp (Cable Total Flux 8)
FDS (Rad Gauge 7) FDS (Rad Gauge 7)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 8)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.80: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable D, Tests 5, 9, 14.

857
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
2 2
Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 1 Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 7

1.5 1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

1 1

0.5 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1) 0.5 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1)
Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2) Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2)
FDS (Rad Gauge 1) FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 2 Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 8
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1)
Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2) Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2)
1 FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
1 FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 4 Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 10
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1)
Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2) Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2)
1 FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
1 FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 13 Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 16

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1)

Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2) Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2)
FDS (Rad Gauge 1) FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.81: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable F, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

858
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 3 Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 9

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1)

Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2) Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2)
FDS (Rad Gauge 1) FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 5 Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 14

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1)

Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2) Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2)
FDS (Rad Gauge 1) FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
30 8
Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 15 Heat Flux, Cable F, NIST/NRC Test 18
25
6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

20

15 4

10
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 1)
Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2) Exp (Cable Total Flux Gauge 2)
5 FDS (Rad Gauge 1) FDS (Rad Gauge 1)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 2)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.82: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable F, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

859
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
3 3
Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 1 Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 7
Heat Flux (kW/m²) 2.5 2.5

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

2 2

1.5 1.5

1 1
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 9)
0.5 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)
0.5 FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
FDS (Rad Gauge 10) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 2 Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 8

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)

Exp (Cable Total Flux 9)
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10) FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
FDS (Rad Gauge 10) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 4 Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 10

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 9) Exp (Cable Total Flux 9)
FDS (Rad Gauge 10) FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
15 15
Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 13 Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 16
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10 10

5 5
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 9) Exp (Cable Total Flux 9)
FDS (Rad Gauge 10) FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.83: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable G, Tests 1, 2, 4, 7, 8, 10, 13, 16.

860
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 8
Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 3 Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 9

6 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10) 2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 9) Exp (Cable Total Flux 9)
FDS (Rad Gauge 10) FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 15
Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 5 Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 14

6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

10

5
2 Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 9) Exp (Cable Total Flux 9)
FDS (Rad Gauge 10) FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
6 6
Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 15 Heat Flux, Cable G, NIST/NRC Test 18
5 5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4 4

3 3

2 2
Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10) Exp (Cable Rad Gauge 10)
Exp (Cable Total Flux 9) Exp (Cable Total Flux 9)
1 FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
1 FDS (Rad Gauge 10)
FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9) FDS (Total Flux Gauge 9)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 25 30 0 5 10 15 20 25 30
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.84: NIST/NRC experiments, heat flux to Cable G, Tests 3, 5, 9, 14, 15, 18.

861
12.2.8 NIST Pool Fires
A description of the NIST Pool Fire experiments and modeling is given in Section 3.51. On the following
pages are comparisons of heat flux measurements and predictions at various locations and orientations.

• Figure 12.85 displays downward radiative and total heat flux near the liquid pool surface of a 30 cm
methanol fire. The radiative heat flux measurements were made by Hamins et al. [311] and the total
heat flux measurements were made by Kim et al. [342].

• Figure 12.86 displays radial and vertical profiles of total heat flux for a 30 cm methanol fire extending
beyond the outer rim of the pan [342]. The vertical profile was made at r = 60 cm. Additional radial
measurements were made by Klassen et al. [343].

• Figure 12.87 displays a radial profile of the total heat flux in the downward direction for a 100 cm
pan methanl fire. The radial distance ranges from the burner edge (r = 50 cm) to r = 200 cm. The
positions of the heat flux gauges were located z = 1 cm above the fuel surface and oriented in the
upward direction [330].

• Figure 12.88 displays radial profiles of the total heat flux emitted radially away from the fire at heights
of z = 41 cm, z = 61 cm, and z = 81 cm above the fuel surface. The heat flux guages were oriented in
the horizontal direction towards the fire centerline [330].

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
40 40
Methanol, 30 cm pan, Radiative Heat Flux, z=0.7 cm Methanol, 30 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, z=1.3 cm

30 30
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

20 20

10 Exp (Q_rad) 10 Exp (Q_total)

FDS (radHF, 0.5 cm) FDS (HF, 0.5 cm)
FDS (radHF, 1.0 cm) FDS (HF, 1.0 cm)
FDS (radHF, 2.0 cm) FDS (HF, 2.0 cm)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

Figure 12.85: NIST Pool Fires, 30 cm methanol fire, radial profiles of downward radiative and total heat flux, respec-
tively, at z = 0.7 cm (left) and z = 1.3 cm (right).

862
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
10 150
Methanol, 30 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, z=1 cm Methanol, 30 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, r=60 cm
8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100
Exp (Kim 2019)

Height (cm)
6 Exp (Klassen 1994)
Exp (Q_total)
FDS (HF_vert, 0.5 cm)
FDS (HF_hori, 0.5 cm)
FDS (HF_vert, 1.0 cm)
FDS (HF_hori, 1.0 cm)
4 FDS (HF_hori, 2.0 cm)
FDS (HF_vert, 2.0 cm)
50

0 0
10 20 30 40 50 60 0 0.5 1 1.5 2
Radius (cm) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.86: NIST Pool Fires, 30 cm methanol fire, radial and vertical profiles of total heat flux from a 30 cm
methanol fire.

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
6 200
Methanol, 100 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, z=0 cm Methanol, 100 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, r=207 cm
5
150
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

4
Height (cm)

Exp (Q_total) Exp (q_kW/m2)

FDS (HF_00, 1 cm) FDS (HF_207, 1 cm)
3 FDS (HF_00, 2 cm)
100 FDS (HF_207, 2 cm)
FDS (HF_00, 4 cm) FDS (HF_207, 4 cm)
2
50
1

0 0
50 100 150 200 0 0.5 1 1.5
Radius (cm) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.87: NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol fire, total heat flux downward at z = 0 cm (left) and outward at
r = 207 cm (right).

863
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1 1
Methanol, 100 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, z=41 cm Methanol, 100 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, z=61 cm
0.8 0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6 Exp (q_kW/m2) 0.6 Exp (q_kW/m2)
FDS (HF_41, 1 cm) FDS (HF_61, 1 cm)
FDS (HF_41, 2 cm) FDS (HF_61, 2 cm)
0.4 FDS (HF_41, 4 cm) 0.4 FDS (HF_61, 4 cm)

0.2 0.2

0 0
300 350 400 450 500 300 350 400 450 500
Radius (cm) Radius (cm)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1
Methanol, 100 cm pan, Total Heat Flux, z=81 cm
0.8
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

0.6 Exp (q_kW/m2)

FDS (HF_81, 1 cm)
FDS (HF_81, 2 cm)
0.4 FDS (HF_81, 4 cm)

0.2

0
300 350 400 450 500
Radius (cm)

Figure 12.88: NIST Pool Fires, 100 cm methanol fire, total heat flux outward at z = 41 cm, z = 61 cm, and z = 61 cm.

864
12.2.9 Phoenix LNG Fires
A description of the two LNG pool fire experiments is given in Section 3.58.
The general layout of the facility is shown in Fig. 12.89. Wide-angle and narrow-angle radiometers
were positioned at various heights off the ground and at various inclination angles along the axes shown in
the figure.
Figure 12.90 compares predicted and measured heat fluxes for the wide-angle radiometers as a function
of distance from the LNG pool fires. These radiometers were positioned along all four directional axes.
Figure 12.91 compares predicted and measured heat flux for the narrow-angle radiometers along the north
and south axes. There were three measurement towers along each axis. The nearest tower contained five
narrow-angle radiometers at various inclination angles. The further two towers contained one narrow-angle
radiometer each, along with one wide-angle radiometer. The vertical axes of the plots in Fig. 12.90 represent
the “spot height” of the radiometers; that is, the height of the fire plume at which the radiometers were aimed.
The “spot diameter” of the various radiometers ranged from 5 m to 15 m.

6
North Radiometers

Pool Test 2
#
@@ 
 e
p -

West Radiometers "! @ East Radiometers
@
@
Test 1

South Radiometers

?
Figure 12.89: Layout of the Phoenix LNG Fires.

865
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
10 50
Exp (North) Exp (North)
Wide-Angle Heat Flux; Test 1 Exp (East)
Wide-Angle Heat Flux; Test 2 Exp (East)
8 Exp (South) 40 Exp (South)
Exp (West) Exp (West)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS (North) FDS (North)
6 FDS (East) 30 FDS (East)
FDS (South) FDS (South)
FDS (West) FDS (West)
4 20

2 10

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Distance (m) Distance (m)

Figure 12.90: Phoenix LNG Fires, radial profiles of wide-angle heat flux.

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 200
Exp (North) Exp (North)
Narrow-Angle Heat Flux; Test 1 Exp (South)
Narrow-Angle Heat Flux; Test 2 Exp (South)
FDS (North) FDS (North)
150 FDS (South) 150 FDS (South)
Height (m)

Height (m)

100 100

50 50

0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.91: Phoenix LNG Fires, vertical profiles of narrow-angle heat flux.

866
12.2.10 Sandia Methane Burner Experiments
A brief summary of these experiments and the modeling strategy is found in Section 3.64.
On the following pages are comparisons of vertical profiles of the measured and predicted heat flux
approximately 9 m from the centerline of a 3 m diameter methane burner of various heat release rates. There
were two types of gauges used in the experiments—a conventional wide-angle heat flux gauge and a narrow-
angle radiometer designed to measure the surface emissive power (SEP) of the fire. The narrow-angle
radiometer had a view angle of 5◦ which was focused on a circular patch of flame of diameter approximately
0.8 m. This narrow-angle heat flux is modeled in FDS as the radiance (kW/m2 /sr) of a single ray multiplied
by π sr. The unit sphere is discretized into approximately 600 solid angles, and the angle closest to the
radiometer direction vector is used.

867
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 1 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 1 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 2 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 2 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 3 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 3 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 4 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 4 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.92: Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 1-4.

868
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 5 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 5 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 6 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 6 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 7 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 7 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 8 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 8 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.93: Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 5-8.

869
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 9 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 9 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 10 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 10 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 11 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 11 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 12 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 12 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.94: Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 9-12.

870
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 13 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 13 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 14 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 14 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 15 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 15 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 16 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 16 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.95: Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 13-16.

871
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 17 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 17 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 18 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 18 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 19 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 19 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 20 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 20 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.96: Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 17-20.

872
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 21 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 21 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 22 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 22 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 23 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 23 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 24 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 24 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.97: Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 21-24.

873
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 25 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 25 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 26 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 26 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)
2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 27 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 27 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 5
Exp Exp
Wide Angle Heat Flux; Test 28 FDS
Narrow Angle Heat Flux; Test 28 FDS
4 4

3 3
Height (m)

Height (m)

2 2

1 1

0 0
0 1 2 3 4 5 0 20 40 60 80 100
Heat Flux (kW/m²) Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.98: Sandia Methane Burner, heat flux, Tests 25-28.

874
12.2.11 Shell LNG Fireballs
A brief description of the experiments and modeling assumptions is given in Section 3.67.
Figure 12.99 compares the measured and predicted heat flux from three large fireballs at a distance of
100 m from the test vessel. Experiment 4 also includes measurements at distances of 40 m and 70 m.
FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
50 50
Exp (HF100) Exp (HF100)
Heat Flux; Exp 2 FDS (rad100)
Heat Flux; Exp 3 FDS (rad100)
40 40
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

30 30

20 20

10 10

0 0
0 2 4 6 8 10 0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300
Exp (HF100)
Heat Flux; Exp 4 Exp (HF70)
250 Exp (HF40)
FDS (rad100)
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

200 FDS (rad70)

FDS (rad40)

150

100

50

0
0 2 4 6 8 10
Time (s)

Figure 12.99: Heat flux for the Shell LNG Fireball experiments.

875
12.2.12 WTC Experiments
There were a variety of heat flux gauges installed in the test compartment. Most were within 2 m of the fire.
Their locations and orientations are listed in Table 12.2.
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Upper Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 1 Upper Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 2
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (H2FU) Exp (H2FU)
Exp (H2RU) Exp (H2RU)
FDS (H2FU) FDS (H2FU)
FDS (H2RU) FDS (H2RU)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Upper Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 3 Upper Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (H2FU) Exp (H2FU)
Exp (H2RU) Exp (H2RU)
FDS (H2FU) FDS (H2FU)
FDS (H2RU) FDS (H2RU)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Upper Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 5 Upper Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50

Exp (H2FU) Exp (H2FU)

FDS (H2FU) FDS (H2FU)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.100: WTC experiments, heat flux at Station 2, high position.

876
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Lower Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 1 Lower Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 2
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (H2FD) Exp (H2FD)
Exp (H2RD) Exp (H2RD)
FDS (H2FD) FDS (H2FD)
FDS (H2RD) FDS (H2RD)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Lower Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 3 Lower Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 4
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50
Exp (H2FD) Exp (H2FD)
Exp (H2RD) Exp (H2RD)
FDS (H2FD) FDS (H2FD)
FDS (H2RD) FDS (H2RD)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
150 150
Lower Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 5 Lower Station 2 Heat Flux, WTC Test 6
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

100 100

50 50

Exp (H2FD) Exp (H2FD)

FDS (H2FD) FDS (H2FD)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.101: WTC experiments, heat flux at Station 2, low position.

877
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Upper Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 1 Upper Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 2
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCoHF) Exp (HCoHF)

20 Exp (HCoHW) 20 Exp (HCoHW)
FDS (HCoHF) FDS (HCoHF)
FDS (HCoHW) FDS (HCoHW)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Upper Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 3 Upper Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 4
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCoHF) Exp (HCoHF)

20 Exp (HCoHW) 20 Exp (HCoHW)
FDS (HCoHF) FDS (HCoHF)
FDS (HCoHW) FDS (HCoHW)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Upper Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 5 Upper Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 6
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCoHF) Exp (HCoHF)

20 Exp (HCoHW) 20 Exp (HCoHW)
FDS (HCoHF) FDS (HCoHF)
FDS (HCoHW) FDS (HCoHW)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.102: WTC experiments, heat flux to upper column.

878
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Lower Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 1 Lower Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 2
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCoLF) Exp (HCoLF)

20 Exp (HCoLW) 20 Exp (HCoLW)
FDS (HCoLF) FDS (HCoLF)
FDS (HCoLW) FDS (HCoLW)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Lower Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 3 Lower Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 4
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCoLF) Exp (HCoLF)

20 Exp (HCoLW) 20 Exp (HCoLW)
FDS (HCoLF) FDS (HCoLF)
FDS (HCoLW) FDS (HCoLW)
0 0
0 10 20 30 40 50 60 0 10 20 30 40 50 60
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
100 100
Lower Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 5 Lower Column Heat Flux, WTC Test 6
80 80
Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

60 60

40 40

Exp (HCoLF) Exp (HCoLF)

20 Exp (HCoLW) 20 Exp (HCoLW)
FDS (HCoLF) FDS (HCoLF)
FDS (HCoLW) FDS (HCoLW)
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 0 20 40 60 80
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 12.103: WTC experiments, heat flux to lower column.

879
12.2.13 UMD Line Burner
In the UMD line burner experiments, radiative heat flux was measured at a distance of 1 m normal to
the flame sheet. In the FDS calculations the domain is extended to encompass the heat flux measurement
location; two devices are placed at the 1 m distance on either side of the flame as shown in Fig. 12.104. This
figure also shows a slice contour of integrated radiation intensity to confirm the pattern is smooth.
The radiative fraction and radiative heat flux as functions of oxygen volume fraction in the coflow have
been measured by White et al. [302]. FDS does not employ a specified radiative fraction in these simulations.
Rather it uses a three step reaction mechanism that produces CO and soot in the first step and the oxidation of
these species in the second and third. The source of thermal radiation is the CO, CO2 , water vapor, and soot
in the flame, as calculated by RadCal. Figure 12.105 displays the measured and predicted global radiative
fraction and heat flux.

Figure 12.104: UMD Line Burner contour of integrated radiation intensity.

880
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 2
Methane, Radiative Fraction Methane, Radiative Heat Flux

0.3 1.5

Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Radiative Fraction

0.2 1

0.1 Exp 0.5 Exp

FDS 1.25 cm FDS 1.25 cm
FDS 0.625 cm FDS 0.625 cm
FDS 0.3125 cm FDS 0.3125 cm
0 0
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
O 2 Volume Fraction O 2 Volume Fraction

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 2
Propane, Radiative Fraction Propane, Radiative Heat Flux

0.3 1.5
Heat Flux (kW/m²)
Radiative Fraction

0.2 1

0.1 Exp 0.5 Exp

FDS 1.25 cm FDS 1.25 cm
FDS 0.625 cm FDS 0.625 cm
FDS 0.3125 cm FDS 0.3125 cm
0 0
0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2
O 2 Volume Fraction O 2 Volume Fraction

Figure 12.105: The plots on the left compare measured and predicted radiative fraction, and the plots on the right
compare measured and predicted heat flux to a target 1 m away from the flame.

881
12.2.14 Summary of Target Heat Flux Predictions

Target Heat Flux

Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.11
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.59
100 Model Bias Factor: 0.92 BGC/GRI LNG Fires
FAA Cargo Compartments
Fleury Heat Flux
Predicted Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Hamins Gas Burners

Loughborough Jet Fires
Montoir LNG Fires
10
NIST Douglas Firs
NIST Pool Fires
NIST/NRC
Phoenix LNG Fires
Sandia Methane Burner
Shell LNG Fireballs
1
UMD Line Burner
WTC

0.1
0.1 1 10 100
Measured Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.106: Summary of target heat flux predictions.

882
12.3 Attenuation of Thermal Radiation in Water Spray
This section presents the results of simulations of spray experiments where the reduction of thermal radiation
by a fine water spray was measured.

12.3.1 BRE Spray Experiments

Attenuation of thermal radiation by a water spray was measured using three full-cone type hydraulic nozzles
at eightpdifferent pressures. The initial droplet speeds were determined using a simple hydraulic relation,
v = 0.9 2P/ρ. The median drop size distributions were determined by assuming dm ∝ p−1/3 and finding
the constant of proportionality by fitting to the experimental PDPA measurement 1 m below the nozzles.
Measured median diameters, dv50 , are compared against mean diameters, d43 . The arithmetic mean of the
droplets is used for vertical velocity. The comparison of predicted and measured attenuation, Fig. 12.108, is
made at a distance of 4 m from the heat source.

Nozzle A Nozzle B Nozzle D Nozzle A Nozzle B Nozzle D

800
7 Exp. Exp. Exp. Exp.
FDS FDS FDS FDS
6 m)
600
Mean W-velocity (m/s)

5
Mean diameter (

4 400
3

2 200
1 Exp. Exp.
FDS FDS
0 0
0 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 0 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8 2 4 6 8
P (bar) P (bar) P (bar) P (bar) P (bar) P (bar)

Figure 12.107: Comparison of experimental and predicted droplet speeds and mean diameters for the three nozzles
and different pressures.

12.3.2 LEMTA Spray Experiments

The attenuation of thermal radiation was measured at five heights in water sprays produced by seven full-
elliptic type hydraulic nozzles. The operating pressure was 4 bar. The initial speed was deduced from
the water flow rate and the orifice diameter. The droplet size at the injection point was determined by
comparing the predicted and measured results at the PDPA measurement location 0.2 m below the nozzles.
The comparison of predicted and measured attenuations, Fig. 12.108, is made at five locations.

883
 35

30

25
FDS Attenuation (%)

20

15

10
BRE (Nozzle A)
5 BRE (Nozzle B)
BRE (Nozzle D)
LEMTA
0
0 10 20 30
Exp. Attenuation (%)

Figure 12.108: Comparison of predicted and measured radiation attenuation in the spray experiments at BRE and at
LEMTA.

884
12.4 Convective Heat Flux
This section focuses specifically on experiments that primarily involved convective heat transfer.

12.4.1 Bouchair Solar Chimney

The plots on the following pages compare the predicted air mass flow rates through the test apparatus shown
in Fig. 3.5. The measurements were made at both the inlet and outlet of the thermal cavity. Note that in
Bouchair’s thesis [140], the measurements were presented as mass flow rates per unit length of the inlet slot,
1.4 m. In the plots on the following pages, the measurements and simulation results are presented simply as
a total mass flux, kg/s.

885
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.1 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 20 40 60 80 100 0 20 40 60 80 100
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.109: Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.1 m thermal cavity.

886
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.2 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 0 50 100 150
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.110: Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.2 m thermal cavity.

887
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.3 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 0 50 100 150 200
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.111: Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.3 m thermal cavity.

888
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 0.5 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 0 50 100 150 200 250
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.112: Bouchair Solar Chimney, 0.5 m thermal cavity.

889
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.1 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 30 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 40 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.2 0.2
Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 50 °C) Solar Chimney (0.4 m inlet, 1.0 m cavity, 60 °C)

0.15 0.15
Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 0.1

0.05 0.05
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0 0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 12.113: Bouchair Solar Chimney, 1.0 m thermal cavity.

890
 1
Mass Flow Rate
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.08
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.09
Model Bias Factor: 0.92
Predicted Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

0.1 Bouchair Solar Chimney

0.01
0.01 0.1 1
Measured Mass Flow Rate (kg/s)

Figure 12.114: Summary of Bouchair Solar Chimney results.

891
12.5 Radiation Source Term
12.5.1 FM Burner Experiments
Figure 12.115 displays mean and rms vertical profiles of the radiation emission, in units of kW/m, from a
15 kW, 13.7 cm (inner) diameter ethylene burner at ambient oxygen concentrations of 21 %, 19 %, 17 %,
and 15 %. Figure 12.116 displays the predicted total radiant fraction for the four ambient oxygen levels.

892
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

Exp Exp
80 Mean Radiation Emission; 21 % FDS (2 cm) 80 RMS Radiation Emission; 21 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
60 60
Height (cm)

Height (cm)
40 40

20 20

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Heat Flux (kW/m) Heat Flux (kW/m)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

Exp Exp
80 Mean Radiation Emission; 19 % FDS (2 cm) 80 RMS Radiation Emission; 19 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
60 60
Height (cm)

Height (cm)
40 40

20 20

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Heat Flux (kW/m) Heat Flux (kW/m)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

Exp Exp
80 Mean Radiation Emission; 17 % FDS (2 cm) 80 RMS Radiation Emission; 17 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
60 60
Height (cm)

Height (cm)

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Heat Flux (kW/m) Heat Flux (kW/m)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master

Exp Exp
80 Mean Radiation Emission; 15 % FDS (2 cm) 80 RMS Radiation Emission; 15 % FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm) FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm) FDS (5 mm)
60 60
Height (cm)

Height (cm)

40 40

20 20

0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Heat Flux (kW/m) Heat Flux (kW/m)

Figure 12.115: FM Burner experiments, mean and rms vertical heat flux profiles.

893
 FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
0.5
Radiant Fraction; 21 %
0.4

Radiant Fraction
0.3

0.2

Exp
0.1 FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
0.5
Radiant Fraction; 19 %
0.4
Radiant Fraction

0.3

0.2

Exp
0.1 FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
0.5
Radiant Fraction; 17 %
0.4
Radiant Fraction

0.3

0.2

Exp
0.1 FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
0.5
Radiant Fraction; 15 %
0.4
Radiant Fraction

0.3

0.2

Exp
0.1 FDS (2 cm)
FDS (1 cm)
FDS (5 mm)
0
0 5 10 15 20
Time (s)

Figure 12.116: FM Burner experiments, radiant fraction for four oxygen levels.
894
12.6 Condensation Heat Flux
This section focuses on experiments involving condensation onto surfaces.

12.6.1 SETCOM Experiments

The following plot shows the results of modeling the SETCOM experiments.

12
Condensation
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.12
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.33
10
Model Bias Factor: 0.73

8
Predicted Heat Flux (kW/m²)

SETCOM 0.8 m/s

SETCOM 1.8 /ms
SETCOM 1.8 m/s
6
SETCOM 3.7 m/s
SETCOM 4.2 m/s
SETCOM 5.2 m/s
4

0
0 2 4 6 8 10 12
Measured Heat Flux (kW/m²)

Figure 12.117: Summary of SETCOM results.

895
Chapter 13

Suppression

This chapter looks at validation exercises where the aim is to predict the extinguishment of a fire.

13.1 Minimum Agent Concentration Experiments

In the following sections, results of experiments are presented in which relatively small flames are extin-
guished due to the introduction of an inerting agent in the oxidizer stream.

13.1.1 Cup Burner Experiments

A cup burner is an apparatus used to determine the minimum extinguishing concentration (MEC) for com-
binations of fuels and suppression agents. Sixteen fuels (acetone, acetylene, benzene, butane, dodecane,
ethanol, ethylene, heptane, hexane, hydrogen, methane, methanol, octane, propane, propanol, and toluene)
and five suppression agents (argon, carbon dioxide, helium, nitrogen, and sulfur hexaflouride) are consid-
ered. For the simulations, the MEC is found when the post-ignition HRR remains below 1 × 10−10 kW. The
critical flame temperatures specified for the fuel reactions are shown in Table 3.8. The extinguishing agent
concentration is measured at the outer edge of the cup burner tube at a level slightly below the cup rim.
Results are shown in Fig. 13.1 where color indicates the fuel and shape indicates the extinguishing agent.

897
 1
Minimum Extinguishing Concentration
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.03
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.03
Model Bias Factor: 1.04
Fuel Extinguishing Agent
Acetone Argon (Ar)
Acetylene Carbon Dioxide (CO2)
Predicted MEC (mol/mol)

Benzene Helium (He)

Butane Nitrogen (N2)
Dodecane Sulfur Hexafluoride (SF6)
Ethanol
Ethylene
N-Heptane
N-Hexane
Hydrogen
Methane
Methanol
N-Octane
Propane
Isopropanol
0.1 Toluene

0.1 1
Measured MEC (mol/mol)

Figure 13.1: Comparison of measured and predicted minimum extinguishing volume fractions for the cup burner tests.
Fuel type is indicated by color, and extinguishing agent is indicated by shape.

898
13.1.2 FM Burner Experiments
A description of the FM Burner experiments can be found in Section 3.24. Briefly, a 15.2 cm round steel
burner generating a 10 kW fire was supplied with oxygen by an air stream from below that was slowly
diluted with nitrogen until the flame extinguished. In the FDS simulations, nitrogen is added to the air
stream supplied through the floor of the enclosure, linearly decreasing the oxygen volume fraction over one
minute of simulated time. In Fig. 13.2, the combustion efficiency, η, is plotted as a function of oxygen
volume fraction for all four fuels tested and compared with the measurements of Zeng and Wang [196]. The
auto-ignition temperature (AIT) threshold for each fuel is set according to the Beyler’s chapter in the SFPE
Handbook [136]. The modeled burner is piloted using a ring of 36 hot (2000 ◦C) particles ejecting enough
fuel to produce 1 kW (to match the experimental pilot).
FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1.2 1.2

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master FDS6.7.8-113-gb81287c1e-master
1.2 1.2

1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4

0.2 0.2

0 0
0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.08 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2

Figure 13.2: FM Burner combustion efficiency.

899
13.1.3 UMD Line Burner
A description of UMD Line Burner experiments can be found in Section 3.80. In the experiments, the
oxygen co-flow was slowly diluted with nitrogen until the flame weakened and eventually extinguished. In
the FDS simulations, the nitrogen co-flow is setup with a ramp in time to achieve a linear decrease in the co-
flow oxygen volume fraction over one minute of real time. In Fig. 13.3, we plot the combustion efficiency as
a function of oxygen volume fraction for both methane and propane and compare with the measurements of
White et al. [302]. Note that the FDS results are presented for three different grid resolutions corresponding
to W /δ x = 4, 8, and 16 (δ x = 1.25 cm, 0.625 cm, and 0.3125 cm, respectively), where W = 5 cm is the
width of the burner. A simple re-ignition model with an ignition temperature threshold set to the SFPE
Handbook [238] value of the Auto-Ignition Temperature (AIT) for methane and propane is used. A piloted
ignition region (AIT = 0 K) is set just within the near field of the line burner. Details of the re-ignition model
and pilot region as well as parameter sensitivity studies are provided in White et al. [344].
FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
1.2 1.2
Combustion Efficiency, Methane Combustion Efficiency, Propane
1 1

0.8 0.8

0.6 0.6

0.4 0.4
Exp Exp
FDS 1.25 cm FDS 1.25 cm
0.2 FDS 0.625 cm
0.2 FDS 0.625 cm
FDS 0.3125 cm FDS 0.3125 cm
0 0
0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22 0.1 0.12 0.14 0.16 0.18 0.2 0.22
O 2 Volume Fraction O 2 Volume Fraction

Figure 13.3: UMD Line Burner combustion efficiency.

900
13.2 Compartment Fire Extinction
The following sections present results for experiments in which fires within forced ventilation compartments
either self-extinguish due to lack of oxygen, or extinguish due to a water mist system.

13.2.1 LLNL Enclosure Experiments

The figures on the following pages contain plots of the heat release rate in both the experiments and the
simulation. The experimental curve is just the value reported in the test report, which drops to zero instantly
at the reported extinguishment time. In cases where the model does not predict extinction, the extinction
time data is not used in the summary scatter plot, Fig. 13.17.

901
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 1 Extinction Time, Test 2
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 3 Extinction Time, Test 4
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 5 Extinction Time, Test 6
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 7 Extinction Time, Test 8
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.4: LLNL Extinction Time, Tests 1-8.

902
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 22 Extinction Time, Test 24
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 25 Extinction Time, Test 27
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 28 Extinction Time, Test 29
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 32 Extinction Time, Test 37
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000 6000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.5: LLNL Extinction Time, Tests 22, 24, 25, 27, 28, 29, 32, 37.

903
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 39 Extinction Time, Test 41
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 43 Extinction Time, Test 44
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000 5000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 45 Extinction Time, Test 46
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000 0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500 500
Extinction Time, Test 47 Extinction Time, Test 48
400 400
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

300 300
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
200 200

100 100

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 0 500 1000 1500 2000
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.6: LLNL Extinction Time, Tests 39, 41, 43-48.

904
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
500
Extinction Time, Test 49
400
HRR (kW)

300
Exp
FDS
200

100

0
0 1000 2000 3000 4000
Time (s)

Figure 13.7: LLNL Extinction Time, Test 49.

905
13.2.2 NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire Experiments
These experiments involve fires within large, steel electrical enclosures. A brief description of the experi-
ments and photographs of the enclosures are found in Section 3.48. Table 13.1 lists the leakage and vent
areas of the enclosures, along with the measured maximum heat release rate (HRR).
Figures 13.8 through 13.10 compare predicted versus measured heat release rates. Each plot contains
two sets of curves. The black curves represent the nominal HRR based solely on the metered natural gas
flow. The gas flow was ramped up in increments of 25 kW, 50 kW, or 100 kW until the HRR determined
via oxygen consumption calorimetry (red curves) diverged, at which point the maximum achievable HRR
within the enclosure had been reached.
Table 13.1: Summary of NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire Experiments.

Exp. Encl. Leak Area Vent Area Total Area Max HRR
No. No. (m2 ) (m2 ) (m2 ) (kW)
3 5 0.060 0.032 0.092 160
4 5 0.060 0 0.060 105
8 5 0.060 0.108 0.168 230
9 6 0.017 0 0.017 45
12 2 0.170 0.164 0.334 580
13 2 0.170 0 0.170 270
15 3 0.039 0 0.039 70
16 3 0.039 0.016 0.055 100
17 3 0.039 0.032 0.071 130
19 8 0.079 0 0.079 165
22 7 0.036 0.008 0.044 65
23 7 0.033 0.008 0.041 60
24 7 0.058 0.008 0.066 180
26 4 0.043 0.030 0.073 120
27 4 0.043 0.030 0.073 125
29 1 0.110 0 0.110 240
30 1 0.110 0.070 0.180 250
31 1 0.110 0.070 0.180 400

906
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
300 200
Enclosure #5, Test 3 Enclosure #5, Test 4
250
150
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

200

150 100

100
HRR_ideal (Exp) 50 HRR_ideal (Exp)
HRR_actual (Exp) HRR_actual (Exp)
50 HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 100
HRR_ideal (Exp)
Enclosure #5, Test 8 Enclosure #6, Test 9
HRR_actual (Exp)
80 HRR_ideal (FDS)
300 HRR_actual (FDS)
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

60
200
40

100 HRR_ideal (Exp)

HRR_actual (Exp) 20
HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
800 400
Enclosure #2, Test 12 Enclosure #2, Test 13

600 300
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

400 200

200 HRR_ideal (Exp) 100 HRR_ideal (Exp)

HRR_actual (Exp) HRR_actual (Exp)
HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 13.8: NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire maximum HRR, Tests 3, 4, 8, 9, 12, 13.

907
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
150 200
Enclosure #2, Test 15 Enclosure #3, Test 16

150
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

100

100

50
HRR_ideal (Exp) 50 HRR_ideal (Exp)
HRR_actual (Exp) HRR_actual (Exp)
HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 250
Enclosure #3, Test 17 Enclosure #8, Test 19
200
150
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

150
100
100

50 HRR_ideal (Exp) HRR_ideal (Exp)

HRR_actual (Exp) 50 HRR_actual (Exp)
HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20 25
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
100 100
Enclosure #7, Test 22 Enclosure #7, Test 23
80 80
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

60 60

40 40

HRR_ideal (Exp) HRR_ideal (Exp)

20 HRR_actual (Exp) 20 HRR_actual (Exp)
HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 13.9: NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire maximum HRR, Tests 15, 16, 17, 19, 22, 23.

908
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
250 200
Enclosure #7, Test 24 Enclosure #4, Test 26
200
150
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

150
100
100

HRR_ideal (Exp) 50 HRR_ideal (Exp)

50 HRR_actual (Exp) HRR_actual (Exp)
HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 400
Enclosure #4, Test 27 Enclosure #1, Test 29

150 300
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

100 200

50 HRR_ideal (Exp) 100 HRR_ideal (Exp)

HRR_actual (Exp) HRR_actual (Exp)
HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 500
Enclosure #1, Test 30 Enclosure #1, Test 31
400
300
Heat Release Rate (kW)

Heat Release Rate (kW)

300
200
200

100 HRR_ideal (Exp) HRR_ideal (Exp)

HRR_actual (Exp) 100 HRR_actual (Exp)
HRR_ideal (FDS) HRR_ideal (FDS)
HRR_actual (FDS) HRR_actual (FDS)
0 0
0 5 10 15 20 0 5 10 15 20
Time (min) Time (min)

Figure 13.10: NIST/NRC OLIVE-Fire maximum HRR, Tests 24, 26, 27, 29, 30, 31.

909
13.2.3 SWJTU Tunnel Experiments
The figures below display the heat release rate as a function of time for the SWJTU Tunnel experiments.

20 20
Extinction Time, Test I-1 Extinction Time, Test I-2

15 15
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp Exp
10 FDS
10 FDS

5 5

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Time (s) Time (s)

20 20
Extinction Time, Test I-3 Extinction Time, Test I-4

15 15
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp Exp
10 FDS
10 FDS

5 5

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Time (s) Time (s)

20 20
Extinction Time, Test I-5 Extinction Time, Test I-6

15 15
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp Exp
10 FDS
10 FDS

5 5

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.11: SWJTU Tunnel experiments, extinction time.

910
13.2.4 USCG/HAI Water Mist Suppression Tests
The following pages contain comparisons of the predicted heat release rates for fires that are suppressed with
a water mist system. In all cases, the flow rate of liquid fuel is specified in the model, but the decrease in HRR
due to the extinguishing system is predicted by the model. Table 13.2 reports the observed extinguishment
times. Figure 13.17 compares the measured versus predicted extinguishment times. For the simulations, the
extinguishment time is taken to be when the HRR drops to half of its specified value.
In cases where there is no reported fire extinction or the model does not predict extinction, the extinction
time data is not used in the summary scatter plot, Fig. 13.17.

Table 13.2: Recorded extinguishment times for the USCG/HAI water mist suppression tests in a small
shipboard machinery space. “No” means that the fire was not extinguished within 600 s of nozzle activation.

System Navy Grinnell Fogtec Chemetron Fike

Number of Nozzles 6 6 6 15 6
Operating Pressure (bar) 70 13 100 12 21
Flow Rate (L/min) 68 75 22 70 48
Assumed Median Drop Size (µm) 175 225 100 200
Assumed Initial Velocity (m/s) 75 32 90 41
Assumed Spray Angle (deg.) 120 90 120 90
Fire Scenario Ventilation Extinguishment Time (s)
1.0 MW Spray Closed 15 26 21 27 21
1.0 MW Spray Natural 15 40 32 43 35
1.0 MW Spray Forced 17 55 76 357 133
0.5 MW Spray Closed 34 70 39 53 56
0.5 MW Spray Natural 41 117 67 158 140
0.5 MW Spray Forced 124 No No No No
0.25 MW Spray Closed 157 360 169 314 277
0.25 MW Spray Natural 206 No 290 525 566
0.25 MW Spray Forced No No No No No

911
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (1 MW, Closed, Grinnell) Exp (1 MW, Closed, Navy)
FDS (1 MW, Closed, Grinnell) FDS (1 MW, Closed, Navy)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (1 MW, Closed, Fogtec) Exp (1 MW, Closed, Fike)
FDS (1 MW, Closed, Fogtec) FDS (1 MW, Closed, Fike)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (1 MW, Natural, Grinnell) Exp (1 MW, Natural, Navy)

FDS (1 MW, Natural, Grinnell) FDS (1 MW, Natural, Navy)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (1 MW, Natural, Fogtec) Exp (1 MW, Natural, Fike)

FDS (1 MW, Natural, Fogtec) FDS (1 MW, Natural, Fike)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.12: USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time.

912
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (1 MW, Forced, Grinnell) Exp (1 MW, Forced, Navy)
FDS (1 MW, Forced, Grinnell) FDS (1 MW, Forced, Navy)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (1 MW, Forced, Fogtec) Exp (1 MW, Forced, Fike)
FDS (1 MW, Forced, Fogtec) FDS (1 MW, Forced, Fike)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (500 kW, Closed, Grinnell) Exp (500 kW, Closed, Navy)
FDS (500 kW, Closed, Grinnell) FDS (500 kW, Closed, Navy)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (500 kW, Closed, Fogtec) Exp (500 kW, Closed, Fike)
FDS (500 kW, Closed, Fogtec) FDS (500 kW, Closed, Fike)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.13: USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time.

913
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (500 kW, Natural, Grinnell) Exp (500 kW, Natural, Navy)
FDS (500 kW, Natural, Grinnell) FDS (500 kW, Natural, Navy)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (500 kW, Natural, Fogtec) Exp (500 kW, Natural, Fike)
FDS (500 kW, Natural, Fogtec) FDS (500 kW, Natural, Fike)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (500 kW, Forced, Grinnell) Exp (500 kW, Forced, Navy)
FDS (500 kW, Forced, Grinnell) FDS (500 kW, Forced, Navy)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1500 1500
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times

1000 1000
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (500 kW, Forced, Fogtec) Exp (500 kW, Forced, Fike)
FDS (500 kW, Forced, Fogtec) FDS (500 kW, Forced, Fike)

500 500

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.14: USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time.

914
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 1200
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times
1000 1000

800 800
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (250 kW, Closed, Grinnell) Exp (250 kW, Closed, Navy)
600 FDS (250 kW, Closed, Grinnell) 600 FDS (250 kW, Closed, Navy)

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 1200
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times
1000 1000

800 800
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (250 kW, Closed, Fogtec) Exp (250 kW, Closed, Fike)
600 FDS (250 kW, Closed, Fogtec) 600 FDS (250 kW, Closed, Fike)

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 1200
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times
1000 1000

800 800
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (250 kW, Natural, Grinnell) Exp (250 kW, Natural, Navy)
600 FDS (250 kW, Natural, Grinnell) 600 FDS (250 kW, Natural, Navy)

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 1200
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times
1000 1000

800 800
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (250 kW, Natural, Fogtec) Exp (250 kW, Natural, Fike)
600 FDS (250 kW, Natural, Fogtec) 600 FDS (250 kW, Natural, Fike)

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.15: USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time.

915
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 1200
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times
1000 1000

800 800
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)
Exp (250 kW, Forced, Grinnell) Exp (250 kW, Forced, Navy)
600 FDS (250 kW, Forced, Grinnell) 600 FDS (250 kW, Forced, Navy)

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master

1200 1200
USCG HAI Extinction Times USCG HAI Extinction Times
1000 1000

800 800
HRR (kW)

HRR (kW)

Exp (250 kW, Forced, Fogtec) Exp (250 kW, Forced, Fike)
600 FDS (250 kW, Forced, Fogtec) 600 FDS (250 kW, Forced, Fike)

400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 13.16: USCG/HAI experiments, extinction time.

916
13.2.5 Summary, Flame Extinction Time

Extinction Time
Exp. Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.10
Model Rel. Std. Dev.: 0.41
Model Bias Factor: 1.06
1000
Predicted Time (s)

LLNL Enclosure
USCG/HAI

100

10
10 100 1000
Measured Time (s)

Figure 13.17: Comparison of measured and predicted extinguishment times for the USCG/HAI water mist suppression
tests.

917
13.3 VTT Water Spray Experiments
Figure 13.18 presents profiles of mean droplet diameter, mean velocity, and droplet flux below a single
74◦ hollow-cone water mist nozzle. The pressure behind the nozzle was 2 MPa, and the flow constant was
0.077 L/min/bar1/2 . The The experimental data represents average values at each distance calculated over
the four measuring points at that distance (except for the point at the spray axis). A comparison of droplet
speed, mist flux and Sauter mean diameter (D32 ) profiles are shown in Fig. 13.18. Comparisons are shown
at 40 cm and 62 cm vertical distances from the nozzle. Simulation results are reported for three spatial
resolutions: 1 cm, 2 cm, and 4 cm.

918
 FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
7 7

6 6

5 5

4 4

3 3

2 2

1 1

0 0
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master
0.4 0.4

0.3 0.3

0.2 0.2

0.1 0.1

0 0
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master FDS6.7.7-352-g88147fb51-master

150 150

100 100

50 50

0 0
-0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3 -0.3 -0.2 -0.1 0 0.1 0.2 0.3

Figure 13.18: Comparison of predicted and experimental droplet speed (top), droplet flux (middle) and mean diameter
(bottom) profiles of the LN-2 nozzle. The left column corresponds to measurements made 40 cm from the nozzle,
while the right column corresponds to measurements made 62 cm from the nozzle.

919
Chapter 14

Burning Rate and Fire Spread

This chapter contains a series of validation exercises where the aim is to predict the burning and spread rate
of the fire. Most of the simulations included in the previous chapters involved a specified burning or heat
release rate. Here, the objective is to apply measured thermophysical properties of the material and predict
its burning rate, either with a specified heat flux or as a free burn.

14.1 FAA Polymers

The U.S. Federal Aviation Administration (FAA) has studied various plastics that are commonly used aboard
commercial aircraft.
This section presents measured properties of various polymers and the numerical predictions of their
mass loss and/or burning rates under constant heat heating. Two types of experiments are considered. First,
the NIST Gasification Apparatus is used to measure the mass loss rate of non-burning samples in a nitrogen
atmosphere. Second, the standard Cone Calorimeter [345] is used to measure the heat release rate of ma-
terials in a normal atmosphere. When just the mass loss rate of a non-burning sample has been measured,
FDS is run in “solid phase only” mode; that is, a 1-D heat conduction calculation is performed in a single
grid cell. The result is the predicted mass loss rate as a function of time. To simulate a cone calorimeter
experiment, FDS simulates the burning of a 10 cm by 10 cm sample with a specified heat flux to represent
the effect of the cone heater. The cone itself is not included in the simulation. As the sample burns, FDS
predicts the additional radiative and convective heating of the sample as a result of the fire.
In general, the burning/gasification rate of a charring polymer is more difficult to predict than a non-
charring one because there are more parameters that need to be measured and more complicated behavior,
like intumescence, need to be considered.

14.1.1 Glossary of Terms

Assumption: Characteristics were assumed from known properties in similar materials.

Cone Calorimeter (ASTM E 1354 [345]) The Cone Calorimeter exposes a small sample to a constant
external radiant heat flux simulating exposure of the sample to a large scale fire. The device records
mass loss data along with heat release data through oxygen consumption calorimetry. From this a
variety of heat release related properties can be found including heat of combustion.

Constant Volume: The material is assumed to maintain a constant volume during the solid phase reactions.

Direct: Direct measurement of densities is performed by measuring the dimensions and mass of the sample.

921
DSC: (ASTM E 2070 [346]) A Differential Scanning Calorimeter precisely raises the temperature of a
small sample of material at a constant rate. This coupled with knowledge of heat absorbed by the
sample allows for the calculation of the specific heat function of a material as well as heats of reaction
and phase change.

Estimated: Characteristics were approximated based on known properties in similar materials.

FTIR: Fourier Transform Infrared Spectroscopy uses a spectrometer to simultaneously characterize the
absorption of all frequencies of infrared light. In testing a sample is exposed to infrared light and a
detector records light that has passed through the sample. A Fourier transform of detector measurement
is then translated into absorption information.

Gasification Apparatus: Similar to the Cone Calorimeter however flaming is prevented. This is done
typically through the introduction of inert purge gases.

Inherited: The properties of the product or component are assumed to be the same as the original material.

Inverse Analysis: Property was established by fitting a model to measured temperatures from the Cone
Calorimeter or Gasification Apparatus.

IS: (ASTM E 1175 [347]) An Integrating Sphere, or an Ulbricht Sphere, is a hollow cavity whose interior
has a high diffuse reflectivity. A sample placed inside the sphere is exposed to incident radiation and
reflectivity measured. Emissivity can be determined from this information. The standard above is for
measurement of Solar reflectivity, and was not necessarily precisely followed.

Laser Flash: (ASTM E1461 [348]) In the Laser Flash Method one surface of a sample is rapidly heated
using a single pulse from a laser. Heat sensors on the opposite side of the sample record the arrival of the
resulting temperature disturbance. From this thermal diffusivity/thermal conductivity can be calculated.

Literature: Results were found within previously published literature.

MCC: (ASTM D 7309 [349]) The Microscale Combustion Calorimeter (MCC) rapidly pyrolyzes a mil-
ligram size sample in an inert atmosphere. The pyrolyzate is then exposed to an abundance of oxygen.
Heat release history is obtained from oxygen consumption. Similar to TGA with heat release recorded
rather than mass loss rate.

Pulsed Current: Can refer to different types of tests. Generally, a sample is positioned between two elec-
trodes in a sealed chamber with an inert atmosphere. The sample is heated through pulses of current.
Measurements of the sample and the chamber can give information regarding specific heat, emissivity,
or other material properties.

TGA: (ASTM E 1131 [350]) In Thermal Gravimetric Analysis (TGA) a small sample is heated at uniform
rate, generally in a Nitrogen (N2 ) atmosphere. The percentage weight loss of the sample is recorded
relative to the sample’s temperature. Rate constants can then be fitted to the data. Similar to MCC with
mass loss recorded instead of heat release.

TLS: (ASTM D 5930 [351]) The Transient Line Source method records temperature of a single point at a
fixed distance in a sample over time using a probe. Given knowledge of the heat exposure of the sample
the thermal conductivity can be found from the slope of the recorded data.

922
14.1.2 Non-Charring Polymers, HDPE, HIPS, and PMMA
A non-charring polymer is considered one of the easiest solids to model because it typically involves only
a single, first order reaction that converts solid plastic to fuel vapor. No residue is formed and the plastic is
completely pyrolyzed. Table 14.1 lists nine parameters for each polymer studied. These values have been
input directly into FDS, and the predicted mass loss rates are compared with measured values from the NIST
Gasification Apparatus, a device that pyrolyzes the solid in a nitrogen environment to prevent combustion
of fuel gases. The results are shown in Fig. 14.1. The exposing heat flux was 52 kW/m2 . A 1 cm layer of
insulation was placed under the sample. Its properties are given in Ref. [193].

Table 14.1: Input parameters for FAA Polymers non-charring samples. Courtesy S. Stoliarov, M. McKinnon
and J. Li, University of Maryland. See Section 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms.

Property Units HDPE HIPS PMMA Unc. (%) Method Ref.

Density kg/m3 860 950 1100 5 Direct [193]
Conductivity W/m/K 0.29 0.22 0.20 15 TLC [193]
Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 3.5 2.0 2.2 15 DSC [352]
Emissivity 0.92 0.86 0.85 20 IS [353]
Absorption Coef. m−1 1300 2700 2700 50 FTIR [354]
Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 4.8 × 1022 1.2 × 1016 8.5 × 1012 50 TGA [193]
Activation Energy J/mol 3.49 × 105 2.47 × 105 1.88 × 105 3 TGA [193]
Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 920 1000 870 15 DSC [352]

923
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05 0.05
HDPE, 9 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m² HIPS, 9 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²
0.04 0.04
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.03 0.03

0.02 0.02

0.01 0.01
Exp (MLR) Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR) FDS (MLR)
0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700 0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05
PMMA, 8.5 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²
0.04
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.03

0.02

0.01
Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR)
0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (s)

Figure 14.1: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for three non-charring polymers exposed to a heat
flux of 52 kW/m2 in a nitrogen environment.

924
14.1.3 Complex Non-Charring Polymers: PP, PA66, POM, and PET
The polymers described in this section exhibit slightly more complex behavior than those in the previous
section because they exhibit foaming and bubbling as they degrade. Table 14.2 lists the properties of each
polymer. In the model, the polymers melt to form a liquid with identical properties as the solid. The melting
is characterized by a relatively fast reaction that occurs near the melting temperature with a heat of reaction
equivalent to a heat of melting. The predicted mass loss rates are compared with measured values from
the NIST Gasification Apparatus, a device that pyrolyzes the solid in a nitrogen environment to prevent
combustion of fuel gases. The results are shown in Fig. 14.2. The exposing heat flux is 50 kW/m2 . A thin
sheet of aluminum foil and a 2.5 cm layer of Foamglas insulation underlies the sample. Its properties are
given in Ref. [355].

Table 14.2: Input parameters for FAA Polymers complex non-charring samples [355]. Courtesy S. Stoliarov,
G. Linteris and R.E. Lyon. See Section 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms.

Property Units PP PA66 POM PET Unc. Method

(%)
Density kg/m3 910 1150 1425 1380 5 Direct
Conductivity W/m/K 0.24 0.34 0.28 0.29 15 TLC
Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 2.68 2.54 1.88 2.01 15 DSC
Emissivity 0.96 0.95 0.95 0.903 20 IS
Absorption Coef. m−1 966 3920 3550 2937 50 FTIR
Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1.6 × 1023 5.7 × 1017 3.7 × 1010 4.50 × 1018 50 TGA
Activation Energy J/mol 3.52 × 105 2.74 × 105 1.57 × 105 2.81 × 105 3 TGA
Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 1310 1390 1570 1800 15 DSC
Heat of Melting kJ/kg 80 55 141 37 15 DSC
Melting Temperature K 158 262 165 253 15 DSC

925
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05 0.05
PP, 6.1 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m² PA66, 6.1 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²
0.04 0.04
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.03 0.03
Exp (MLR) Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR) FDS (MLR)
0.02 0.02

0.01 0.01

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 200 400 600 800
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05 0.05
POM, 6.1 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m² PET, 6.1 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²
0.04 0.04
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.03 0.03
Exp (MLR) Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR) FDS (MLR)
0.02 0.02

0.01 0.01

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800 1000
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 14.2: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for four complex non-charring polymers exposed
to a heat flux of 50 kW/m2 in a nitrogen environment.

926
14.1.4 Polycarbonate (PC)
Table 14.3 lists the measured properties of polycarbonate. These values have been input directly into FDS,
and the predicted heat release rates are compared with measured values from the Cone Calorimeter. The
results for samples of various thicknesses and imposed heat fluxes are shown in Fig. 14.3. A 1 cm layer of
Kaowool insulation was placed under the sample. Its properties are given in Ref. [194]. It is assumed that
the polymer undergoes a single step reaction that forms fuel gas and char.

PC → 0.21 Char + 0.79 Gas (14.1)

Table 14.3: Properties of polycarbonate (PC). Courtesy S. Stoliarov, University of Maryland. See Sec-
tion 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms.

Property Units Value Method Reference

Polymer Density kg/m3 1180 ± 60 Direct [194]
Polymer Conductivity W/m/K 0.22 ± 0.03 Literature [194]
Polymer Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.9 ± 0.3 DSC [352]
Polymer Emissivity 0.90 ± 0.05 IS [353]
Polymer Absorption Coef. m−1 1770 ± 590 FTIR [354]
Char Density kg/m3 248 Cone Calorimeter [194]
Char Conductivity W/m/K 0.37 Cone Calorimeter [194]
Char Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.72 ± 0.17 Pulsed Current [194, 356]
Char Emissivity 0.85 ± 0.05 Pulsed Current [194, 356]
Char Absorption Coef. m−1 Opaque Assumption [194]
Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 (1.9 ± 1.1) × 1018 TGA [194]
Activation Energy J/mol (2.95 ± 0.06) × 105 TGA [194]
Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 830 ± 140 DSC [352]
Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 25600 ± 130 MCC [194]
Combustion Efficiency 0.84 ± 0.03 Cone Calorimeter [194]

927
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
PC, 5.5 mm, Cone at 75 kW/m² PC, 5.5 mm, Cone at 92 kW/m²
800 800
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

600 600
Exp (HRR_6_75) Exp (HRR_6_92)
FDS (HRR) FDS (HRR)
400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000 1000
PC, 5.5 mm, Cone at 50 kW/m² PC, 3 mm, Cone at 75 kW/m²
800 800
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

600 600
Exp (HRR_6_50) Exp (HRR_3_75)
FDS (HRR) FDS (HRR)
400 400

200 200

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
1000
PC, 9 mm, Cone at 75 kW/m²
800
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

600
Exp (HRR_9_75)
FDS (HRR)
400

200

0
0 200 400 600 800
Time (s)

Figure 14.3: Comparison of predicted and measured heat release rates for polycarbonate (PC).

928
14.1.5 Poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC)
Table 14.4 lists the measured properties of poly(vinyl chloride). These values have been input directly into
FDS, and the predicted heat release rates are compared with measured values from the Cone Calorimeter.
The results for samples of various thicknesses and imposed heat fluxes are shown in Fig. 14.4. A 1 cm layer
of Kaowool insulation was placed under the sample. Its properties are given in Ref. [194].
It is assumed that the polymer decomposes via a two-step reaction:

Polymer → 0.44 Char 1 + 0.56 Gas 1 (14.2)

Char 1 → 0.47 Char 2 + 0.53 Gas 2 (14.3)

Table 14.4: Properties of poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC). Courtesy S. Stoliarov, University of Maryland. See
Section 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms.

Property Units Value Method Reference

Polymer Density kg/m3 1430 ± 70 Direct [194]
Polymer Conductivity W/m/K 0.17 ± 0.01 Literature [194]
Polymer Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.55 ± 0.25 DSC [352]
Polymer Emissivity 0.90 ± 0.05 IS [353]
Polymer Absorption Coef. m−1 2145 ± 715 FTIR [354]
Char 1 Density kg/m3 629 Constant Volume [194]
Char 1 Conductivity W/m/K 0.17 Inherited [194]
Char 1 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.55 ± 0.25 Inherited [194]
Char 1 Emissivity 0.90 ± 0.05 Inherited [194]
Char 1 Absorption Coef. m−1 2453 Inverse Analysis [194]
Char 2 Density kg/m3 296 Constant Volume [194]
Char 2 Conductivity W/m/K 0.26 Inverse Analysis [194]
Char 2 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.72 ± 0.17 Pulsed Current [194, 356]
Char 2 Emissivity 0.85 ± 0.05 Pulsed Current [194, 356]
Char 2 Absorption Coef. m−1 Opaque Assumption [194]
Reac 1 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 (1.4 ± 0.8) × 1033 TGA [194]
Reac 1 Activation Energy J/mol (3.67 ± 0.07) × 105 TGA [194]
Reac 1 Char Yield 0.44 ± 0.01 TGA [194]
Reac 1 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 170 ± 17 DSC [352]
Gas 1 Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 2700 ± 300 MCC [194]
Gas 1 Combustion Efficiency 0.75 ± 0.03 Cone Calorimeter [194]
Reac 2 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 (3.5 ± 2.1) × 1012 TGA [194]
Reac 2 Activation Energy J/mol (2.07 ± 0.04) × 105 TGA [194]
Reac 2 Char Yield 0.47 ± 0.01 TGA [194]
Reac 2 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 1200 ± 900 DSC [352]
Gas 2 Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 36500 ± 1800 MCC [194]
Gas 2 Combustion Efficiency 0.75 ± 0.03 Cone Calorimeter [194]

929
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400 400
PVC, 6 mm, Cone at 75 kW/m² PVC, 6 mm, Cone at 92 kW/m²
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

300 300

Exp (HRR_6_75) Exp (HRR_6_92)

200 FDS (HRR)
200 FDS (HRR)

100 100

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
200 500
PVC, 6 mm, Cone at 50 kW/m² PVC, 3 mm, Cone at 75 kW/m²
400
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

150

300
Exp (HRR_6_50) Exp (HRR_3_75)
100 FDS (HRR) FDS (HRR)
200

50
100

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
400
PVC, 9 mm, Cone at 75 kW/m²
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

300

Exp (HRR_9_75)
200 FDS (HRR)

100

0
0 200 400 600 800
Time (s)

Figure 14.4: Comparison of predicted and measured heat release rates for poly(vinyl chloride) (PVC).

930
14.1.6 Poly(aryl ether ether ketone)) (PEEK)
Table 14.5 lists the measured properties of poly(aryl ether ether ketone)1 . Its property values have been
input directly into FDS, and the predicted heat release rates are compared with measured values from the
Cone Calorimeter. It is assumed that the polymer decomposes via a four-step reaction:

Polymer → 0.62 Char 1 + 0.38 Gas 1 (14.4)

Char 1 → 0.88 Char 2 + 0.12 Gas 2 (14.5)
Char 2 → 0.88 Char 3 + 0.12 Gas 2 (14.6)
Char 3 → Gas 2 (14.7)

It is also assumed that the gaseous fuel molecule is C19 H12 O3 . A 1 cm layer of Kaowool insulation was
placed under the sample. Its properties are given in Ref. [194].
The results for 3.9 mm samples at imposed heat fluxes of 50 kW/m2 , 70 kW/m2 , and 90 kW/m2 are
shown in Fig. 14.5. Note that the plots on the left are the results of simulations of the solid phase only,
where the heat feedback from the fire is assumed to be 15 kW/m2 and it is applied at the time of ignition.
The plots on the right are from 3-D simulations of the solid sample and the fire. In these cases, the radiative
feedback is not specified but rather calculated.

1 Trade name VICTREX PEEK 450G. The sample has been thoroughly dried.

931
Table 14.5: Properties of poly(aryl ether ether ketone) (PEEK). Courtesy E. Oztekin, U.S. FAA and S. Sto-
liarov, University of Maryland. See Section 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms.

Property Units Value Method Reference

Polymer Density kg/m3 1300 Direct [357]
Polymer Conductivity W/m/K 0.28 Inverse Analysis [357]
Polymer Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 2.05 Inverse Analysis [357]
Polymer Emissivity 0.90 Inverse Analysis [357]
Polymer Absorption Coef. m−1 1690 Inverse Analysis [357]
Char 1 Density kg/m3 810 Constant Volume [357]
Char 1 Conductivity W/m/K 0.37 Inverse Analysis [357]
Char 1 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 0.24 Assumed [357]
Char 1 Emissivity 1 Assumed [357]
Char 1 Absorption Coef. m−1 81000 Assumed opaque [357]
Char 2 Density kg/m3 710 Constant Volume [357]
Char 2 Conductivity W/m/K 0.37 Inverse Analysis [357]
Char 2 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 0.27 Assumed [357]
Char 2 Emissivity 1 Assumed [357]
Char 2 Absorption Coef. m−1 71000 Assumed opaque [357]
Reac 1 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1.0 × 1032 TGA [357]
Reac 1 Activation Energy J/mol 5.57 × 105 TGA [357]
Reac 1 Char Yield 0.62 TGA [357]
Reac 1 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 350 Inverse Analysis [357]
Gas 1 Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 16000 Cone calorimetry [357]
Gas 1 Combustion Efficiency 1 Assumed [357]
Reac 2 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1.0 × 103 TGA [357]
Reac 2 Activation Energy J/mol 8.9 × 104 TGA [357]
Reac 2 Char Yield 0.88 TGA [357]
Reac 2 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 0 Assumed [357]
Gas 2 Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 27000 Cone Calorimetry [357]
Gas 2 Combustion Efficiency 1 Assumed [357]
Reac 3 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1.0 × 105 TGA [357]
Reac 3 Activation Energy J/mol 1.47 × 105 TGA [357]
Reac 3 Char Yield 0.88 TGA [357]
Reac 3 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 0 Assumed [357]
Reac 4 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1.0 × 103 TGA [357]
Reac 4 Activation Energy J/mol 1.29 × 105 TGA [357]
Reac 4 Char Yield 0 TGA [357]
Reac 4 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 0 Assumed [357]

932
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
PEEK, 3.9 mm, Cone at 50 kW/m² PEEK, 3.9 mm, Cone at 50 kW/m²
500 500
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

400 400

Exp (HRR) Exp (HRR)

300 FDS (HRRPUA)
300 FDS (HRR)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
PEEK, 3.9 mm, Cone at 70 kW/m² PEEK, 3.9 mm, Cone at 70 kW/m²
500 500
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

400 400

Exp (HRR) Exp (HRR)

300 FDS (HRRPUA)
300 FDS (HRR)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
600 600
PEEK, 3.9 mm, Cone at 90 kW/m² PEEK, 3.9 mm, Cone at 90 kW/m²
500 500
Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

Heat Release Rate (kW/m²)

400 400

Exp (HRR) Exp (HRR)

300 FDS (HRRPUA)
300 FDS (HRR)

200 200

100 100

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 500 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 14.5: Comparison of predicted and measured heat release rates for poly(aryl ether ether ketone) (PEEK). The
plots on the left include only a simulation of the solid phase with an added heat flux of 15 kW/m2 to account for the
radiative feedback from the flame. The plots on the right are 3-D simulations of the solid sample and the fire.

933
14.1.7 Poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT)
Samples of poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT)2 have been burned without oxygen in the Gasification Appa-
ratus and with oxygen in the Cone Calorimeter. The properties of PBT are listed in Table 14.6. It is assumed
that the polymer undergoes a single step reaction that forms fuel gas and no char.
The results of the simulations are shown in Fig. 14.6. Note that the effect of the flame radiation heat
feedback to the sample surface is accounted for by increasing the imposed heat fluxes of 35 kW/m2 by 39 %,
50 kW/m2 by 22 %, and 70 kW/m2 by 6 % [358].

Table 14.6: Properties of poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT). Courtesy S. Stoliarov, University of Maryland,
and Florian Kempel. See Section 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms. Note that the Specific Heat and Conduc-
tivity result from averaging the reported temperature dependent properties over the room to decomposition
temperature range (300 K – 650 K). The heat capacity value is increased by 0.13 kJ/kg/K to account for the
heat of melting (-46 kJ/kg), which takes place at 493 K.

Property Units Value Method Reference

Density kg/m3 1300 ± 70 Direct [358]
Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 2.23 ± 0.34 DSC [358]
Conductivity W/m/K 0.29 ± 0.05 TLS [358]
Emissivity 0.88 ± 0.05 FTIR [359]
Absorption Coefficient m−1 2561 ± 140 FTIR [359]
Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 (2.49 ± 0.62) × 1014 TGA [358]
Activation Energy J/mol (2.12 ± 0.53) × 105 TGA [358]
Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 507 DSC, Literature [358, 360]
Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 19500 Cone Calorimeter [358]
Combustion Efficiency 1 Assumption [358]

2 Tradename Arnite T06-200, DSM Engineering Plastics

934
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1
PBT, 4 mm, Cone at 35 kW/m²
0.08

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.06
Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR)
0.04

0.02

0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1 0.1
PBT, 4 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m² PBT, 4 mm, Cone at 50 kW/m²
0.08 0.08
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.06 0.06
Exp (MLR) Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR) FDS (MLR)
0.04 0.04

0.02 0.02

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.1
PBT, 4 mm, Cone at 70 kW/m²
0.08
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.06
Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR)
0.04

0.02

0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (s)

Figure 14.6: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT) in both the
Gasification Apparatus and Cone Calorimeter.

935
14.1.8 PBT with Glass Fibers (PBT-GF)
Samples of poly(butylene terephtalate) (PBT), blended with 30 % by mass glass fibers3 , have been burned
without oxygen in the Gasification Apparatus and with oxygen in the Cone Calorimeter. The properties of
PBT-GF are listed in Table 14.7. It is assumed that the polymer undergoes a single step reaction that forms
fuel gas and char.
PBT-GF → 0.32 Char + 0.68 Gas (14.8)
The results of the simulations are shown in Fig. 14.7. Note that the effect of the flame radiation heat
feedback to the sample surface is accounted for by increasing the imposed heat fluxes of 35 kW/m2 by
33 %, 50 kW/m2 by 16 %, and 70 kW/m2 by 5 % [358].

Table 14.7: Properties of poly(butylene terephtalate) with glass fibers (PBT-GF). Courtesy S. Stoliarov,
University of Maryland. See Section 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms. Note that the Polymer Specific
Heat and Polymer Conductivity are the result of averaging the reported temperature dependent properties
over the room to decomposition temperature range (300 K – 650 K). The heat capacity value is increased by
0.09 kJ/kg/K to account for the heat of melting (-32 kJ/kg), which takes place at 493 K.

Property Units Value Method Reference

Polymer Density kg/m3 1520 ± 80 Direct [358]
Polymer Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.68 ± 0.26 DSC [358]
Polymer Conductivity W/m/K 0.36 ± 0.06 TLS [358]
Polymer Emissivity 0.87 ± 0.05 FTIR [359]
Polymer Absorption Coef. m−1 2860 ± 150 FTIR [359]
Char Density kg/m3 482 Constant Volume [358]
Char Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 0.85 Literature [361]
Char Conductivity W/m/K 0.07 ± 0.02 Laser Flash [358]
Char Emissivity 0.85 Literature [362]
Char Absorption Coef. m−1 10000 Estimated [358]
Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 (2.49 ± 0.63) × 1014 TGA [358]
Activation Energy J/mol (2.12 ± 0.53) × 105 TGA [358]
Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 355 DSC, Literature [358, 360]
Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 19500 Cone Calorimeter [358]
Char Yield 0.32 ± 0.05 Gasification Device [358]
Combustion Efficiency 1 Assumption [358]

3 Tradename Arnite TV4-261, DSM Engineering Plastics

936
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05
PBT-GF, 4 mm, Cone at 35 kW/m²
0.04

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.03
Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR)
0.02

0.01

0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.07 0.05
PBT-GF, 4 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m² PBT-GF, 4 mm, Cone at 50 kW/m²
0.06
0.04
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.05

0.04 0.03
Exp (MLR) Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR) FDS (MLR)
0.03 0.02
0.02
0.01
0.01

0 0
0 100 200 300 400 0 100 200 300 400
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05
PBT-GF, 4 mm, Cone at 70 kW/m²
0.04
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.03
Exp (MLR)
FDS (MLR)
0.02

0.01

0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (s)

Figure 14.7: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for poly(butylene terephtalate) with glass fibers
(PBT-GF) in both the Gasification Apparatus and Cone Calorimeter.

937
14.2 UMD Polymers
This section contains a description of seven polymers analyzed by J. Li for his doctoral thesis at the Univer-
sity of Maryland [363]. In addition to the thesis itself, details of the measurement techniques can be found
in Refs. [298, 299, 359, 300, 301].
In the experiments, samples of seven different polymers were exposed to several different heat flux
levels in the controlled atmosphere pyrolysis apparatus (CAPA) developed at the University of Maryland.
This apparatus is similar to a cone calorimeter, but with a nitrogen environment. Thus, it is similar in
function to the Gasification Apparatus. In each experiment, a roughly 6 mm sample was placed upon a wire
mesh with no insulated backing. The top side of the sample was exposed to a specified heat flux, while the
bottom remained exposed to ambient conditions. The mass loss rate of the sample was measured, and in the
sections to follow the measured values are compared to FDS predictions. The seven polymers are organized
into groups with one, two, or three degradation steps.

14.2.1 One-Step Degradation: ABS, HIPS, and PMMA

These three polymers are assumed to pyrolyze according to the following single step process:

Polymer → νr Char + (1 − νr ) Gas (14.9)

The properties of the virgin polymer, the char, and the reaction kinetics are listed in Table 14.8.

Table 14.8: Properties of ABS, HIPS, and PMMA. Note that the temperature dependence of the thermal
conductivity is assumed to be linear, unlike some of those reported in Ref. [363].

Property Units ABS HIPS PMMA

Polymer Density kg/m3 1050 1060 1160
0.45 − 0.00038 T, T < 378 K
Polymer Cond. W/m/K 0.30 − 0.00028 T 0.10 + 0.0001 T
0.27 − 0.00024 T, T ≥ 378 K
Polymer Spec. Heat kJ/kg/K 1.58 + 0.0013 T 0.59 + 0.0034 T 0.60 + 0.0036 T
Polymer Emissivity 0.95 0.95 0.95
Polymer Abs. Coef. m−1 1800 2250 2240
Char Density kg/m3 80 Same as Polymer Same as Polymer
Char Conductivity W/m/K 0.13 − 0.00054 T Same as Polymer Same as Polymer
Char Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 0.82 + 0.00011 T Same as Polymer Same as Polymer
Char Emissivity 0.86 Same as Polymer Same as Polymer
Char Abs. Coef. m −1 2500 Opaque Same as Polymer
Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1.00 × 1014 1.70 × 1020 8.60 × 1012
Activation Energy J/mol 2.19 × 105 3.01 × 105 1.88 × 105
Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 460 689 846
Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 28750 29900 24450
Residue Fraction 0.023 0.043 0.015

938
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.015 0.04
ABS, 6.4 mm, Gas. App. at 30 kW/m² ABS, 6.4 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²

0.03
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.01

Exp Exp
FDS
0.02 FDS

0.005
0.01

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 100 200 300 400 500
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.06
ABS, 6.4 mm, Gas. App. at 70 kW/m²
0.05
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.04

Exp
0.03 FDS

0.02

0.01

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.012 0.03
HIPS, 6.0 mm, Gas. App. at 30 kW/m² HIPS, 6.0 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²
0.01 0.025
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.008 0.02

Exp Exp
0.006 FDS
0.015 FDS

0.004 0.01

0.002 0.005

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.05
HIPS, 6.0 mm, Gas. App. at 70 kW/m²
0.04
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.03
Exp
FDS
0.02

0.01

0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (s)

Figure 14.8: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for ABS and HIPS.

939
 10 -3 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
8 0.03
PMMA, 6.0 mm, Gas. App. at 20 kW/m² PMMA, 6.0 mm, Gas. App. at 40 kW/m²
0.025
6
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.02

Exp Exp
4 FDS
0.015 FDS

0.01
2
0.005

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.06
PMMA, 6.0 mm, Gas. App. at 60 kW/m²
0.05
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.04

Exp
0.03 FDS

0.02

0.01

0
0 50 100 150 200 250 300
Time (s)

Figure 14.9: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for PMMA.

940
14.2.2 Two-Step Degradation: Kydex
This polymer is assumed to pyrolyze according to the following two step process:

Polymer → 0.45 Intermediate + 0.55 Gas (14.10)

Intermediate → 0.31 Char + 0.69 Gas (14.11)

The properties of the polymer and the reaction kinetics are listed in Table 14.9 and the mass loss rate compar-
isons are shown on the following page. Note that nominal exposing heat flux values of 30 kW/m2 , 50 kW/m2 ,
and 70 kW/m2 were changed slightly in the simulations to account for the fact that the intumescing material
surface moved closer to the heater during the course of the experiment [301].

Table 14.9: Properties of Kydex. Note that the temperature dependence of the thermal conductivity is
assumed to be linear, unlike some of those reported in Ref. [363].

Property Units Kydex

Polymer Density kg/m3 1350
Polymer Cond. W/m/K 0.28 − 0.00029 T
Polymer Spec. Heat kJ/kg/K −0.62 + 0.00593 T
Polymer, Int. Emissivity 0.95
Polymer Abs. Coef. m−1 2135
Int. Density kg/m3 Same as Char
Int. Cond. W/m/K 0.55 + 0.00003 T
Int. Spec. Heat kJ/kg/K 0.27 + 0.00301 T
Int. Abs. Coef. m−1 3000
Char Density kg/m3 100
Char Conductivity W/m/K 0.21 + 0.00034 T
Char Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.15 + 0.00010 T
Char Emissivity 0.86
Char Abs. Coef. m−1 10000
Reac. 14.10 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 6.03 × 1010
Reac. 14.10 Act. Energy J/mol 1.41 × 105
Reac. 14.10 Heat of Reac. kJ/kg 180
Reac. 14.10 Residue Frac. 0.45
Reac. 14.11 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1.36 × 1010
Reac. 14.11 Act. Energy J/mol 1.74 × 105
Reac. 14.11 Heat of Reac. kJ/kg 125
Reac. 14.11 Residue Frac. 0.31
Gas Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 12650

941
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.015 0.025
Kydex, 6.1 mm, Gas. App. at 30 kW/m² Kydex, 6.1 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²
0.02
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.01
0.015
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
0.01
0.005

0.005

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 1000 0 200 400 600 800
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.035
Kydex, 6.1 mm, Gas. App. at 70 kW/m²
0.03
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.025

0.02
Exp
FDS
0.015

0.01

0.005

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600 700
Time (s)

Figure 14.10: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for Kydex.

942
14.2.3 Three-Step Degradation: PEI, PET, and POM
These three polymers are assumed to pyrolyze following the three-step process:
Polymer → Melt (14.12)
Melt → νr,2 Intermediate + (1 − νr,2 ) Gas (14.13)
Intermediate → νr,3 Char + (1 − νr,3 ) Gas (14.14)
The property data is listed in Table 14.10 and the mass loss rate comparisons are shown on the subsequent
pages.

Table 14.10: Properties of PEI, PET, and POM. Note that the temperature dependence of the thermal con-
ductivity is assumed to be linear, unlike some of those reported in Ref. [363].

Property Units PEI PET POM

Polymer, Melt Density kg/m3 1285 1385 1424
Polymer Cond. W/m/K 0.40 − 0.00040 T 0.34 − 0.00046 T 0.25 + 0.00002 T
Polymer Spec. Heat kJ/kg/K −0.04 + 0.00410 T −0.27 + 0.00464 T −1.86 + 0.0099 T
Polymer, Melt, Int. Emiss. 0.95 0.95 0.95
Polymer Abs. Coef. m−1 1745 1940 3050
Melt Cond. W/m/K 0.32 − 0.00033 T 0.33 − 0.00002 T 0.21 + 0.00001 T
Melt Spec. Heat kJ/kg/K 1.88 + 0.00057 T 2.05 − 0.00021 T 1.65 + 0.00120 T
Melt Abs. Coef. m−1 128500 Same as Polymer Same as Polymer
Int. Density kg/m3 Same as Char 730 Same as Polymer
Int. Cond. W/m/K 0.45 + 0.00019 T 0.45 + 0.00020 T 0.19 − 0.00006 T
Int. Spec. Heat kJ/kg/K 1.59 + 0.00031 T 1.44 − 0.00005 T Same as Melt
Int. Abs. Coef. m−1 8000 1025 Same as Polymer
Char Density kg/m3 80 80 Same as Int.
Char Conductivity W/m/K 0.45 + 0.00013 T 0.34 + 0.00046 T Same as Polymer
Char Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.30 + 0.00004 T 0.82 + 0.00011 T Same as Int.
Char Emissivity 0.86 0.86 Same as Polymer
Char Abs. Coef. m−1 Same as Int. 8000 Same as Polymer
Reac. 14.12 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 1 1.50 × 1036 2.69 × 1042
Reac. 14.12 Act. Energy J/mol 0 3.80 × 105 3.82 × 105
Reac. 14.12 Heat of Reac. kJ/kg 1 30 192
Reac. 14.12 Residue Frac. 1 1 1
Reac. 14.13 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 7.66 × 1027 1.60 × 1015 3.84 × 1014
Reac. 14.13 Act. Energy J/mol 4.65 × 105 2.35 × 105 2.00 × 105
Reac. 14.13 Heat of Reac. kJ/kg -80 220 1192
Reac. 14.13 Residue Frac. 0.65 0.18 0.4
Reac. 14.14 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 6.50 × 102 3.53 × 104 4.76 × 1044
Reac. 14.14 Act. Energy J/mol 0.88 × 105 0.96 × 105 5.90 × 105
Reac. 14.14 Heat of Reac. kJ/kg -5 250 1352
Reac. 14.14 Residue Frac. 0.77 0.72 0.018
Gas Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 18050 15950 14350

943
 10 -3 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
5 0.01
PEI, 6.6 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m² PEI, 6.6 mm, Gas. App. at 70 kW/m²
4 0.008
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

3 0.006
Exp Exp
FDS FDS
2 0.004

1 0.002

0 0
0 200 400 600 800 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.02
PEI, 6.6 mm, Gas. App. at 90 kW/m²

0.015
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Exp
0.01 FDS

0.005

0
0 100 200 300 400
Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.06 0.06
PET, 6.7 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m² PET, 6.7 mm, Gas. App. at 70 kW/m²
0.05 0.05
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.04 0.04

Exp Exp
0.03 FDS
0.03 FDS

0.02 0.02

0.01 0.01

0 0
0 200 400 600 0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s) Time (s)

Figure 14.11: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for PEI and PET.

944
 FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.012 0.025
POM, 6.6 mm, Gas. App. at 30 kW/m² POM, 6.6 mm, Gas. App. at 50 kW/m²
0.01
0.02
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

0.008
0.015
Exp Exp
0.006 FDS FDS
0.01
0.004

0.005
0.002

0 0
0 500 1000 1500 2000 2500 0 200 400 600 800
Time (s) Time (s)

FDS6.7.7-1152-g310a92573-master
0.04
POM, 6.6 mm, Gas. App. at 70 kW/m²

0.03
Mass Loss Rate (kg/m²/s)

Exp
0.02 FDS

0.01

0
0 100 200 300 400 500 600
Time (s)

Figure 14.12: Comparison of predicted and measured mass loss rates for POM.

945
14.3 Corrugated Cardboard
Table 14.11 lists the measured properties of a double-wall corrugated cardboard with the conventional
U.S. designation 69-23B-69-23C-69. Corrugated cardboard is characterized by alternating layers of ho-
mogeneous, planar liner boards and corrugated sections made up of periodic flutes. The numbers in the
specification indicate the areal density in lb/(1000 ft2 ) and the letters indicate the flute designation (B indi-
cates a range of 45 to 52 flutes per foot and C indicates a range of 39 to 43 flutes per foot). It is assumed that
each layer consists of the same lingo-cellulosic, charring material with the density defined as the mass of the
solid material divided by the volume of the layer. This representation requires slightly different definitions
for the properties of each unique layer – liner board (LB), C-flute layer (CFL), and B-flute layer (BFL).
The reaction mechanism for the cardboard material includes one reaction to describe the release of
residual moisture and three sequential reactions to describe the thermal degradation of the virgin material to
a final residual char. Each of the initial solid components (LB, CFL, and BFL) undergoes the same four-step
mechanism.

Moisture → Water Vapor (14.15)

Virgin Cardboard → 0.90 Intermediary Solid + 0.10 Fuel Gas 2 (14.16)
Intermediary Solid → 0.37 Char 1 + 0.63 Fuel Gas 3 (14.17)
Char 1 → 0.59 Char 2 + 0.41 Fuel Gas 4 (14.18)

Table 14.11: Properties of corrugated cardboard. Courtesy M. McKinnon, University of Maryland. See
Section 14.1.1 for an explanation of terms.

Property Units Value Method Reference

Moisture Density kg/m3 1000 Direct [364]
Moisture Conductivity W/m/K 0.1 Inherited [364]
Moisture Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 4.19 Literature [365]
Moisture Emissivity 0.7 Inherited [364]
LB Density kg/m3 520 Direct [364]
LB Conductivity W/m/K 0.1 Inverse Analysis [364]
LB Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.8 DSC [364]
LB Emissivity 0.7 Inverse Analysis [364]
LB Intermediary Density kg/m3 468 Constant Volume [364]
LB Intermediary Conductivity W/m/K 0.05 + 7.5 × 10−11 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
LB Intermediary Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.55 DSC [364]
LB Intermediary Emissivity 0.775 Inverse Analysis [364]
LB Char 1 Density kg/m3 173 Constant Volume [364]
LB Char 1 Conductivity W/m/K 1.5 × 10−10 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
LB Char 1 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.3 DSC [364]
LB Char 1 Emissivity 0.85 Literature [366]
LB Char 2 Density kg/m3 102 Constant Volume [364]
LB Char 2 Conductivity W/m/K 1.5 × 10−10 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
LB Char 2 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.3 DSC [364]
LB Char 2 Emissivity 0.85 Literature [366]
CFL Density kg/m3 49 Constant Volume [364]
CFL Conductivity W/m/K 0.1 Inverse Analysis [364]

946
 Table 14.11: Continued

CFL Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.8 DSC [364]

CFL Emissivity 0.7 Inverse Analysis [364]
CFL Intermediary Density kg/m3 44 Constant Volume [364]
CFL Intermediary Conductivity W/m/K 0.05 + 7.5 × 10−10 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
CFL Intermediary Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.55 DSC [364]
CFL Intermediary Emissivity 0.775 Inverse Analysis [364]
CFL Char 1 Density kg/m3 16 Constant Volume [364]
CFL Char 1 Conductivity W/m/K 1.5 × 10−9 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
CFL Char 1 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.3 DSC [364]
CFL Char 1 Emissivity 0.85 Literature [366]
CFL Char 2 Density kg/m3 9.4 Constant Volume [364]
CFL Char 2 Conductivity W/m/K 1.5 × 10−9 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
CFL Char 2 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.3 DSC [364]
CFL Char 2 Emissivity 0.85 Literature [366]
BFL Density kg/m3 74 Constant Volume [364]
BFL Conductivity W/m/K 0.1 Inverse Analysis [364]
BFL Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.8 DSC [364]
BFL Emissivity 0.7 Inverse Analysis [364]
BFL Intermediary Density kg/m3 67 Constant Volume [364]
BFL Intermediary Conductivity W/m/K 0.05 + 7.5 × 10−10 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
BFL Intermediary Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.55 DSC [364]
BFL Intermediary Emissivity 0.775 Inverse Analysis [364]
BFL Char 1 Density kg/m3 25 Constant Volume [364]
BFL Char 1 Conductivity W/m/K 1.5 × 10−9 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
BFL Char 1 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.3 DSC [364]
BFL Char 1 Emissivity 0.85 Literature [366]
BFL Char 2 Density kg/m3 15 Constant Volume [364]
BFL Char 2 Conductivity W/m/K 1.5 × 10−9 × T 3 Inverse Analysis [364]
BFL Char 2 Specific Heat kJ/kg/K 1.3 DSC [364]
BFL Char 2 Emissivity 0.85 Literature [366]
Reaction 1 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 6.14 TGA [364]
Reaction 1 Activation Energy J/mol 23500 TGA [364]
Reaction 1 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 2445 Literature [365]
Reaction 1 Char Yield 0 TGA [364]
Reaction 2 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 7.95 × 109 TGA [364]
Reaction 2 Activation Energy J/mol 1.30 × 105 TGA [364]
Reaction 2 Char Yield 0.9 TGA [364]
Reaction 2 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 0 DSC [364]
Fuel Gas 2 Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 18500 MCC [364]
Reaction 3 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 2 × 1011 TGA [364]
Reaction 3 Activation Energy J/mol 1.60 × 105 TGA [364]
Reaction 3 Char Yield 0.37 TGA [364]
Reaction 3 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 126 DSC [364]
Fuel Gas 3 Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 13600 MCC [364]

947
 Table 14.11: Continued

Reaction 4 Pre-Exp. Factor s−1 0.0261 TGA [364]

Reaction 4 Activation Energy J/mol 17000 TGA [364]
Reaction 4 Char Yield 0.59 TGA [364]
Reaction 4 Heat of Reaction kJ/kg 0 DSC [364]
Fuel Gas 4 Heat of Combustion kJ/kg 14000 MCC [364]

Table 14.12 lists the composition and thickness of each of the layers. The sample is insulated with 28 mm
of Kaowool PM board, manufactured by ThermalCeramics (www.thermalceramics.com). The gasification

Table 14.12: Cardboard composition and dimensions.

Layer Composition Thickness (mm)

1 Liner Board 0.64
2 C Flute Layer 3.2
3 Liner Board 0.64
4 B Flute Layer 2.1
5 Liner Board 0.64
6 Kaowool 28

experiments were conducted in a modified cone calorimeter referred to as the controlled atmosphere pyrol-
ysis apparatus (CAPA) [367], in which the sample is surrounded by nitrogen to prevent ignition. Measured
and predicted mass loss rates at imposed heat fluxes of 20 kW/m2 , 40 kW/m2 , and 60 kW/m2 are shown in
Fig. 14.13.

948