Federal University of Technology Owerri

SCHOOL OF POST GRADUATE STUDIES

DEPARTMENT OF ARCHITECTURE

A TERM PAPER

In Fulfillment for the Course:

ADVANCED BUILDING STRUCTURE II

Submitted by
Onyinyechi Myrrh Okorie
20204247458

Lecturer
DR. CHIDIEBERE NJOKU.

December, 2022
 CONSTRUCTION METHODS OF CONTEMPORARY STRUCURES IN TIMBER, STEEL
AND REINFORCED CONCRETE AND PRECAST CONCRETE IN THE BUILDING
INDUSTRY

What are Modern Methods of Construction?

Modern construction methods are methods that are developed in construction industry with proper
planning and design so that each project reduces the construction time, cost and maintain overall
sustainability.

There are many methods followed and constructed in the present scenario widespread. Most famous
and highly applied methods of modern construction are listed and explained below.

There are types of Modern Methods of Construction in Timber, Steel, Reinforced Concrete and pre-
cast system of construction. In this term Paper we will discuss few methods…
We will discuss a little about timber as a building material.

Timber is a type of wood which has been processed into beams and planks. It is also known as “lumber”
in US and Canada. Basically, timber or Lumber is a wood or firewood of growing trees. Any wood
capable of yielding a minimum dimensional size can be termed as a timber or lumber. It is a stage in the
process of wood production. Timbers are used for the structural purpose. Those woods which are
adapted for building purposes are timbers. Finished timber is supplied in standard sizes for the industry.
Timber is used for building houses and making furniture.

Timber can be divided into two categories - hardwoods and softwoods. There are many types of timber
under these two categories. They are-

 Bamboo, Cherry, Mahogany, Oak, Walnut, Fir.

1, TIMBER FRAMING (German: Holzfachwerk) and "post-and-beam" construction are traditional
methods of building with heavy timbers, creating structures using squared-off and carefully fitted
and joined timbers with joints secured by large wooden pegs. If thestructural frame of load-
bearing timber is left exposed on the exterior of the building it may be referred to as half-timbered,
and in many cases the infill between timbers will be used for decorative effect. The country most known
for this kind of architecture is Germany, where timber-framed houses are spread all over the country. [1]
[2]

The method comes from working directly from logs and trees rather than pre-cutdimensional
lumber. Hewing this with broadaxes, adzes, and draw knives and using hand-
powered braces and augers (brace and bit) and other woodworking tools, artisans or framers could
gradually assemble a building.
Since this building method has been used for thousands of years in many parts of the world, many
styles of historic framing have developed. These styles are often categorized by the type of foundation,
walls, how and where the beams intersect, the use of curved timbers, and the roof framing details.

Box frame[edit]
A simple timber frame made of straight vertical and horizontal pieces with a common rafter roof
without purlins. The term box frame is not well defined and has been used for any kind of framing (with
the usual exception of cruck framing). The distinction presented here is that the roof load is carried by
the exterior walls. Purlins are also found even in plain timber frames.

Cruck frame[edit]
A "true" or "full" cruck half-timbered building in Weobley, Herefordshire, England: The cruck blades are
the tall, curved timbers which extend from near the ground to the ridge.
A cruck is a pair of crooked or curved timbers [3] which form a bent (U.S.) or crossframe (UK); the
individual timbers are each called a blade. More than 4,000 cruck frame buildings have been recorded in
the UK. Several types of cruck frames are used; more information follows in English style below and at
the main article Cruck.

 True cruck or full cruck: blades, straight or curved, extend from ground or foundation to the ridge
acting as the principal rafters. A full cruck does not need a tie beam.
 Base cruck: tops of the blades are truncated by the first transverse member such as by a tie beam.
 Raised cruck: blades land on masonry wall, and extend to the ridge.
 Middle cruck: blades land on masonry wall, and are truncated by a collar.
 Upper cruck: blades land on a tie beam, very similar to knee rafters.
 Jointed cruck: blades are made from pieces joined near eaves in a number of ways. See
also: hammerbeam roof
 End cruck is not a style, but on the gable end of a buildinHalf-timbered houses,Miltenberg im
Odenwald, Germany
 
 

Rural old railway station timber framing style inMetelen, Germany

Aisled frame[edit]

Interior of a two-aisled market hall,Chipping Campden, Gloucestershire, England

Aisled frames have one or more rows of interior posts. These interior posts typically carry
more structural load than the posts in the exterior walls. This is the same concept of the aisle in church
buildings, sometimes called a hall church, where the center aisle is technically called a nave. However, a
nave is often called an aisle, and three-aisledbarns are common in the U.S., the Netherlands, and
Germany. Aisled buildings are wider than the simpler box-framed or cruck-framed buildings, and
typically have purlins supporting the rafters. In northern Germany, this construction is known as
variations of aStänderhaus.

Half-timbering[edit]

Half-timbered wall with three kinds of infill, wattle and daub, brick, and stone: The plaster coating
which originally covered the infill and timbers is mostly gone. This building is in the central German city
of Bad Langensalza.
Krämerbrücke in Erfurt, Germany, with half-timbered buildings dating from c. 1480

Half-timbering refers to a structure with a frame of load-bearing timber, creating spaces between the

timbers called panels (in German Gefach or Fächer = partitions), which are then filled-in with some kind
of nonstructural material known as infill. The frame is often left exposed on the exterior of the building.
[4]

Infill materials[edit]
The earliest known type of infill, called opus craticum by the Romans, was a wattle and daub type
construction.[5] Opus craticum is now confusingly applied to a Roman stone/mortar infill as well. Similar
methods to wattle and daub were also used and known by various names, such as clam staff and daub,
cat-and-clay, or torchis (French), to name only three.
Wattle and daub was the most common infill in ancient times. The sticks were not always technically
wattlework (woven), but also individual sticks installed vertically, horizontally, or at an angle into holes
or grooves in the framing. The coating of daub has many recipes, but generally was a mixture of clay
and chalk with a binder such as grass or straw and water or urine. [6] When the manufacturing of bricks
increased, brick infill replaced the less durable infills and became more common. Stone laid in mortar as
an infill was used in areas where stone rubble and mortar were available.
Other infills include bousillage, fired brick, unfired brick such as adobe or mudbrick, stones sometimes
called pierrotage, planks as in the German ständerbohlenbau, timbers as in ständerblockbau, or
rarely cob without any wooden support.[7] The wall surfaces on the interior were often "ceiled"
with wainscoting and plastered for warmth and appearance.
Brick infill sometimes called nogging became the standard infill after the manufacturing of bricks made
them more available and less expensive. Half-timbered walls may be covered by siding materials
including plaster, weatherboarding, tiles, or slate shingles.[8]
The infill may be covered by other materials, including weatherboarding or tiles.[8] or left exposed.
When left exposed, both the framing and infill were sometimes done in a decorative manner. Germany
is famous for its decorative half-timbering and the figures sometimes have names and meanings. The
decorative manner of half-timbering is promoted in Germany by the German Timber-Frame Road,
several planned routes people can drive to see notable examples of Fachwerk buildings.
Gallery of infill types:

Engineered structures[edit]
Timber design or wood design is a subcategory of structural engineering that focuses on the
engineering of wood structures. Timber is classified by tree species (e.g., southern pine, douglas fir,
etc.) and its strength is graded using numerous coefficients that correspond to the number of knots, the
moisture content, the temperature, the grain direction, the number of holes, and other factors. There
are design specifications for sawn lumber, glulam members, prefabricated I-joists, composite lumber,
and various connection types. In the United States, structural frames are then designed according to
the Allowable Stress Designmethod or the Load Reduced Factor Design method (the latter being
preferred).[19]
Modern features[edit]

Porch of a modern timber-framed house

Timber-framed structures differ from conventional wood-framed buildings in several ways. Timber
framing uses fewer, larger wooden members, commonly timbers in the range of 15 to 30 cm (6 to 12 in),
while common wood framing uses many more timbers with dimensions usually in the 5- to 25-cm (2- to
10-in) range. The methods of fastening the frame members also differ. In conventional framing, the
members are joined using nails or other mechanical fasteners, whereas timber framing uses the
traditional mortise and tenon or more complex joints that are usually fastened using only wooden pegs.
[citation needed]
 Modern complex structures and timber trusses often incorporate steel joinery such as gusset
plates, for both structural and architectural purposes.
Recently, it has become common practice to enclose the timber structure entirely in manufactured
panels such as structural insulated panels (SIPs). Although the timbers can only be seen from inside the
building when so enclosed, construction is less complex and insulation is greater than in traditional
timber building. SIPs are "an insulating foam core sandwiched between two structural facings, typically
oriented strand board" according to the Structural Insulated Panel Association. [18] SIPs reduce
dependency on bracing and auxiliary members, because the panels span considerable distances and
add rigidity to the basic timber frame

Timber can also be used in conjunction with other materials, potentially celebrating contrasts between
different parts of the building.
Advantages[edit]
The use of timber framing in buildings offers various aesthetic and structural benefits, as the timber
frame lends itself to open plan designs and allows for complete enclosure in effective insulation for
energy efficiency. In modern construction, a timber-frame structure offers many benefits:

 It is rapidly erected. A moderately sized timber-frame home can be erected within 2 to 3 days.
 It is well suited to prefabrication, modular construction, and mass-production. Timbers can be pre-
fit within bents or wall-sections and aligned with a jig in a shop, without the need for a machine or
hand-cut production line. This allows faster erection on site and more precise alignments. Valley
and hip timbers are not typically pre-fitted.
 As an alternative to the traditional infill methods, the frame can be encased with SIPs. This stage of
preparing the assembled frame for the installation of windows, mechanical systems, and roofing is
known as drying in.
 it can be customized with carvings or incorporate heirloom structures such as barns etc..
 it can use recycled or otherwise discarded timbers
 it offers some structural benefits as the timber frame, if properly engineered, lends itself to
better seismic survivability[55]Consequently, there are many half-timbered houses which still stand
despite the foundation having partially caved in over the centuries.
 The generally larger spaces between the frames enable greater flexibility in the placement, at
construction or afterwards, of windows and doors with less resulting weakening of the structural
integrity and the need for heavy lintels.
I

Disadvantages[edit]
Traditional or historic structures[edit]
In terms of the traditional half-timber or fachwerkhaus there are maybe more disadvantages than
advantages today. Such houses are notoriously expensive to maintain let alone renovate and restore,
most commonly owing to local regulations that do not allow divergence from the original, modification
or incorporation of modern materials. Additionally, in such nations as Germany, where energy
efficiency is highly regulated, the renovated building may be required to meet modern energy
efficiencies, if it is to be used as a residential or commercial structure (museums and significant historic
buildings have no semi-permanent habitade exempt). Many framework houses of significance are
treated merely to preserve, rather than render inhabitable – most especially as the required heavy
insecticidal fumigation is highly poisonous.
In some cases, it is more economical to build anew using authentic techniques and correct period
materials than restore. One major problem with older structures is the phenomenon known
as mechano-sorptive creep or slanting: where wood beams absorb moisture whilst
under compression or tension strains and deform, shift position or both. This is a major structural issue
as the house may deviate several degrees from perpendicular to its foundations (in the x-axis, y-axis,
and even z-axis) and thus be unsafe and unstable or so out of square it is extremely costly to remedy. [57]
A summary of problems with Fachwerkhäuser or half-timbered houses includes the following, though
many can be avoided by thoughtful design and application of suitable paints and surface treatments
and routine maintenance. Often, though when dealing with a structure of a century or more old, it is
too late.[47]

 "slanting"- thermo-mechanical (weather-seasonally induced) and mechano-sorptive (moisture

induced) creep of wood in tension and compression. [57]
 poor prevention of capillary movement of water within any exposed timber, leading to afore-
described creep, or rot
 eaves that are too narrow or non-existent (thus allowing total exposure to rain and snow)
 too much exterior detailing that does not allow adequate rainwater run-off
 timber ends, joints, and corners poorly protected through coatings, shape or position
 non-beveled vertical beams (posts and clapboards) allow water absorption and retention through
capillary action.
 surface point or coatings allowed to deteriorate
 traditional gypsum, or wattle and daub containing organic materials (animal hair, straw, manure)
which then decompose.
 in both poteaux-en-terre and poteaux-sur-sol, insect, fungus or bacterial decomposition.
 rot including dry rot.
 infestation of xylophagous pest organisms such as (very common in Europe) the Ptinidae family,
particularly the common furniture beetle, termites, cockroaches, powderpost beetles, mice,
and rats (quite famously so in many children's stories).
 Noise from footsteps in adjacent rooms above, below, and on the same floor in such buildings can
be quite audible. This is often resolved with built-up floor systems involving clever sound-isolation
and absorption techniques and at the same time providing passage space for plumbing, wiring, and
even heating and cooling equipment.
 Other fungi that are non-destructive to the wood but are harmful to humans, such as black mold.
These fungi may also thrive on many "modern" building materials.
 Wood burns more readily than some other materials, making timber-frame buildings somewhat
more susceptible to fire damage, although this idea is not universally accepted: Since the cross-
sectional dimensions of many structural members exceed 15 cm × 15 cm (6" × 6"), timber-frame
structures benefit from the unique properties of large timbers, which char on the outside, forming
an insulated layer that protects the rest of the beam from burning. [58][59]
 prior flood or soil subsidence damage.

2. REINFORCED CONCRETE SYSTEM

Reinforced concrete: concrete in which steel is embedded in such a manner that the two materials act
together in resisting forces. The reinforcing steel—rods, bars, or mesh—absorbs the tensile, shear, and
sometimes the compressive stresses in a concrete structure. Plain concrete does not easily withstand
tensile and shear stresses caused by wind, earthquakes, vibrations, and other forces and is therefore
unsuitable in most structural applications. In reinforced concrete, the tensile strength of steel and the
compressive strength of concrete work together to allow the member to sustain these stresses over
considerable spans. The invention of reinforced concrete in the 19th century revolutionized
the construction industry, and concrete became one of the world’s most common building materials.
The Editors of Encyclopaedia BritannicaThis article was most recently revised and updated by Adam
Augustyn.
Concrete construction is a complex process that involves several activities, from hatching and mixing
the ingredients to pouring fresh concrete into forms and curing the new construction. There are several
factors that might influence the quality of the final product in this process, that is, the built structure.
The critical activities associated with the construction of cast-in-place reinforced concrete structures
are described below:.

a, Development of Structural Drawings

Structural design should be based on the sound application of fundamental principles of reinforced
concrete design and a knowledgeable use of building codes and standards. However, structural design
is ineffective if it is not possible to ensure its proper implementation. The structural engineer has a
critical role in communicating the design information to personnel involved in the construction process.
In the world of structural engineering, structural drawings and specifications are a critical means of
communication between the structural engineer and the contractor. Consequently, the importance of
an accurate set of structural drawings that communicate clear and concise information cannot be
underestimated.

In reality, even a well-designed structure may result in a variety of problems, both financial and legal,
when structural drawings do not properly communicate the design intent. A poor set of structural
drawings may expose the engineer to various problems, such as extra costs, delays in the construction
schedule, disputes in the field, construction errors, unhappy contractor/owner, and even legal disputes.

b, Construction Estimating and Tendering

Once the structural drawings have been completed, the contractor produces an estimate of the
concrete and reinforcing steel quantities, as well as the amount of formwork and shoring.
Thisestimate is based on structural drawings and specifications that are issued for construction. Based
on these drawings, the estimator should be able to estimate the quantity of materials and also the
extent of complexity in the construction procedures, any unusual complications associated with the
erection, formwork, and shoring, etc. The drawings must be clear and concise and without ambiguities.
When drawings are ambiguous, there could be large variations in price between competitive bids
submitted by different contractors in the bidding process. In general, a variation in the bid price of over
10% is considerable, as it leaves the owner confused about the proper market price for the project. This
is an unfavourable situation for the owner, who ultimately pays for the construction. On the one hand,
the owner may feel that (s)he is overpaying if the highest bid is accepted. On the other hand, a bid
below fair market value may lead to problems during construction, usually in the form of numerous
requirements for extra payments by the contractor in trying to recover losses caused by the low bid.

c, Detailing of Reinforcement
The reinforcing contractor interprets the information on structural drawings and producesreinforcing
steel detail sheets. These sheets are primarily used by the shop to cut and bend the reinforcing bars
required for the project. Each bar has a unique code that is referred to by the person responsible for
rebar placement in the field.

d, Placing of Reinforcement
Once the reinforcement has been detailed and cut in the shop, it is delivered to the site in bundles. In
some cases, rebars are cut and bent at the construction site. Placement of the reinforcing steel is
carried out by rebar placers. Their role is to interpret structural drawings along with the detail sheets
and then place the reinforcing steel as precisely as possible. Rebar clearances must be properly shown
on the structural drawings in order for the rebar placer to accurately place bar supports to ensure
proper bar position.

e, Supplying the Concrete

The concrete ready-mix company will supply concrete based on the concrete strengths specified on the
structural drawings and the mix designs that meet the specific climate and workability requirements of
the site. Special concrete placement procedures, such as placement by pumps or wheelbarrows; site
batching; or cylinder testing by an independent testing agency, must be carried out in accordance with
the structural drawings and specifications.
e, Installation of Concrete Formwork and Shoring

Formwork and shoring support the weight of the wet concrete and other construction loads. Form work
is a temporary structure made of wood, metal, or plastic, and it is constructed to form the final shape of
a concrete member. The concrete formwork contractor must hire an engineer who is responsible
for designingand producing drawings showing the formwork and shoring supports for concrete beams,
slabs, walls, columns, and foundations. The formwork must be built precisely in accordance with the
structural drawings and must allow for the proper placement of reinforcing steel and wet concrete
without any major deviations in shape and stability.

f, Placing and Curing the Concrete

The proper amount of concrete must be placed such that the slab thickness, beam sizes, and wall and
column dimensions are in accordance with the structural drawings. In some cases, special procedures
and construction sequences are required to minimize the development of cracks in the concrete due to
structural or architectural restraints or temperature changes. For example, pour strips are often used in
large floor structures to separate different floor sections to be placed in the same pour. In some cases, a
continuous gap of minimum 300 mm width is left between two adjacent floor sections. A delay period
(usually 28 days) is specified to allow for shrinkage to take place between these pours. Subsequently,
pour strips between floor sections are filled with concrete. In some cases, allowance for various types
of joints (such as control joints and expansion joints) needs to be made during construction.

The curing process is critical for fresh concrete to gain the required design strength. Improperly cured
concrete tends to exhibit extensive cracking and creep-induced deflections. Structural drawings need to
specify the curing procedures in accordance with the design requirements. It is commonly required to
provide curing for fresh concrete over a 28-day period.

g, Reshoring and Special Construction Procedures

By and large, construction projects require an accelerated concrete placement schedule. In some cases,
concrete formworkmay need to be stripped (removed) as quickly as 3 days after the placement. Green
concrete (concrete that has not attained design strength) must develop sufficient strength to support
its self-weight plus theconstruction load. However, concrete stripped shortly after casting may develop
larger creep deflections than concrete stripped after proper curing. Hence, a proper re shoring
sequence must be specified by the engineer responsible for construction to prevent sustained loads
from being prematurely applied to green concrete.
Procedures that are relevant to the overall design objective need to be outlined on the structural
drawings. Such special procedures are generally related to the mitigation of the effects of shrinkage
and cracking, as well as creep and long-term deflections. These procedures usually bear certain cost
implications and must be clearly communicated on the structural drawings before construction starts.
When the structural engineer requests a special procedure after construction has begun that was not
specified on the drawings, there is a chance that the contractor will charge extra to carry it out.

3, PRECAST CONCRETE CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

_Precast concrete construction system has its own characteristics which influence the layout, span
length, construction depth, and stability system to a great extent. In precast concrete construction,
majority of structural members are manufactured in manufacturing plants away from the construction
site. After that, they are delivered to the project site to be erected. Various connections have been
developed to connect different types of structural elements like beam to column connection and panel
to panel connection. In this manner, the imposed loads are transferred from superstructure to the
foundation. Designers should consider the possibilities, restrictions, detailing, manufacturer, transport,
erection and serviceability stages before finalizing the design of precast concrete structure.
Contents: [show]

Types of Precast Systems

In order to understand the construction of precast concrete structure, different precast systems shall be
known. There are four major types of precast systems which are classified based on the on the load
bearing structure:
1. Large Panel System
Large panel systems are useful for the construction of apartments and hotels. It consists of large walls
and floor concrete panels connected in the vertical and horizontal directions. Both horizontal and
vertical panels withstand gravity loads. There are three arrangements of large panel system based on
wall layouts which include cross-wall system, longitudinal-wall system, two-way system.

Fig. 1: Large Panel Precast Concrete System Construction Illustration

2. Frame System
It is suitable for the construction of car parks, stadia, and offices. Precast frames can be constructed
using either linear elements or spatial beam-column sub assemblages. Precast beam-column sub-
assemblages have the advantages that the connecting faces between the sub-assemblages can be
placed away from the critical frame regions. However linear elements are generally preferred because
of the difficulties associated with forming, handling and erecting spatial elements.

Fig. 2: Precast Concrete Frame Structure erected within four weeks

3. Slab-Column System with Shear Wall
In this system, gravity loads supported by slab-column structure whereas shear walls withstand lateral
loads. There are two types of slab-column system with shear walls namely; lift slab system with walls
and pre-stressed slab-column system.

Fig. 3: Precast Column-slab System with Shear Walls

Elements in Precast Concrete Building Systems
Precast concrete members are manufactured in factory under controlled conditions to keep standard
dimensions and tolerances. Structural elements used in the construction of precast concrete buildings
include:

1. Precast concrete wall (Panels), Fig.4

2. Precast Slabs, Fig. 5 and 6
3. Precast Beam and Girders, Fig.7
4. Precast Columns, Fig. 8
5. Precast Stairs, Fig. 9
 Fig. 4: Precast Concrete Panel

Fig. 5: Hollow Precast Concrete Floor

Fig. 6: Details of Hollow Precast Concrete Floor

Fig. 7: Precast Concrete Beam

 Fig. 8: Precast Concrete Columns

Fig. 9: Precast Concrete Stairs

Precast Concrete Construction Considerations 
1. Erection Sequence
Precast concrete members shall be erected according to preplanned sequence. The erection plan is
commonly prepared drawings If it is important for structural stability and for access to connections at
specific location. The erection sequence shall avoid multiple handling of elements. Finally, a trial
erection operation should be considered to identify any unforeseen erection difficulties.
2. Erection Safety
Safety during the handling and erection of precast concrete elements is substantially important.
Therefore, all machines and equipment employed precast concrete element handling and erection
need to be maintained to a high standard, load tested, and be suited to the intended utilization.
3. Erection Tolerances
Generally, the precast unit should be erected in accordance with the tolerances provided by applicable
codes, unless other tolerances are used in the design and specifications.
4. Rigging
A rigging system for handling and erecting precast elements requires careful and thorough
preplanning. It may be necessary to equalize loads between lifting points on certain precast elements,
such as beams or flat slabs. Lifting accessories may be in the form of slings/cables, hooks or shackles.
The selection of such components should take into consideration the forces due to all operations
involved in the handling and erection of the precast units. Headroom availability and maneuverability
during erection may also have an impact on the type of rigging system selected.
5. Temporary bracing
Precast concrete elements must be adequately braced and supported during all phases of erection to
ensure proper alignment and structural integrity until permanent structural connections are completed.
6. Leveling shims
Leveling shims should be formed from a suitably durable material and should have adequate strength
to carry the full imposed loads. Leveling shims carry the full construction load of the precast element
and must provide adequate support to prevent movement until the element is incorporated in the main
structure.
7. Propping
All temporary propping requirements must be shown on the erection drawings. The design of
temporary propping systems should be in accordance applicable codes. Temporary propping should
provide full support for all construction loads.
Precast Concrete Construction Procedure
1. After the completion of construction preparations, the layout of the structure is set. 2. Then, the
foundation of the columns are constructed (Fig. 10)
 Fig. 10: Foundation for Precast Concrete Columns
3. After that, the columns are placed using suitable machines (Fig. 11), and continuously checked by
surveyor for alignment (Fig. 12). In the case of Frame system and slab-column system with shear wall.
Alternatively, precast panels are installed in the case of large panel system(Fig. 13).

Fig. 11: Final Adjustment and Installation of Columns

 Fig. 12: Install Precast Concrete Columns

Fig. 13: Large Panel Precast Concrete System Construction

4. Beams for precast frames (Fig. 14), and precast floors in the case of large panel systems (Fig. 15) and
column-slab systems are placed.
 Fig. 14: Precast Beam Erection

Fig. 15: Placement of Hollow Core Precast Concrete Slab on Walls

5. For precast frames, after the installation of precast concrete beams, precast concrete floors are
erected.
 Fig. 16: Precast Concrete Slab Placement
6. The above steps are followed until the construction is finalized. For each system of precast concrete
construction, certain type of connections are used which are discussed below.
Types of Connections

1. Beam to Column Connections (Fig. 17, 18, and 19)

2. Column to floor connection (Fig. 20)
3. Panel to Panel Connections  (Fig. 21 and 22)
Fig. 17: Expensive but Safe Cleated Connector

Fig. 18: Sliding Plate Connections

Fig. 19: Beam to Column Seated Connection

Fig. 20: Seated Connection

 Fig. 21: Deep Nib Connection Between Walls Provide Large Complimentary Shear Stiffness and Strength

Fig. 22: Vertical Joint Using Deep Nib

Structural Stability 
The stability of precast concrete structural systems are provided through bracing. There are number of
techniques through which structures are braced, as illustrated in the following figure.
 Fig. 23: Bracing Techniques

concern, it is provided in every two or three storey to ease erection process in addition to simplify steel
column production and deliveries. The distance between floor and column splice is about 60cm. When
circular steel columns are used, weld connection is used to join both steel columns above and below.

Fig.7: Column Splices

Erection of Steel Beams
Various prefabricated beam sections are available to be used in the construction multi storey steel
frame structure. Beams commonly transfer loads from floors and roof to the columns. Steel beam
members can span up to 18m, but the most usual range of steel beam spans rang from 3m to 9m. While
steel beams are erected, column to beam connection and beam to beam connections are encountered.
There are different types of column to beam connection which are selected based on the type of loads
imposed on the column to beam joint. For example, if the joint is subjected to vertical loads only, then
simple connections are used. Flexible end plate, fin plate and double angle cleat are examples of simple
connections which are shown in Figure-8.
 Fig.8: Different types of column to beam connection suitable for the case where vertical loads are
applied solely: (A) Flexible end plate, (B) fin plate, (C) Double angle cleat
If the joint is subjected to both vertical loads (shear force) and torsion forces, then full depth end plate
connections and extended end plate connections should be considered as shown in Figure-9.

Fig.9: Full depth and extended end plat connection used when the column to beam connection
subjected to both shear and torsion stress
As far as beam to beam connection is concerned, end plate beam to beam connection is used to join
secondary steel beams to primary steel beams. Since top flange of secondary beams support floor
system, so it must be leveled with top flange of the primary beams. This can be obtained by notching
the top flange of the secondary beam as shown in Figure-10 and Figure-11.

Fig.10: Notched Part of Secondary Beam

 Fig.11: End Plate Beam to Beam Connection
Alternatively, projected bracket is welded to the primary beam and then secondary beam is attached
without the need for notching secondary steel beams as shown in Figure-12.

Fig.12: Provision of Bracket Welded to Primary Steel Beams

Floor Systems Used in Steel Frame Structure Construction
There are various types of floor systems which can be used in the steel frame structure construction.
Floors are commonly installed as the beams are erected. Not only do the floors systems support vertical
applied loads but also they act like diaphragms and resist lateral loads through the use of bracings.
Examples of floor systems include Short-span composite beams and slabs with metal decking, Slimdek,
Cellular composite beams with slabs and steel decking, Slim floor beams with precast concrete units,
Long-span composite beams and slabs with metal decking, Composite beams with precast concrete
units and Non-composite beams with precast concrete units. 
 Fig.13: Details of Composite Floors used in Steel Frame Structure

Fig.14: Precast Concrete Slab Placed on Structural Steel Frame

4, STEEL CONSTRUCTION SYSTEM

There are many types of metals used for building. Steel is a metal alloy whose major component is iron,
and it is the usual choice for metal structural construction. It is strong, flexible, and if refined well and/or
treated lasts long. Corrosion is metal’s prime enemy when it comes to longevity.

The lower density and better corrosion resistance of aluminium alloys and tin sometimes overcome
their greater cost. Brass was more common in the past, but is usually restricted to specific uses or
specialty items today.

Metal figures is quite prominently in prefabricated structures such as the Quonset hut, and can be seen
used in most cosmopolitan cities. It requires a great deal of human labor to produce metal, especially in
the large amounts needed for the building industries.

Other metals used include titanium, chrome, gold, silver. Titanium can be used for structural purposes,
but it is much more expensive than steel. Chrome, gold, and silver are used as decoration, because
these materials are expensive and lack structural qualities such as tensile strength or hardness.
Construction of Steel Frame Structural Elements
Steel frame structure construction procedures are as follow:

 Construction of steel frame structure foundation

 Steel column construction
 Erection of steel beams
 Floor systems used in the steel frame structure construction

Fig.2: Steel Structure Frame

Construction of Steel Frame Structure Foundation
Steel framed structure construction begins with the construction of its foundation. Generally, the types
of foundation required for the given structure is based on the soil bearing capacity. Soil investigation
including surface and subsurface exploration is used to assess the condition of soil on which steel frame
structure rests. For example, when moderate or low loads are imposed, then it is advised to use
reinforced concrete bearing pads or strip foundation. These foundation types transfer loads to soil
capable of supporting transferred loads.
 Fig.3: Reinforced Concrete Bearing Pad Foundation for Steel Frame Structure
If the strength of soil is poor and the imposed load is large, then it is recommended to consider pile
foundation. The pile foundation would transfer the load of the structure to the stiff soil.

Fig.4: Pile foundation to transfer loads of steel frame structure though low soil bearing capacity of
stiff soil with adequate bearing capacity

Fig.5: Steel Bearing Pile Driven into Ground

Steel Column Construction
The next step of steel frame construction is the placement of steel columns. The section of the steel is
specified based on the load imposed. There are various sizes of steel column section to choose and
these steel columns are commonly produced in advance. The most significant point in column
installation is the connection between foundation and column and splices between columns. Regarding
foundation to column joints, base plates are welded to the end of columns. The most desired shape of
base plate is square and rectangular shape. Typical details of column to foundation connection is shown
in Figure-6. It should be known that, the most desired shape of base plate is rectangular and square
shape because such plates provide largest spacing between the bolts which is desirable.

Fig.6: Steel Column to Foundation Details, (A) Top bolt places created in base plate, (B) Side view
of column base to foundation

Construction of Bracing and Cladding in Steel Framed Structures

Bracings are used to resist lateral forced imposed on structure and it transfer lateral loads to the
columns and then to the foundation.ss

Fig.15: Bracing with Connection Details

Regarding cladding of steel frame structure, various types of cladding such as brick cladding and sheet
cladding can be used to protect the inside area of the structure. 
Steel is the undisputed leader in civil engineering structural materials, and it is one of the two primary
materials used in civil engineering constructions. The efficient use of resources, the cost-effectiveness,
and the well-organized structural systems are all important components of a building. There is a
growing interest in developing strategies to better understand and address the effects of building
materials. Steel is recyclable, and its structures are reusable.

References

 Richard Harris, Discovering Timber-framed Buildings (3rd rev. ed.), Shire Publications, 1993, ISBN 0-

7478-0215-7.
 John Vince (1994). The Timbered House. Sorbus. ISBN 1-874329-75-3.

 Ronald Brunskill (1992) [1981]. Traditional Buildings of England. Gollancz. ISBN 0-575-05299-6.

 A good introductory book on carpentry and joinery from 1898 in London, England is titled
Carpentry & Joinery by Frederick G. Webber and is a free ebook in the public domain: Carpentry &
joinery or reprint ISBN 9781236011923 orISBN 9781246034189.
 Timber Buildings. Low-energy constructions. Cristina Benedetti, Bolzano 2010, Bozen-Bolzano
University Press, ISBN 978-88-6046-033-2
 For an English summary of important points presented in the Dutch language book Houten kappen
in Nederland 1000–1940 (Wooden Roofs in the Netherlands: 1000–1940) use this link Herman
Janse, Houten kappen in Nederland 1000–1940 · dbnl.

 D G BROWN, D C ILES, E YANDZIO. Steel Building Design: Medium Rise Braced >Frames: In
accordance with Eurocodes and the UK National Annexes. The Steel >Construction Institute.
Berkshire, p. 32-74. 2009. (P365). M E BRETTLE, D G BROWN. >Steel Building Design: Concise
Eurocodes: in accordance with Eurocodes and British National annexes. The Steel Construction
Institute. Berkshire, p. 69-79. 2009. (P362). >STEEK construction: Foundation BCSA and Tata
steel. [S.l.]: BCSA and Tata steel. 2013. >STEELCONSTRUCTION. Cost Planning Through
Design Stages Accessed on: 5 Oct. 2017.
>Barry’s Advanced Construction of Buildings

1. ^ National Lumber Manufacturer's Association. "Airplanehangar Construction". Construction

Information Series: Lumber and It's Utilization, vol. IV, ch. 8, 1941.
2. ^ Jump up to:a b TECO Timber Engineering Company. "Specify Timber with the TECO System
for Industrial and Commercial Structures". 1950.
3. ^ Raser, Wm. V. (1941). Modern Timber Connectors for Modern Timber Structures (Unpublished
master's thesis). Corvallis, OR.: School of Forestry, Oregon State College. Retrieved 20 April 2022 –
via Scholars Archive at OSU.
4. ^ Raser, Wm. V. (1941). Modern Timber Connectors for Modern Timber Structures (Unpublished
master's thesis). Corvallis, OR.: School of Forestry, Oregon State College. Retrieved 20 April 2022 –
via Scholars Archive at OSU.
5. ^ Craven, Jackie (3 July 2019). "The Look of Medieval Half-Timbered Construction". Retrieved 20
April 2022.
6. ^ Nikolas Davies, Erkki Jokiniemi: 2008. Dictionary of architecture and building construction.
Architectural Press.ISBN 978-0-7506-8502-3. 726 pages: pp 181