Barriers to Intercultural Communication -

A Case Study on IKEA Japan

Master’s Thesis 15 credits

Specialization: International Business

Department of Business Studies

Uppsala University
Spring Semester of 2021
Date of Submission: 2021-06-02

Ida Seeger
Simon Gustafsson
Supervisor: Lena Zander
Acknowledgements

We want to extend a big thank you to our supervisor Lena Zander who has guided us through
the process of writing this paper. We would also like to thank all the respondents for taking
time out of their busy days to participate in the study.

Uppsala, June 2021

Ida Seeger & Simon Gustafsson

 Abstract

This study focuses on exploring barriers to intercultural communication among managers at

IKEA Japan. It investigates what challenges MNC subsidiary managers experience while
communicating and interacting with people from different cultures.

For this study, semi-structured interviews were conducted, and the respondents were of
Swedish and Japanese nationality holding management positions at IKEA Japan.

The research concluded that the respondents experienced the barriers differently, some felt
stressed over uncertainty while others felt excited. A common theme across all the barriers was
language difficulties. Language differences were the most prominent stumbling block.
Nonverbal communication was of greater importance to the respondent that does not speak
Japanese well and is often used as a tool to aid verbal communication.

The respondents did not see stereotyping and ethnocentrism as a clear hindrance to intercultural
communication. However, from their responses, it is evident that there are some issues. The
Japanese tend to bunch all Westerners together and assume they are unable to speak Japanese
and understand Japanese customs. The Japanese have a strong sense of pride in their culture
and a strong preference for speaking Japanese. The Swedish managers may even lose the
respect of Japanese co-workers if they do not speak Japanese perfectly.

Keywords:

Intercultural communication, barriers, culture, high anxiety, language,

nonverbal communication, stereotyping, ethnocentrism
 Table of Contents

1. Introduction .............................................................................................................. 1
1.1 Background.......................................................................................................... 1
1.2 Problem Statement ................................................................................................ 2
1.3 Purpose and Research Question .............................................................................. 3
2. Literature Review ...................................................................................................... 3
2.1 Intercultural Communication ................................................................................. 3
2.2 Barriers to Intercultural Communication ................................................................. 4
2.2.1 High Anxiety ................................................................................................. 5
2.2.2 Language ...................................................................................................... 5
2.2.3 Nonverbal Misinterpretations .......................................................................... 6
2.2.4 Stereotypes and Prejudice ............................................................................... 7
2.2.5 Ethnocentrism ................................................................................................ 7
2.3 Analytical Framework ........................................................................................... 8
3. Methodology.............................................................................................................. 9
3.1 Research design .................................................................................................... 9
3.1.1 Case study ........................................................................................................ 9
3.2 Sampling ............................................................................................................. 9
3.2.1 Company - IKEA ........................................................................................... 9
3.2.2 Respondents ................................................................................................ 10
3.3 Data Collection .................................................................................................. 11
3.3.1 Primary Data - Semi-structured Interviews...................................................... 11
3.3.2 Secondary Data ............................................................................................ 12
3.4 Operationalization .............................................................................................. 13
3.5 Data Analysis ..................................................................................................... 15
3.6 Ethical Considerations......................................................................................... 15
3.7 Research Quality ................................................................................................ 16
3.8 Limitations......................................................................................................... 16
4. Result ...................................................................................................................... 18
4.1 IKEA Japan ....................................................................................................... 18
4.2 Barriers to Intercultural Communication ............................................................... 19
4.2.1 Respondent A .............................................................................................. 19
4.2.2 Respondent B .............................................................................................. 20
4.2.3 Respondent C .............................................................................................. 21
4.2.4 Respondent D .............................................................................................. 22
4.2.5 Respondent E............................................................................................... 23
4.2.6 Respondent F ............................................................................................... 25
4.2.7 Respondent G .............................................................................................. 26
5. Analysis ................................................................................................................... 28
5.1 High Anxiety ..................................................................................................... 28
5.2 Language ........................................................................................................... 29
5.3 Nonverbal Misinterpretations ............................................................................... 30
5.4 Stereotypes and Prejudice .................................................................................... 31
5.5 Ethnocentrism .................................................................................................... 32
6. Conclusion .............................................................................................................. 34
6.1 Limitations and Future Research .......................................................................... 35
References ...................................................................................................................... 37
Appendices ..................................................................................................................... 41
Appendix 1: Interview Guide ......................................................................................... 41
1. Introduction

1.1 Background
Developments in information and transportation technologies have encouraged an increasing
number of companies to expand their business operations abroad and that at an increasing pace
(Ristovska & Ristovska, 2014). As a result, workforces are becoming increasingly multicultural
and thus creates new challenges for multinational corporations (MNCs) where culturally diverse
workforces need to work together. Bringing together a culturally diverse workforce can be
especially challenging in MNC subsidiaries where most of the employees are of host-country
nationality, and where the host country's culture may be significantly different from that of the
MNC's home country and organizational culture (Tsui, Nifadkar, & Ou, 2007). Achieving effective
intercultural communication can be especially challenging as communication does not always
result in an understanding because it is a symbolic behavior in which the reality is socially
constructed (Delecta & Raman, 2015; Jayaswal, 2009). People with different cultural backgrounds
encode and decode messages in different ways.

Interactions are an inevitable part of life, and organizations are both created and managed through
communication (Kei & Yazdanifard, 2015). Communication is an important topic in international
business research, as the performance of a company is dependent on achieving efficient
interpersonal communication among its members, thus making effective communication a useful
skill (Szkudlarek, Osland, Nardon & Zander, 2020; Kei & Yazdanifard, 2015). Effective
communication is an important tool to managers and helps them perform their jobs and
responsibilities (Suleiman, 2018). It is overall a useful skill and MNCs are increasingly
recognizing intercultural communication competence as critical to the success as the complexity
of the MNCs operations requires effective communication (Szkudlarek et al., 2020). Increasingly
multicultural workforces thus create a need for MNCs to understand what happens in the
interaction between individuals with different cultural backgrounds.

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1.2 Problem Statement
There is a large body of research on communication in international business research, often cross-
cultural in focus (Szkudlarek et al., 2020). Many previous studies have illustrated how
communication and culture can affect organizational performance, as well as how communication
is crucial to all employees of all levels in a company (Matveev & Nelson, 2004; Xiumei & Jinying,
2011; Adler, 1983). Added attention has been directed towards communication in a multicultural
environment as the expansion of international businesses is progressing at a fast pace (Kei &
Yazdanifard, 2015). MNCs often fall into a trap of invisible walls to intercultural communication,
for example, unspoken rules for what is considered normal behaviour in a society (Jayaswal, 2009).
Language differences are an obvious stumbling block, but those that concern, for example, beliefs,
values, norms, signs of respect, or personal space are much more difficult to comprehend (Barna,
1994; Zhu, 2020; Ilie, 2019). Nevertheless, to achieve effective communication in a multicultural
context, MNCs are required to confront and overcome some barriers. MNCs can incorporate
strategies to overcome communication challenges by considering intercultural communication
competence when they hire and train employees, create a sustainable communication platform and
assign tasks based on experiences and interests (Hussain, 2018). However, incorporating
intercultural communication competence strategies first requires an understanding of how to
interact effectively and appropriately with people with different cultural backgrounds as well as
languages (Saraswati, 2017).

Szkudlarek et al. (2020) argue that research at the intersection of culture and communication
mainly takes a cross-cultural perspective. Cross-cultural studies often rely on survey data to
compare how different cultural groups, often using national culture as a proxy, behave and
communicate. These cultural groups are then compared to one another. While cross-cultural
research has provided valuable insights into differences on the group level and culturally
unforeseen patterns, it only represents a fraction of the role of communication in international
business.

A less explored research area is the interactional level where two or a group of individuals meet
and in an interactional process create meaning together (Szkudlarek et al., 2020). Intercultural
interactions and communication between people are a dynamic process where the outcome may

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look different due to the influence of individuals’ backgrounds and characteristics as well as
situational circumstances and context. Intercultural communication is sometimes used
synonymously with or considered a subcategory of cross-cultural communication (Koester &
Lustig, 2015; Nair-Venugopal, 2015). However, there is a distinct difference in that cross-cultural
communication studies are mainly comparative where members are having intra-cultural
experiences. Intercultural communication studies on the other hand involve the interaction among
people from different cultures. Intercultural communication with a focus on interactions has been
given limited attention (Szkudlarek et al., 2020). Given the importance of communication and
culture in a business setting and limited research on the interactional level, it is of relevance to
further explore intercultural communication. Therefore, this study will investigate what barriers
that might hinder managers from achieving effective intercultural communication at an MNC
subsidiary.

1.3 Purpose and Research Question

With this study, it is in our interest to contribute to the gap in the literature on intercultural
communication. This study aims to explore barriers that managers in an MNC subsidiary may
experience when interacting with individuals with a different cultural background.

RQ: What intercultural communication barriers do MNC subsidiary managers experience

when interacting with individuals with a different cultural background?

2. Literature Review

2.1 Intercultural Communication

Intercultural communication focuses on interactions among people from different cultures;
learning from one another and building relationships (Szkudlarek et al., 2020). It is a dynamic
process where the outcome will always be different as a number of forces such as differing cultural
backgrounds of individuals, situational circumstances, and context come into play (Szkudlarek et
al., 2020). Intercultural communication as a scholarly field was first introduced by Edward T. Hall,

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who grew up in a culturally diverse environment (Rogers, Hart & Miike, 2002). He firsthand
observed how people of different cultures interacted with each other and his research then took
influence from cultural anthropology, linguistics, ethology (animal behavior, biology), and
Freudian psychoanalytic theory (personality development).

Intercultural communication plays an integral role in the creation and maintenance of international
business (Szkudlarek et al., 2020). The global marketplace we see today requires that people travel
to foreign countries for work, communicate effectively with foreign clients, colleagues, and
customers in efforts to take advantage of different markets (Washington, Okoro & Bowie, 2012).
Culture has a strong influence on values, how one views the world, beliefs, behavior, language and
how we interact with one another (Chitakornkijsil, 2010). Working with people speaking a
different language and different values and beliefs can easily lead to misunderstandings and
conflicts, which in turn can lead to poor performance for MNCs. MNCs may have rules about
communication but often run into problems when they find that the organizational values do not
fit with local norms (Meyer, 2015). To work effectively, managers need to learn about the culture
of the person with whom they interact as well as personal traits to understand how others may
approach conflicts. This is often referred to as intercultural communication competence which can
enhance the understanding of different expectations. Intercultural communication competence is a
willingness to learn, tolerance for the unfamiliar, displaying respect and empathy for people from
other cultures without being judgmental (Saraswati, 2017; Lustig and Koester, 2006). People with
this competence are often able to act as a mediator between people of different cultural origins.

2.2 Barriers to Intercultural Communication

When people from different countries and cultural backgrounds interact, there will be both positive
and negative aspects to the intercultural exchange (Ilie, 2019). There exist many barriers to
intercultural communication such as anxiety, stereotypes, prejudice, nonverbal interactions,
ethnocentrism, xenophobia, racism, discrimination, and assuming similarities instead of
differences (Barna, 1994; Ilie, 2019; Chitakornkijsil, 2010; Zhu, 2020). Most of these barriers were
first developed by LaRay Barna (1994) who mainly studied intercultural communication barriers
in the field of education, but these barriers are also commonly used in international business
research. According to Bennet (2013), Barna’s concept was one of the first and still the best

4
observations of what hinders people from conducting more successful intercultural communication
and building intercultural relations. Continuing, commonly featured barriers to intercultural
communication in international business research are presented.

2.2.1 High Anxiety

The high anxiety stumbling block is a feeling of stress or tension resulting from uncertainties in
intercultural encounters (Barna, 1994; Jayaswal, 2009). This stumbling block is different from the
others in that the anxiety can be a result of several of the other stumbling blocks combined (Barna,
1994). It is a stress that occurs when an individual does not know what is expected of him or her
which can lead to defensive behavior. While moderate anxiety can be good, too much can create
the feeling of “walking on ice” (Barna, 1994). It is for example common when starting a new job
and not wanting to appear awkward or make any mistakes. People tend to hesitate when they do
not know what is expected which can lead to misunderstandings or just less communication (Zhu,
2020). Anxiety together with low proficiency in the host country’s language can reduce a person’s
motivation to interact with local people, leading to lower levels of work and cultural adjustment
(Froese, Peltokorpi & Ko, 2012). Individuals who thrive on uncertainty and find it exciting are less
likely to suffer negatively, instead, it is a “good stress” (Barna, 1994). “Good stress” can however
also be energy-draining if it is intense in the long run.

2.2.2 Language

Language itself is an obvious stumbling block to intercultural communication for many (Barna,
1994). In every language, but also between different cultures that speak the same language there
will be differences in terms of, for example, vocabulary, syntax, slang, and dialects. Clinging to
one meaning in a language can easily result in misunderstandings as words often have more than
one meaning and adding connotation or context makes it even more complex (Barna, 1994). Every
individual’s cultural background will influence how patterns of communication take form and can
differ vastly across cultures and will also affect worldview (Ilie, 2019). English is often used as
the standard language in international business, but it is many times beneficial for managers to be
able to speak the host country’s language as it is a sign of respect (Chitakornkijsil, 2010; Jayaswal,
2009). Anxiety over speaking another language properly, or a native language to someone with
limited or unknown experience and skill in the language may result in limitations or reservation in

5
the intercultural exchange (Ilie, 2019). Research has shown that language skills can be linked to
adaptation and a lack thereof can potentially divide people into groups at work (Jayaswal, 2009).

2.2.3 Nonverbal Misinterpretations

Learning the language, which most visitors to foreign countries consider their only barrier to
understanding, is actually only the beginning (Barna, 1994). Even though people are highly aware
of language differences, they are much less so of how to decode nonverbal signs and symbols as
there are no universal nonverbal languages across cultures. While facial expressions can give a cue
to another person’s emotions, it is not that simple. In some cultures, people are brought up
expressing emotions while others learn to suppress them. Having a common language tends to
mislead people into believing that they also behave, think, and feel similarly (Barna, 1994).

Nonverbal communication is highly important in intercultural communication as we tend to look

for nonverbal cues when verbal messages are unclear or ambiguous (Jayaswal, 2009). Nonverbal
behavior is something that arises from our cultural common sense and shapes our ideas about what
is considered appropriate, normal, and effective as communication. We use different systems in
relationships to understand gestures, posture, silence, special relations, emotional expression,
touch, and physical appearance. Cultures also attribute different degrees of importance to verbal
and nonverbal behavior (Jayaswal, 2009). Nonverbal signs can also be easily misinterpreted.
Decoding the messages of nonverbal communication must take into account the cultural context.
Some cultures are high-context, for example, China and Japan, in which most of the information
in communication is either in the physical context or internalized in the person (Ilie, 2019; Hall,
1990; Jayaswal, 2009). Others are low-context, for example, the Nordic countries, putting more
emphasis on words and having more detailed and specific communication. This does not mean
that nonverbal communication does not happen, or that it is unimportant, but that people in these
settings tend to place less importance on it than on the literal meanings of words themselves
(Jayaswal, 2009). The lack of comprehension of nonverbal signs and symbols that are easy to
observe – such as gestures, postures, and other body movements – is a definite communication
barrier (Barna, 1994). But it is possible to learn the meanings of these messages, usually in
informal rather than formal ways. It is more difficult to note correctly the unspoken codes of the
other culture that are less obvious such as the handling of time, relationships, and subtle signs of

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respect or formality (Barna, 1994). Native speakers sometimes expect those who are non-native
speakers to know the concepts and intents deep-rooted in the language. They expect fewer
misunderstandings. Mistakes in grammar and pronunciation are often overlooked, but pragmatic
failures, for example, an apology interpreted as an excuse are usually not and could even be
regarded as incompetence and impoliteness (Podhovnik, 2013).

2.2.4 Stereotypes and Prejudice

Stereotyping and prejudice occur when a person overgeneralizes or has oversimplified beliefs
about a group of people with little to no factual experience (Zhu, 2020; Ilie, 2019). People makeup
stereotypes to make sense of the world and thus reduce uncertainties (Barna, 1994). Stereotyping
causes people to overlook the differences among people in a particular group, and therefore often
fail to consider the individual characteristics (Ilie, 2019). Overgeneralizing, on a positive note can
give us an idea of how to approach someone of a different culture but can also result in irritation
and frustration (Barna, 1994; Jayaswal, 2009). Chinese, for example, tend to assume that the
Japanese are more similar to them than they actually are as they are neighbor countries which can
be problematic (Jayaswal, 2009). Some stereotypes are widespread within a community and may
come to mind easily even with a vague reference. There are many categories of stereotypes,
including race, religion, gender, age, occupation, and social class (Zhu, 2020). Prejudice represents
an unreasonable dislike or suspicion towards a group based on for example race, religion, or sexual
orientation (Ilie, 2019). Stereotyping and prejudice represent a series of issues that are difficult to
address as they exist below the level of consciousness. These issues are rooted in our compulsion
to put people in ingroups or outgroups (Jayaswal, 2009). Our upbringing shapes us and our
preliminary impressions that eventually form a pattern of thinking (Ilie, 2019). Once the mind is
set, we unconsciously look for stereotyped features to make sense of the world as we know it.

2.2.5 Ethnocentrism

Ethnocentrism is the tendency to evaluate other people’s habits and practices as right or wrong
according to one's own cultural attitudes, beliefs, and values (Barna, 1994; Zhu, 2020). It is the
belief that one’s culture, values, beliefs, language, or way of thinking is superior to other cultural
groups (Zhu, 2020). Typical ethnocentric attitudes described by Jayaswal (2009) are “most other
cultures are backward compared with my culture” or “my culture should be the role model for

7
other cultures”. Ethnocentric attitudes make for a more narrow-minded view of how things should
be done when in fact there are countless ways to reach the same goal (Jayaswal, 2009). The
Japanese tend to believe that they are unique and may try to figure out strangers while they believe
the foreigners will not be able to understand them. This constitutes a blockade to intercultural
communication as it prevents learning and accepting other culture’s customs and norms (Ilie,
2019). Chinese are, for example, used to follow directions and do not voice their opinion and may
therefore feel uncomfortable when American managers or executives ask for it. The Chinese
person in this case reflects an ethnocentric attitude. A person’s intuitive sense of right or wrong is
not necessarily a bad thing as long as one is open to view things from another's point of view to
challenge their own perspective (Barna, 1994).

2.3 Analytical Framework

The analytical framework (Table 1) summarizes potential barriers to intercultural communication
which are not presented in any order of priority. The high anxiety barrier is the feeling of stress,
positive and negative, and can be a barrier on its own but also a barrier that the other barriers
collectively contribute to.

Table 1. Model summarizing potential barriers to intercultural communication.

High Anxiety

Stress caused from being uncertain of what is expected of you.

Language Nonverbal Misinterpretations

Barriers to
Intercultural Tension caused by language The misinterpretation of nonverbal
Communication differences. A false belief that a behaviors and cues commonly
common language means a common practiced by people of other cultures.
understanding.

Stereotypes and Prejudice Ethnocentrism

Overgeneralized or oversimplified The tendency to subconsciously

perceptions about other cultures to evaluate others without reflecting on
make sense of the world and avoid the world view of the other.
uncertainty.

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3. Methodology

3.1 Research design

3.1.1 Case study

For this study, a qualitative research design was chosen as it allows the researchers to capture
detailed information and provide a deeper understanding of perceptions and human behavior
(Bryman & Bell, 2011; Saunders, Lewis & Thornhill, 2009). This is of importance as the study
aims to explore if and how barriers to intercultural communication are perceived and experienced.
To carry out this study and explore the analytical model, a single case study was conducted which
is appropriate as it is only one company that is investigated (Bryman & Bell, 2011). In a case study,
the unique attributes of the case provide new insights. The aim of this study is to gain a deeper
understanding of barriers to intercultural communication that may emerge in the daily work among
managers of a Swedish MNC subsidiary in Japan with different cultural backgrounds. This was
done by holding interviews with managers at an MNC subsidiary. The study does not focus on the
industry and does not in any way try to generalize but mainly focuses on how the barriers are
perceived by the interviewed respondents.

3.2 Sampling

3.2.1 Company - IKEA

IKEA was originally founded in Älmhult, Sweden in 1943 by Ingvar Kamprad (IKEA, 2021a).
The company is today a multinational conglomerate that sells furniture, kitchens, and home
accessories. Since the first store opening in 1958, the company has grown rapidly and can today
be found in 54 markets across the globe with over 200 000 employees (IKEA, 2021a; Statista,
2020). Thousands of employees and hundreds of companies with different owners around the
world come together under the IKEA brand (IKEA, 2021a). Based on that IKEA has operations in
many markets and employees of various nationalities intercultural communication may be
inevitable in the workplace. IKEA is therefore of interest for this study. IKEA Japan is interesting
as IKEA entered the Japanese market for the first time in 1974 but failed as the company was not

9
ready for the demanding market (Wijers-Hasegawa, 2006). In 2006 they re-entered and today they
have 13 shops in different areas in Japan (Wijers-Hasegawa, 2006; IKEA, 2021b). Given the
previous difficulty for IKEA to attract Japanese consumers the Japanese market may present
greater barriers to overcome compared to many other markets IKEA has entered. This entails that
IKEA Japan was chosen based upon appropriateness. This goes in line with Saunders et al. (2009)
who argue that purposive sampling is beneficial when there is a need to choose a case company
based upon its high informative character related to the research questions.

3.2.2 Respondents

For the purpose of this study, the chosen respondents for interviews are managers working at IKEA
Japan. The choice of interviewing respondents from one company is based on the notion of
collective knowledge, where the respondents together can provide a better image of the company
and the workplace from their perspective (Justesen & Mik-Meyer, 2011). It is of importance to not
only capture personal experiences from individuals but also collectively. This has also been taken
into consideration when forming the interview guide. To find suitable respondents the study has
made use of both purposive sampling and snowball sampling (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Purposive
sampling was used to find respondents that fit certain criteria for the purpose of the study to get
access to relevant data for the study (Alvehus, 2019). One criterion is that the respondents should
be of Swedish or Japanese nationality as they may experience and view things differently due to
different cultural backgrounds. It could for example be how one expresses oneself or view
directives. Another criterion is to have had managerial roles in different departments at IKEA
Japan. The Swedish managers were found and contacted through LinkedIn, and they have been
informed that participation is voluntary but appreciated. Japanese managers have been difficult to
find over LinkedIn. During the interviews with Swedish managers, they were asked if they would
be comfortable asking Japanese colleagues if they would be interested in participating in the study.
Snowball sampling through social connections can be beneficial as the person asked may be more
inclined to participate when asked by someone they know (Denscombe, 2014). This had a good
effect and is how the Japanese respondents for this study were found.

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Information about the respondents’ current position in the company, nationality, how long they
have been working at IKEA Japan and the length of the interviews can be found in Table 2 below.

Table 2. Respondents

Respondent Position Nationality Years at Length of

IKEA Japan interviews

Respondent A Country manager Swedish 4 years 91 min

Respondent B Head of culture and learning Swedish 7 years 88 min

Respondent C Expansion manager Swedish 15 years 68 min

Respondent D Business competence manager Swedish 14.5 years 66 min

Respondent E Knowledge and insight manager Swedish 3 years 74 min

Respondent F Commercial manager Japanese 1 year 56 min

Respondent G Establishment manager Japanese 7 years 45 min

3.3 Data Collection

3.3.1 Primary Data - Semi-structured Interviews

The primary data was collected through semi-structured interviews. Qualitative semi-structured
interviews are commonly used in social sciences and allow for an in-depth exploration of an issue
(Evans, 2017). Semi-structured interviews were chosen for this study as it involves more complex
subjects such as communication and culture (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Semi-structured interviews
allow for a favorable combination of flexibility and consistency. The study does not intend to
explicitly look at intercultural communication in an interpersonal or group setting, both are of
interest as people have interpersonal relationships but also often need to interact in groups in a
workplace. An interview guide was used to address a predetermined topic and guide the interviews
while the respondents were also encouraged to elaborate on issues pertinent to them (Evans, 2017).
By allowing the respondents to elaborate on their responses, the interview mimics a normal

11
conversation creating a more relaxed conversation (Evans, 2017). Furthermore, disclosing the
subjective interpretations of the respondents also created the possibility for new themes to emerge
(Bryman & Bell, 2011). As such, semi-structured interviews were the preferred method for the
collection of data based on the premise that it could capture the voice of each respondent.

All the interviews were held over Teams with video which was considered appropriate since it
allows for interpretations of the respondents’ facial expressions (Bryman & Bell, 2011). By
holding interviews over Teams, the respondents could also choose where to be located during the
interviews. Saunders et al. (2009) suggest that the location should be convenient for the
respondents and as the respondents are free to choose their own location, they are free to choose a
location in which they feel comfortable.

It can be beneficial to hold a pilot interview before conducting the interviews that will be a part of
the study as it provides an opportunity to see if the questions are easy to understand and provide
the data they were intended to (Gani, Rathakrishnan & Krishnasamy, 2020). The first interview
included in the study served as the pilot interview as access to people with a relevant position and
experience was not available beforehand. The order of the questions in the interview guide has
been adjusted after the first interview as the questions about high anxiety were brought up naturally
at the beginning of the interview rather than at the end.

3.3.2 Secondary Data

As a complement, secondary data was gathered mainly from IKEA’s website and academic
journals to create an understanding of the company and to affirm information given by respondents
about the company. Using both primary and secondary data can be valuable as it can be used to
compare with the primary data to create a deeper understanding of reality (Bryman & Bell, 2011).
As the secondary data has been collected mainly from the website but also academic journals, the
sources have been deemed to have a high degree of trustworthiness.

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3.4 Operationalization
The bottom line of doing an operationalization was to ensure that the research objectives were
answered in a proper way by transforming theoretical constructs into attainable measures
(Saunders et al., 2009). In addition, the operationalization ensured that the same construct was
measured regardless of unit of analysis. It is of importance to have a good understanding of what
is being studied to ask relevant questions. Thus, the theoretical constructs defined in the literature
chapter guided the empirical investigation to gather relevant data. The concepts in the theoretical
framework were operationalized into interview questions concerning intercultural communication
barriers (See Appendix 1 for interview guide with follow-up questions). Questions 1-4 (See Table
3) are background questions to gain a better understanding of the workplace in terms of roles and
division of cultural backgrounds as well as the managers’ previous experiences. Questions 5-12
concerns barriers to intercultural communication.

Table 3. Interview questions 1-4.

Background Questions

1. Do you have previous experience of studying and/or working abroad or in an

international environment? (If yes, how do you think it has influenced your ability to
communicate with people of a different cultural background in your current job?)
2. Can you tell us a bit about your first and current role at IKEA Japan?
3. Of what nationalities are your colleagues that you work with?
4. What languages do you use/are you expected to use at work?

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Table 4. Interview questions 5-12 and theoretical connection.

Theoretical Connection Questions Related to Barriers

Open introductory question 5. What has been challenging when working and
communicating in a multicultural environment?

High Anxiety

6. Not knowing what is expected in an unfamiliar 6. When you first started working at IKEA Japan,
context can lead to stress (Barna, 1994). Anxiety were you anxious because of not knowing what
together with low language proficiency can was expected of you?
demotivate engaging intercultural communication
(Froese, Peltokorpi & Ko, 2012)

Language

7. Interpreting words differently depending on a 7. Have you experienced any difficulties related to
cultural context (Ilie, 2019). Anxiety over language?
speaking another language properly, or a native
language to someone with limited or unknown
experience and skill in the language may result in
less communication taking place (Ilie, 2019).

Nonverbal Misinterpretations

8. Nonverbal communication behavior is often 8. Have you experienced any difficulties related to
derived from cultural common sense. Unclear nonverbal communication (body language or
verbal communication increases the importance of unspoken cues)?
nonverbal communication (Jayaswal, 2009). 9. How would you describe the communication
9. In some cultures nonverbal communication is style of colleagues from different cultures?
more prevalent (Ilie, 2019; Hall, 1990).

Stereotypes and Prejudice

10. Overgeneralized or oversimplified beliefs 10. What were your perceptions about IKEA and
about a group of people with little to no factual coworkers from other cultures when you first
experience (Zhu, 2020; Ilie, 2019). started at IKEA Japan? Have they changed?

Ethnocentrism

11. The tendency to evaluate other people’s habits 11. Are people in your workplace respectful of
and practices according to one's own cultural other cultures?
beliefs and values (Barna, 1994; Zhu, 2020).

Additional Information

12. Is there anything else you would like to add?

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3.5 Data Analysis
The interviews were all recorded and then transcribed to facilitate the analysis and avoid
inaccuracy (Bryman & Bell, 2011). The transcriptions were reviewed to identify themes around
barriers to intercultural communication. This type of analysis allowed for flexibility when
interpreting data and simplified processing large amounts of data by sorting it into themes. The
downside to this approach is that it is often subjective and therefore sensitive to the judgment of
the researcher. For this reason, reflections over interpretations should be done carefully. The data
was approached with some preconceived themes stemming from the analytical framework with
the possibility that the data could also determine new themes. In the process of re-reading the
transcriptions, the overarching research question has been kept in mind as it guided the handling
of the data and what themes are of importance (Braun & Clarke, 2006). Color coding was used to
categorize parts in the transcriptions after the specific barriers presented in the analytical model
(Table 1) (Bryman & Bell, 2011). Certain parts of the transcriptions have been of interest to include
in more than one theme and have therefore been coded in more than one way. Interesting themes
were then selected and presented as the result and some quotes have been emphasized to show
typical or non-typical perceptions around the themes.

3.6 Ethical Considerations

In connection with the collection and analysis of data, several ethical issues have been addressed.
The interviews were conducted with Vetenskapsrådets (2021) principles of ethics in research in
consideration. The respondents received a short description and a copy of the interview guide to
familiarize themselves with the topic of the study before the interview. It was decided beforehand
that no respondent will be named in this paper which they have been informed about and can at
any time choose to not participate anymore. The respondents have also been informed that the
collected data will not be shared with external parties and personal data will be handled in
accordance with the respondents’ consent.

Due to the current situation of the ongoing Covid-19-pandemic, interviews will be held over phone
or video call. All interviews were held in English as it is the common language among the
respondents. All respondents were asked and agreed to the interviews being recorded. Recording

15
interviews have a tendency to make respondents tense up and it is within the responsibility of the
interviewer to make sure the respondents feel comfortable (Bryman & Bell, 2021). This was dealt
with by the interviewers by conducting some small talks before beginning with the formal
questions and all respondents were perceived as relaxed during the interviews. The transcription
of the interviews was sent to the respondents after the interviews so they could read through them
and decide whether they would like to add or change something.

3.7 Research Quality

In qualitative research, there are other options to assess quality than using reliability and validity
(Bryman & Bell, 2011). Instead, it could be appropriate to look at trustworthiness. Trustworthiness
and thus research quality can be improved by being transparent and giving detailed information
about data collection and analysis to show the whole process of the study. Below, a few reflections
are presented on the trustworthiness of this study.

To ensure consistency and reliability of findings, complete records have been kept throughout the
different steps of the research to ensure proper procedures have been followed and input has been
given from people that are not involved in the research. Each part of the study has been audited
regularly throughout the process by a supervisor from the Department of Business Studies and the
Language Workshop as well as by other students taking the thesis course. Objectivity is sometimes
rejected in qualitative research as it is difficult to ensure real objectivity. To ensure that the data
has been interpreted correctly and strengthen objectivity, the result has been shared with the
respondents for validation and some quotations has been chosen to explain some things in the
respondents own words.

3.8 Limitations
No study is flawless and while qualitative research is often good for simplifying and managing
data without destroying complexity or context, it is often criticized for being an assembly of
personal impressions, strongly subject to researcher bias (Atieno, 2009). In qualitative research,
the researcher is often the primary tool for collecting and analyzing data, making it personal and
thus it often lacks transferability. However, the result of this study is not intended to be extended

16
to wider populations. It is rather the depth and the informants’ personal experiences that are of
interest.

During interviews, it is a possibility that the respondents may give information based on what they
believe the interviewer wants to know (Bryman & Bell, 2011). This is a common behavior when
answers that are more relevant are often praised more than answers that are less relevant. It is
possible to avoid this by not being too friendly or judgmental towards the respondents' answers,
which were taken into consideration during the interviews. It can also be problematic that it is
impossible to be truly objective in qualitative research, but it is of importance to leave personal
feelings and opinions out of the study as much as possible (Ahrne & Svensson, 2020). This has
been taken into consideration when the interview guide was created, and suitable treatment of the
respondents has been discussed before the interviews.

This study has been limited by the restrictions connected to the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic. It
has not been possible to make any field visits to make observations and all interviews were held
over Teams with video. It can be problematic to not be able to meet with respondents face-to-face
as it limits the social contact and can be perceived as impersonal (Bryman & Bell, 2011). The
interviews were all conducted via Teams with video which made it possible to put a face to the
voice and read facial expressions but still omits a big portion of the body language which can give
cues on whether the respondents feel comfortable, reserved, or nervous.

17
4. Result

4.1 IKEA Japan

The information in the first paragraph has been gathered from IKEAs website and journals and has
been verified by the respondents. The second paragraph is information from respondents to give
an overview of IKEA Japan.

IKEA has a strong organizational culture and emphasizes its Swedishness through its values
(IKEA, 2021c). Simplicity, informality, and teamwork are important components in the IKEA
culture as well as prominent values in the Swedish society. Everyone is on a first-name basis, very
few have business cards, and it is not a place for people
with a big ego (Jönsson, Muhonen, Scholten & Wigerfelt,
2013). IKEA’s founder, Ingvar Kamprad strongly
believed that IKEAs organizational culture is crucial to its
success. IKEA recruits based on values and while all the
staff is educated in IKEAs values, executives and
managers are expected to enforce and develop the
organizational culture globally (Jönsson et al., 2013).
Rotation is encouraged at IKEA to eliminate boredom and
encourage development (Edvardsson & Enquist, 2009).

When IKEA entered the Japanese market in 2006, they Figure 1. Illustrating the organizational
structure of IKEA Japan
hired around 50 young Swedes that could speak Japanese
to act as cultural ambassadors and to be the link between colleagues in the stores and the
headquarters (see Figure 1). Apart from the cultural ambassadors, all managers have this function
to some extent. Executive and managerial roles are mainly held by Westerners (Americans or
Europeans) while employees at the store are primarily Japanese. This is largely due to the issue of
there being few Japanese who can speak English well. Finding Japanese with the right experience
and sufficient English skills is difficult. The official language at IKEAs headquarters around the
world is English and while managers placed in the stores are also expected to speak English this
is not the reality in many instances.

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4.2 Barriers to Intercultural Communication

4.2.1 Respondent A

Respondent A led the re-establishment of IKEA in Japan. He had long experience of working in
and with Japan, including roles as a business developer for international businesses establishing in
Japan and at the European Trading Council, specializing in trade between Europe and Japan on
equal terms. He speaks some Japanese but always speaks English at work.

Before arriving in Japan for the first time, Respondent A had mentally prepared himself that things
would be very different, but initially thought it was rather similar to home. “Have you been in
Japan for less than three months or more than 25 years, then you think you know everything. In-
between you are stuck in a limbo where you understand how little you actually know”, he reasons.
He did not feel anxious when starting his role at IKEA Japan as he felt IKEA was clear on their
expectations. He has an extensive international career behind him but still felt it was a big step
leading a company in Japan compared to anywhere else in the world. He was backed by people in
high positions and felt that his previous experiences in Japan was of help.

Respondent A could not speak any Japanese at first but has learned some during his years in Japan.
He never negotiates in Japanese as a man is often looked down upon by business partners if not
speaking perfectly, or worse, speaking like a woman, since most language teachers are women. He
felt he would be undervalued if communicating in poor Japanese and therefore prefer English.
“Nowadays you have to be 100 percent fluent and if you were fluent people got suspicious, who
are you actually?”, he illustrates. By speaking English, he felt like he could more easily take tough
and uncomfortable decisions, thereby being more effective. Speaking English can however also
be problematic. “When Japanese speak English, it often leads to misunderstandings as one can
believe that they are on common ground, but there are still fundamental differences. A Japanese
saying ‘yes’ is not a yes but means that he has heard what you said”, he argues. This often resulted
in extremely long negotiations, thinking that the Japanese delegation had already accepted the offer
but had actually not. By using a translator in negotiations some of the mistakes could be avoided.
Respondent A feels the indirectness of communication of the Japanese, being very consensus-
seeking, attributes to the long negotiations but shares some similarities with how Swedish people
make decisions as well. Respondent A considers body language extremely important, and it pays

19
off to study it. Nodding and smiling are similarly confusing as the word ‘yes’, it does not
necessarily mean that the person agrees or understands. Small gestures are tokens of respect while,
e.g., putting a leg over the other, signals disrespect. “Although the Japanese tend to apologize for
us foreigners because we don't understand. We don't know better, but in the bottom of their hearts,
it's an insult”, he explains. Not understanding the small cues can be detrimental to business.

Respondent A had a very positive perception of Japanese people and the culture before coming to
Japan. This never changed but he did see another side of how people act. Leaving the office on a
Friday night and needing documents for a conference call on Saturday morning, an employee
gladly spent the whole night preparing and handed it over in the morning with a smile. What he
later understood was that they hate it as much as anyone does but never show it. He was also aware
that the Japanese could be very set in their ways, especially older men, and learned that they are
often unable to change and learn new things. Respondent A feels that the Japanese have
preconceptions about ‘Westerners’ and bunch them all together, however, no more than Western
people would do in reverse and has never experienced any prejudice at work. He feels that the
Japanese can be disrespectful of other cultures, especially abroad. In their own home, there are
many rules that guide their behavior but outside Japan they act as these rules do not apply anymore.

4.2.2 Respondent B

Respondent B joined IKEA Japan after working many years at IKEA in Sweden and several years
in China. He was part of the team opening the first store in both China and Japan. He cannot speak
Japanese, so he uses English to communicate with his colleagues who are predominantly Japanese.

He did feel some anxiety when moving to Japan to work at IKEA but explains that he thrives off
the unknown. He enjoys not knowing what is around the next corner and it does not affect him
negatively, although he admits that the culture shock sometimes made everything outside of his
apartment feel like sandpaper, itching. Within his own home he could still feel relaxed.

As he does not speak Japanese, he felt it heavily affected communication. “When talking about
when the next container will come, I drew a truck with a container, circling the container, then
drew a clock with a question mark. Very few people spoke English, that is how I had to
communicate”, which is how he emphasizes the language issue but also highlights nonverbal

20
communication as a tool to overcome verbal communication barriers. “Looking happy looks the
same, angry looks the same, but getting angry doesn't mean the same thing. In Japan, that means
that you have lost your face”, he explains. Coming from China, he thought the Japanese were very
stiff and unemotional but what he later learned was that they show emotions in a different way,
governed by rules and regulations.

Respondent B assumed Japan would be quite similar to China as the two countries are
geographically close, but the differences were perceived as larger than expected which was a
shock. He had preconceptions about the Japanese being extremely organized, which was
confirmed but no stereotypes that hindered communication. He never experienced any prejudice
at work, partly explaining it through: “I start with understanding that I’m in a new culture. What
I stand for is not what everyone stands for. We have differences, absolutely, that is a blessing.
Let’s build upon that together and let’s not try to use it as a hindrance for us to build something”.
He considers the Japanese to generally be respectful of other cultures, but they take pride in their
own culture. Respondent B was once told: “you are coming here with your 40-year history. 3000
years ago, we were inventing gunpowder and you were walking around in furs and killing animals
with axes and clubs”. He does not consider any culture superior to others but is thankful for his
Swedish culture teaching him to be humble and keeping a low profile.

4.2.3 Respondent C

Respondent C studied economics and Japanese at a university in Sweden and did a one-year
exchange to Japan. After graduation, he worked for an international company in Sweden for three
years. Subsequently, he moved to Japan to work for IKEA. He believes his previous experiences
of working in an international company and studying abroad have helped him develop his mindset
and communication skills in that he is more aware of other cultures and better at adapting.

Respondent C felt anxious when starting his role at IKEA Japan. He felt nervous that he would not
be understood and that his Swedish leadership style would not be working in Japan. In response,
he became quite competitive and tried to be more confident, which could lead to stressful situations
in which he put a lot of pressure on himself. This stress sometimes led to conflicts and
misunderstandings. But with time, development talks, and coaching from IKEA Japan he has
grown more confident. It took him about three years to feel fully secure in his role as a manager.

21
Respondent C had a rough first year at IKEA Japan as his Japanese was not good. He had to interact
with customers and felt stressed that he would not be understood or that he would misunderstand.
He felt it was often easier to speak Japanese to the Japanese managers as they often do not speak
English well. Respondent C has noticed that the Japanese are not as animated but does not perceive
nonverbal communication differences to cause any misunderstandings.

Respondent C was shocked the first time he visited Japan to study and although he had read about
Japan and met with Japanese exchange students, the image he had, and the reality were different.
“When I was in Sweden and looked at Japanese, I was using my view on the current world. I
applied that view to the Japanese.”, he explains. When he later started his career at IKEA Japan,
he did not experience any major difficulties in this sense as he was better prepared from his
previous experiences. Respondent C had an image of the Japanese being more competent, self-
going, and proactive. What he has learned is that they need more directives and most likely will
not do more than they are asked. The Japanese tend to not think outside the box. They are passive
and avoid taking risks as they are afraid to make mistakes. Respondent C has had to adjust his
leadership as leading Japanese is different from leading Westerners. Japanese take pride in being
Japanese but respondent C expresses that the Japanese are very respectful to other cultures.
However, the Japanese have a clear division of their insider and outsider groups. This means that
they have two faces, and it can be difficult to get close to the Japanese, especially as a foreigner.
It does not create difficulties at work but may have a greater impact on the private social life.

4.2.4 Respondent D

Respondent D moved from Italy where he had worked at H&M to Japan and got a job at IKEA.
He could not speak any Japanese when he first arrived but has since learned to speak Japanese. He
has held various positions both in the stores and at the headquarters.

When moving to Japan, he believed it would be very different and prepared for the worst-case
scenario, but after spending some time in Japan he realized it was not as different as he had
anticipated. He therefore did not experience any major difficulties. Respondent D has not
experienced any anxiety from not knowing what is expected of him at IKEA Japan, it has instead
been exciting and a challenge that he has welcomed. He has on the other hand seen foreigners
struggling in Japan because they have not tried to learn the Japanese language and customs.

22
Respondent D feels his Japanese has some limits, especially when discussing sensitive topics. In
Japan, there is a formal and informal language, internally at IKEA they are only expected to speak
informally to each other but must always speak formally with customers which he believes can be
challenging. He feels it can be time-consuming trying to convey a message in a different language
but as he gets to know his colleagues better, he feels more comfortable and confident talking to
them. The Japanese also tend to reflect a lot before sharing an opinion while Westerners discuss
more openly which can give the impression that the Japanese are not participating. Respondent D
believes there is a big difference in body language that can sometimes be problematic. “You can
be under the impression that everyone agrees as they for example nod their heads and are onboard
when in fact it is the opposite”, he explains.

Respondent D perceived Japan to have a formality and hierarchy in society and as a result, he
overdid the formality in the beginning. People around him felt it was a bit exaggerated. The
Japanese assume that foreigners do not speak Japanese or understand Japanese customs which
always takes some time to explain when meeting with external business partners. “Just because of
being a foreigner, if I mispronounce something in the beginning in the greeting, then immediately
I lose “this person doesn’t speak Japanese”. Then I’m not talked to”, he explains. He often needs
to prove that he is capable of handling tasks that require knowledge of how things are done in
Japan. Respondent D believes that his colleagues are respectful to other cultures but that both
Japanese and Americans tend to have a low understanding. It shows that they do not know how to
address someone as they have limited experience interacting with foreigners.

4.2.5 Respondent E
Respondent E got a bachelor's degree in Japanese and a master's degree in Asian studies from a
university in Sweden and went on several exchange semesters to Japan. After graduating he started
working at IKEA Japan.

Initially, respondent E did not feel anxious coming to Japan as he could speak Japanese and already
had Japanese friends. He felt that living in Japan matched his expectations of what it would be
like. It was not until a few months later when the honeymoon period started to wear off that he
experienced a kind of culture shock. He came to the realization that Japan is just another country.
Respondent E still had a pretty good impression of Japan but increasingly realized that Japan is a

23
rather cold society. Respondent E did feel anxious about not knowing what was expected of him
when he started his career at IKEA Japan. It was not necessarily because he would be working
with people from different cultures but because he did not have much previous work experience.
He did what he thought was right and sometimes it worked and sometimes it did not. Respondent
E has noticed that Japanese colleagues sometimes struggle to learn the more informal IKEA values
and ways of doing things as they differ from values often found in the Japanese society.

Respondent E has experienced many difficulties related to language. While the official language
is English at IKEA Japan it is unrealistic as there are few Japanese who speak English well.
Speaking Japanese to colleagues can however be disadvantageous as it comes with additional
expectations. He is encouraged to speak English with colleagues more but is afraid it would put
additional pressure on team members. Japanese is a grammatically reversed language compared to
English and when Japanese have a low English proficiency it can be difficult to understand them.
The Japanese do not like making mistakes, so rather than trying to express their opinion, they will
stay quiet. As a result, meetings take longer, and it has been difficult to get input from Japanese
colleagues with good skills and ideas. Respondent E feels that he can get straight to the point with
his Western colleagues but with the Japanese, it is a whole other process. “First recognize their
hard work, then excuse yourself for intruding on their hard work and then ask them to support you
in some way. Then lastly, say a cushion word when you leave.”, he explains. A challenge many
times is to convey the IKEA values as it is difficult to always consider the receiver's perspective
to take in information as intended. Respondent E has not experienced any issues due to nonverbal
misunderstandings or misinterpretations but has noticed things like personal space, you do not
touch each other, no handshakes, or putting an arm around someone. Many Japanese also find it
difficult to look someone in the eyes during a conversation, but it is something he got used to.
Another thing is that the Japanese are not very expressive, it can be difficult to tell how someone
is feeling from reading their facial expression. This could potentially lead to misunderstandings,
but it is not something Respondent E considers to be an issue.

Respondent E spent a lot of time reading about Japan and interacting with Japanese exchange
students before coming to Japan and when he first visited Japan it was close to what he had
imagined. Respondent E had the perception that Japan would be a very clean and organized
country, where no violence or homeless people exist. He thinks most people coming to Japan have

24
a romanticized image. After some time in Japan, he realized that the Japanese are just good at
hiding flaws. People were keeping more to themselves than he had anticipated. The Japanese treat
Western foreigners fairly well, but you will always be considered a foreigner. They tend to assume
that you are from the US or UK and often do not know of Sweden. Most Japanese assume they
have to teach foreigners how to use chopsticks and that foreigners are unable to speak Japanese.
Respondent E feels that most Japanese are respectful of other cultures, especially at IKEA because
of the types of people they hire. Respondent E mentions one exception of when he was working
with a store manager that told him to share good ideas but not from overseas as this is Japan.

4.2.6 Respondent F
Respondent F has never lived or worked outside of Japan, but he has, before starting his career at
IKEA, worked for American, British, and Italian retail companies.

Respondent F did not feel anxious when starting his new role at IKEA Japan. There were many
challenges to overcome which was something he found exciting as he is curious about new cultures
but admits that “...at first, both sides are curious about different cultures and communicate like a
honeymoon season. After that, some differences appeared based on culture differences”. He felt
nervous to work with Swedish colleagues but could feel that they felt nervous too. After spending
some time together, working, having dinner, and other activities, the cultural differences became
less apparent. IKEA Japan had a helping hand in this process, providing him with training and
assigned him a buddy. He felt confused at first due to a different way of working than he was used
to but appreciated the opportunity and encouragement to have more freedom to think and act.

When Respondent F started working at IKEA Japan, he felt that his English level was too low and
had a tough first year, he often misunderstood or did not understand at all. But he felt encouraged
to learn to overcome his communication barriers and now feel more confident in expressing his
ideas. Westerners often have strong opinions and as Japanese are not very talkative and used to
take initiative. Westerners sometimes miss out on important information about the Japanese
market. “In Japan, Westerners' opinions are always strong, stronger than the opinions of
Japanese. Sometimes with Westerners' opinions, we feel like it is an order, we just do it even though
we know it won't work in the Japanese market”, he explains. He does believe that it is easier to
communicate to Swedes rather than to some other Westerners such as his Turkish boss. Swedes

25
are usually more eager to learn about Japanese culture which helps in understanding each other.
Americans can be very strong-minded and less sensitive towards other cultures. He found that
Swedes and Japanese are quite similar in that we both tend to be shy and cautious, a good match.
Respondent F has not experienced any difficulties connected to nonverbal communication but
realizes that “...Japanese people use body language for what they cannot say in another
language”. It is something he has noticed that some Westerners struggle with as well as the
Japanese being less expressive and talkative. It can be difficult to know what the Japanese are
thinking and to have closer relationships.

Respondent F did not know much about Sweden before he joined IKEA Japan so he did not have
any impression of what Swedes would be like except general characteristics that Westerners often
possess. He views IKEA as a very successful, typical Swedish company and read some books
about Sweden before he started working at IKEA Japan. When he started working, he was
surprised to see that there was a mix of people from all over the world and not only from Sweden
or Japan. He was under the impression that he had a good understanding of Western cultures from
previous work experience but realized that he still had much to learn. He was surprised to see that
sometimes Swedes could be shyer than Japanese. Respondent F believes that everyone at IKEA
Japan is very respectful of other cultures and everyone is curious to learn from each other. There
have been instances where colleagues have different opinions on what is right, and he may
intervene and explain why a certain idea may not be right for Japan.

4.2.7 Respondent G
Respondent G grew up in Japan but has studied abroad on several occasions and has lived in New
Zealand, Canada, and the US. She has worked in the US for 14 years at one of the Japanese
Chambers of Commerce before moving back to Japan and starting her career at IKEA.

Respondent G felt a bit anxious from not knowing what was expected of her when starting her role
at IKEA Japan. It was not necessarily from working with people from different cultures, but from
being new and working with colleagues that already had many years of experience within the
company. She struggled the first few months with how to lead and manage at IKEA Japan before
she found a style that worked for her. She believes that people who work at IKEA have similar
values and work well together with some occasional minor struggles.

26
Respondent G can speak both Japanese and English but many of her colleagues struggle with
language every day. There are a lot of new things happening at work and a lot of people have to
collaborate daily. There are a lot of meetings that are held in English and some people find it
difficult to express themselves which often leads to longer meetings. Some people feel pressured
to express themselves and respondent G often tries to help in the process. Respondent G feels
confident in her language abilities as she has spent years abroad speaking English, but she did
struggle with this when she first started her job in the US. Respondent G has not experienced any
difficulties related to nonverbal communication herself but has acknowledged that there are many
differences. Japanese tend to be very shy and easily embarrassed to hug or put an arm around a
friend, but she believes the people working at IKEA are in general more open-minded, so she has
not experienced this to be an issue.

Respondent G has spent several years in the US and interacted with people of different cultures
and therefore she immediately felt comfortable at IKEA Japan as it was a similar experience. She
has experienced that some foreigners have perceptions of Japanese women as being stay-at-home
wives taking care of the family which she herself feels is not the reality anymore. This was during
her stay in the US, and she has not experienced this at IKEA. Something that surprised her in a
positive way when she started working at IKEA Japan was the equality among genders of
Scandinavians, it was far more advanced than she had imagined. Respondent G believes that most
of her colleagues are respectful of other cultures, but she once had a funny and shocking
experience. One of IKEA’s Swedish designers visited Japan and she took her out for dinner.

She wanted to have ramen noodles and Japanese make noise when we eat. So, we
made noise, but the Swedish designer did not like it and asked us to not make that
slurping sound. Sometimes people cannot accept these kinds of things, a cultural
way of eating, or attitudes. - Respondent G

Respondent G does not believe that there are any superior cultures but has noticed that people
around her take pride in their cultures. Within the company, everyone is friendly to each other, but
she has observed that people tend to socialize within their cultural groups outside of work.

27
5. Analysis
From the result, it can be seen that the most obvious stumbling block the respondents have
experienced at IKEA Japan is related to language, both verbal and nonverbal. The majority feel
that their colleagues are respectful and curious about each other's cultures which is beneficial for
developing intercultural communication competence and thus achieving increasingly effective
collaboration (Saraswati, 2017; Lustig and Koester, 2006). All the respondents have previous
experiences of studying abroad, working internationally, or for an international company. Such
previous experiences have prepared them well for the multicultural environment at IKEA Japan as
managers need to learn about the cultures with which they will interact and communicate to
achieve effective intercultural communication (Triandes & Singelis, 1998). It is apparent that the
environment within the company is different from the external one. The respondents believe that
the Japanese within the firm are used to different behaviors. Respondent G has observed that her
Japanese colleagues at IKEA Japan are for example more accepting of hugs as a friendly greeting
while her friends outside of the company find it strange and uncomfortable. The respondents have
noted how socializing between different cultural groups outside of work is uncommon.
Furthermore, several of the Swedish respondents believe that they are treated differently outside
of work. They feel many Japanese cannot comprehend that a foreigner could speak Japanese and
know local customs. It may be the values of IKEA, setting the expectations within the company
that creates a more informal and relaxed environment that attracts people that are more open-
minded (IKEA, 2021c; Jönsson et al., 2013).

5.1 High Anxiety

The answers to whether the respondents had felt anxious from not knowing what is expected of
them when starting their careers at IKEA Japan are divided. Among the respondents, four felt
anxious to some degree while three expressed they did not feel any or very little anxiety. It is
common to feel anxious when faced with uncertainty which can be a positive motivator but also
lead to defensive behavior (Barna, 1994). Three of the respondents (C, E, G) expressed feeling
somewhat anxious because of not knowing how things are done at IKEA Japan. Respondent E had
no previous experience of having a full-time job and felt nervous because of that and not
necessarily because he would be working in a multicultural environment. Respondents C and G

28
both have previous experience working for international companies but felt that their ways of
leading were different from how it was done at IKEA. It is common when starting a new job to
not want to make any mistakes and can lead to hesitation (Zhu, 2020). However, this has not been
the case for the respondents. Respondent E, for example, had a trial-and-error approach, he just
did what he thought would work and sometimes it did and sometimes not. IKEA encourages its
employees to take risks, which means to sometimes make mistakes and learn from them. This can
potentially help the employees to better adjust without feeling too much pressure.

Respondent D claims he felt no anxiety and the other three (A, B, F) instead felt excitement. All
stress is not bad stress and there are people who enjoy uncertainty (Barna, 1994). This “good”
stress can however also be energy-draining which can lead to stress and a kind of culture shock
after some time. Both Respondent A and E experienced a kind of delayed culture shock.
Respondent E believes that in the beginning, everything is new and exciting, but it will eventually
fade and then reality hits hard. Respondent A similarly expresses that after a few months you
realize how little you actually understand about Japan. Respondent D was the one expressing the
least anxiety overall despite being the only one who had no previous experience of Japan and could
not speak any Japanese before starting his career at IKEA Japan. He had prepared for the worst-
case scenario when moving to Japan and maybe it is because he did not have any experience that
he was more observant which helped him learn and adjust well.

5.2 Language
Language is an obvious stumbling block to most people (Barna, 1994). A truth confirmed in the
present study as well, as all the respondents have experienced difficulties related to language.
There are various reasons for language being the issue. One of them is that the respondents or
people around them do not have strong Japanese or English skills. Japanese is a grammatically
reversed language compared to English and because of that, it can sometimes be difficult to
understand when Japanese speak English. There may be differences even if both parties speak
English as culture will affect how a person for example, build sentences or interpret words (Barna,
1994). A Japanese person saying “yes” does not necessarily mean that the person agrees but rather
that the message has heard which sometimes results in misunderstandings. The Swedish
respondents D and E feel that they can be direct and open in their communication with other

29
Western colleagues and must approach the Japanese more cautiously. Culture will affect how we
form communication patterns (Ilie, 2019). As foreigners, mainly Westerners, are more outspoken
and used to sharing their opinions, they sometimes fall under the impression that the Japanese,
being more silent, do not participate as much. Sometimes the Japanese might be eager to share as
well but choose not to because they feel anxious about making a mistake if their language level is
low (Ilie, 2019). This is something that affects meetings that often go unnecessarily long.
Respondent E has been asked to speak English with his Japanese colleagues to let them practice
but chooses not to. He does not want to put more pressure on them as it may lead to poor
communication and thus poor performance.

The official language at IKEA globally is English. While it is mostly spoken at the headquarters it
is less so in the stores. It is not realistic that everyone at IKEA Japan use English for work as there
are few Japanese who can speak English well. Apart from there generally being a low English
proficiency in Japan, speaking the local language can also be a means to show respect
(Chitakornkijsil, 2010; Jayaswal, 2009). The Swedish respondents sometimes feel reluctant to
speak Japanese as it comes with added expectations. The Swedish respondents have experienced
that by speaking Japanese they are also expected to be able to think like a Japanese. Furthermore,
if their Japanese is poor, they might lose the respect from the Japanese and are not talked to. While
language skills may be linked to easier adaptation it can also result in isolation (Jayaswal, 2009).
Sometimes it is simply easier to stick to speaking English. Learning all of these above-mentioned
aspects of language is not easy. Those who are willing to put in the effort to break through the
intercultural language barrier are often able to act as mediators between different cultures
(Saraswati, 2017; Lustig and Koester, 2006).

5.3 Nonverbal Misinterpretations

That language differences exist is obvious, but it is less so how we decode nonverbal
communication. Most people see learning a language as the greatest hurdle to intercultural
communication but there is a lot more to it (Barna, 1994). Respondents A and B who speak little
to no Japanese feel that body language is very important. Nonverbal communication is especially
important to intercultural communication when verbal communication is inadequate (Jayaswal,
2009). It can be both a blessing and a curse. While it can help to get a message across it is also the

30
root of many misunderstandings. While foreigners can get away with a lot for simply being a
foreigner and not knowing better, Respondent A believes that deep down Japanese will still get a
bad impression of you. Respondent B had a hard time reading Japanese people and at first, feeling
they are less expressive than the Chinese he had previously worked with. He later learned that they
simply express their emotions differently. Some cultures are high-context where the information
in the communication is internalized and others are high-context, putting more emphasis on the
actual words spoken (Jayaswal, 2009). With the Japanese being both a high context culture and
less expressive, it is a tough challenge to pick up on these things. Some easily observed signs in
nonverbal communication such as gestures may be easy to learn but unspoken codes are not
(Barna, 1994).

The Japanese respondents (F, G) have not experienced any struggles in terms of nonverbal
communication but have observed how the foreigners sometimes struggle to understand their
Japanese colleagues. Respondents C and E who are Swedish and can speak Japanese fairly well
have not experienced any issues either although they have made some observations. It is difficult
to sustain eye contact with a Japanese person who would rather look down at the shoes or up at
the ceiling but that is something you get used to. Interestingly it is the respondents that speak
Japanese well that did not find nonverbal communication to be an issue and found it difficult to
come up with examples. It could be that because they can communicate verbally, they do not notice
the nonverbal aspect as much. It may also be that they subconsciously have picked up on nonverbal
communication early due to their ability to speak the Japanese language. The Japanese respondents
had mainly observed that Westerners and Japanese tend to treat personal space differently but
otherwise could not think of anything.

5.4 Stereotypes and Prejudice

From the result, it can be seen that the Japanese have a tendency to bunch all Westerners together
and treat them as a homogeneous group and the Westerners do the same with Asians. This is
explained by Ilie (2019), who argues that stereotyping makes people overlook differences among
people in a particular group and wanting to make sense of uncertainty. Geographical proximity is
sometimes also used to evaluate similarities. Just as the Chinese tend to assume that they are much
more alike their Japanese neighbors than they actually are (Jayaswal, 2009), Respondent B who

31
previously worked at IKEA in China made this assumption. He was surprised to see how different
the Japanese were from the Chinese and struggled to learn how to read them as they are less
expressive than he had anticipated. The Swedish respondents had an image of the Japanese as
being organized, competent, and formal as they have a hierarchical society but found that the
Japanese are less self-going and proactive than expected. Because of this they had to adjust their
leadership style to give Japanese employees more directives. Respondent E emphasizes that the
Japanese are good at hiding flaws, it all looks perfect on the surface but in reality, there are issues
just like in any other society. They may seem content working hard and long hours while they
dislike it as much as anyone else, they simply do not show it.

The Swedish respondents have noticed that the Japanese tend to assume that all foreigners are from
either the US or the UK. Many Japanese have not even heard of Sweden. Respondent F who has
never worked outside of Japan but has held positions in various international companies had some
basic ideas of what foreigners generally are like but was surprised to see such diversity at IKEA.
He realized he still had much to learn. Something the Swedish respondents struggle with is that to
many Japanese on the outside of IKEA Japan it is unthinkable that a foreigner would be able to
speak Japanese and understand Japanese customs. These assumptions are difficult to change once
our mind is set (Ilie, 2019), and respondent D has experienced that as soon he mispronounces
something the Japanese lose faith in his abilities, and he is ignored. Overgeneralizing can both be
positive in that we are better prepared on how to approach a certain group of people but can also
cause frustration (Barna, 1994; Jayaswal, 2009). A tendency can be seen that stereotyping and its
negative influences on communication is reduced over time. This may be attributed to interaction.
The more people interact, the more they become familiar with each other and learn how to
approach and interact with one another.

5.5 Ethnocentrism
While most respondents believe that their colleagues at IKEA Japan generally are respectful to
different cultures, Respondent A feels Japanese can be disrespectful sometimes, especially abroad.
They are guided by rules but act as if those rules do not apply when they leave Japan. While the
respondents have not expressed ethnocentrism to be an issue, most of them have noticed that
people tend to feel a sense of pride in their culture. Respondents B and C believe Japanese

32
sometimes see their culture as superior to others, at least when in Japan. The Japanese tend to
believe that they are unique in the world and that they can try to learn about others, but others
cannot learn about them (Ilie, 2009). This obstructs intercultural communication as it prevents
learning and accepting new cultures. It can be seen from the answers from the Swedish managers
that language can sometimes be a sensitive issue. They are sometimes not respected by the
Japanese if they do not speak Japanese perfectly or even worse if a man speaks Japanese like a
woman. There are ethnocentric behaviors carried out by the Japanese where they appear to believe
their worldview to be superior to others and use it to evaluate others (Barna, 1994; Zhu, 2020;
Jayaswal, 2009).

Japanese can appear friendly, but many times they are difficult to truly get to know and they have
a clear division between their ingroups, and outgroups. Foreigners are seldomly let into the inner
circle. This is not something that is apparent at work but affects many foreigners’ social life outside
of the workplace. Respondent E mentioned an exception, working with a Japanese manager that
did not want to hear about how things are done abroad as they are in Japan. This is an example of
how culture can influence how a person chooses to view the world and, in this case, prevent the
communication of foreign ideas (Barna, 1994; Pragyaan, 2009). An ethnocentric attitude can cause
someone to look at things with tunnel vision when there in fact are a lot of ways to reach a common
goal (Jayaswal, 2009). Respondent D feels there tends to be a low understanding especially among
Japanese and Americans and it shows in the ways they interact and communicate. Besides a few
exceptions, there appears to be a high degree of perceived respect for one another's culture at IKEA
Japan. However, from the answers, it can be seen that there are quite a few issues where the
Japanese expect things to be a certain way which affects the Swedish managers.

The Japanese managers appear to have met with fewer issues in this regard. Respondent F has
voiced that he believes Swedes tend to take a greater interest in other cultures and be more
sensitive, thus being easier to get along with. The respondents have all taken a great interest in the
Japanese culture and while two of the respondents can speak Japanese at a professional level, the
other three have picked up at least some Japanese. This effort has been noted and appreciated by
Japanese colleagues. After all, the Japanese are in their home market and may therefore experience
less ethnocentric behaviors from their foreign colleagues who have chosen to relocate to Japan.

33
6. Conclusion
This study aimed to investigate a single case company to explore barriers to intercultural
communication. From the empirical findings it can be seen that the respondents were affected
differently by the various barriers examined in the study: high anxiety (uncertainty), language,
nonverbal misinterpretation, stereotyping and prejudice, and ethnocentrism. The respondents
experienced the uncertainty of starting a new career at IKEA Japan differently. For example, most
of the respondents claimed to have felt excited and a few anxious. Since all respondents have
previous experience from studying abroad, working abroad, or working at international companies,
this has better prepared them for work in a multicultural environment. To some of the respondents,
being new at IKEA Japan caused some stress mainly because it was a new workplace with new
people but also due to lacking language skills, whether it be English or Japanese.

As expected, the main barrier to intercultural communication, according to the respondents of this
study as well as the literature (Barna, 1994), is language. English is the corporate language of
IKEA globally, but as there are few Japanese who can speak English well, Japanese is often used
at the workplace, especially in the stores. While the Japanese at IKEA Japan are encouraged to
speak English to practice, the Swedish managers often refrain from speaking English to not cause
their colleagues’ additional pressure. The respondents feeling confident in their Japanese language
skills has overall been less affected by the barriers. But while language skills appear to aid better
adjustment, it can sometimes also be a disadvantage if not spoken to perfection. Speaking Japanese
often comes with higher expectations, such as a person who can speak Japanese also knows how
to behave like the Japanese.

Nonverbal communication, often used as a tool to aid verbal communication, has also been viewed
as important by the respondents, especially by those who do not speak Japanese well. For instance,
the Japanese respondents claim that Swedish managers miss crucial information due to their lack
of knowledge of nonverbal cues typical to Japanese culture. The Japanese are seen by the Swedish
respondents as less expressive both verbally and in body language. It is possible that low-context
cultures have difficulties identifying nonverbal cues from high-context cultures as well as having
a lower understanding of its importance.

34
Stereotyping and prejudice have mainly been an issue for the Swedish managers as many Japanese
have this idea that foreigners are unable to speak the Japanese language, possibly due to limited
experience communicating with foreigners. Because of this, the Swedish managers often must
prove themselves to the Japanese by demonstrating for that they are competent to handle a certain
task. It is possible that the Swedish managers are more culturally sensitive than the Japanese as
they have chosen to relocate to Japan and have taken an interest in the Japanese culture. The
Japanese are after all in their home country and are mainly affected by other cultures in their
workplace as they tend to socialize within their own cultural groups outside of work. Therefore,
they may not have the same interest in and experience with individuals from other cultures.

Both the Japanese and Swedish respondents expressed that they and their colleagues generally are
respectful towards each other’s cultures, but it can be seen from the empirical findings that certain
issues exist. The Swedish managers sometimes lose the respect of the Japanese colleagues if they
do not live up to their expectations when speaking the Japanese language. Some Japanese also
have a strong sense of pride in their own culture, sometimes undermining other cultures. Overall,
the Japanese and Swedish respondents were affected by all the barriers to some degree. A common
denominator across all barriers is language that is the main barrier for achieving effective
intercultural communication. Over time, as the respondents have spent more time working and
interacting regularly with their colleagues, the barriers have diminished.

6.1 Limitations and Future Research

As this study only involves a single case study with managers spread across different teams it has
limited transferability. As IKEA Japan has a large number of employees and encourages employee
rotation it is likely that the constellation will be different in the near future which may give a
different result. It was however not the intention of this study to achieve transferability. Due to the
limited time allocated for this study, it was only feasible to investigate a single case. The number
of respondents is also low and for future research, it would be interesting to do a similar study with
a larger sampling or pick another group of respondents for comparison. For this study, it was
desirable to complement the interviews with observations to see if any issues to intercultural
communication can be observed. It is common that people say one thing and then do something
else which could have been confirmed by making observations. It could also be the case that as a

35
bystander it is easier to pick up on things that the observed respondents have not apprehended.
Unfortunately, this was not possible due to the ongoing Covid-19 pandemic. Lastly, it would also
be interesting to do a similar study at IKEA subsidiaries located in other countries to investigate
whether some subsidiaries are more culturally diverse than others and what effect that has.

36
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Appendices

Appendix 1: Interview Guide

The first four questions are designed to give a better understanding of the workplace, for example,
what the division of cultural backgrounds looks like and the experiences of the managers.

Background questions

1. (To Swedes) Do you have previous experience of studying and/or working abroad
or in an international environment? (If yes, how do you think it has influenced
your ability to communicate with people of a different cultural background in
your current job?)
2. Can you tell us a bit about your role at IKEA Japan?
3. Of what nationalities are your colleagues that you work with?
4. What languages do you use/are you expected to use at work? Do you switch
depending on who you interact with?

The analytical framework has been operationalized into concrete interview questions and
presented below. Questions 5-12 concerns barriers to intercultural communication.

5. What has been the most challenging when working and communicating in a
multicultural environment?
6. When you first started working at IKEA Japan, were you anxious because of not
knowing what was expected of you?
6.1 Has IKEA Japan assisted you in managing your expectations?
6.2 How did your anxiety show?
7. Have you experienced any difficulties related to language?
7.1 Are there any differences in how people of different cultures interpret words
or meanings?

41
 7.2 Do you experience that people are afraid of getting misunderstood? Has it led
to less effective communication?
7.3 What are the benefits of speaking the host country language?
7.4 Are there benefits to only speaking English and not speaking the host country
language?
8. Have you experienced any difficulties related to nonverbal communication (body
language or unspoken cues)?
8.1 Do you think people have difficulties understanding when using less/more
body language than they normally would in their own culture?
9. How would you describe the communication style of -workers from different
cultures?
9.1 Is there anything you noticed have caused misunderstandings?
9.2 Is there any difference in directness of communication between different
colleagues? How does it affect communication?
10. What were your perceptions about IKEA and your coworkers from other cultures
when you first started at IKEA Japan? Have they changed?
10.1 Did you experience that people around you had preconceptions about you?
10.2 Do you have stereotypes about certain cultures? Have they changed? Does it
influence your collaboration?
10.3 Have you been affected by prejudice at work? How? How has it influenced
work?
11. Are people in your workplace respectful of other cultures?
11.1 Have you experienced that people around you seem to hold their own culture
in higher regard than yours? How does it affect collaboration?
11.2Are you considering any culture superior to the other?
12. Is there anything we have not asked about yet that you would like to add?

42