Denim Manufacturing and Processing (TP-4037)

Assignment 01

Student Name Farrukh Imran

Registration no. 19-NTU-TE-0037

Semester 8th

Department Textile Engineering

Section Processing

Date of Submission 25-April-2023

Submitted To Dr. Munir Ashraf

 Table of Contents
Title: You are developing a finished jeans with excellent lustre and following washing effect.
.................................................................................................................................................... 5

1. Introduction: ....................................................................................................................... 5

2. Elaborate The Process Flow in Production of This Garment: ............................................ 6

3. Discuss The Dyeing Machine Type For Bulk Production with Higher Number of
Threads:...................................................................................................................................... 6

3.1 Rope Dyeing:............................................................................................................... 7

3.2 Rope Dyeing Range: ................................................................................................... 7

3.3 Rope Dyeing Process: ................................................................................................. 8

4. How will you ensure the quality of yarns so that the dyeing is reproducible: ................... 9

4.1 Concentration of Hydrosulphite: ................................................................................. 9

4.2 pH Value: .................................................................................................................... 9

4.3 Dye Concentration in Dye Bath: ................................................................................. 9

4.4 Dipping Time: ............................................................................................................. 9

4.5 Squeeze Pressure: ...................................................................................................... 10

4.6 Airing Time: .............................................................................................................. 10

4.7 Drying: ...................................................................................................................... 10

5. Methods to Reduce Indigo Dye: ....................................................................................... 10

5.1 Chemical Reduction: ................................................................................................. 10

5.2 Fermentation: ............................................................................................................ 11

5.3 Electrochemical Reduction: .......................................................................................... 12

5.4 Photochemical Reduction:......................................................................................... 13

6. Which Method is More Sustainable: ................................................................................ 14

7. Which Parameters Should be Checked After Dyeing of Yarn: ........................................ 14

7.1 Shade Variation: ........................................................................................................ 14

7.2 Color Fastness: .......................................................................................................... 15

7.3 Light Fastness:........................................................................................................... 16

 7.4 Color Strength: .......................................................................................................... 16

8. How Will You Attain Lustre on Denim Fabric: ............................................................... 17

8.1 Mercerization: ........................................................................................................... 18

8.2 Using Optical Brightening Agent:............................................................................. 18

8.3 Using Cotton/Tencel Blend: ...................................................................................... 18

9. Discuss Garment Washing Technologies: .................................................................... 19

9.1 Stone Wash:............................................................................................................... 19

9.1.1 Chemicals Used in Stone Washing:....................................................................... 20

9.2 Acid Wash: ................................................................................................................ 20

9.2.1 Chemicals Used in Acid Washing: ........................................................................ 21

9.3 Enzyme Wash:........................................................................................................... 22

9.3.1 Chemicals Used in Enzyme Washing:................................................................... 22

9.4 Laser: ......................................................................................................................... 23

9.5 Ozone Wash: ............................................................................................................. 24

9.6 Bleach Wash:............................................................................................................. 24

9.6.1 Chemicals Used in Bleach Washing:..................................................................... 25

10. Which One is More Sustainable: .................................................................................. 25

11. Which type of washing and/or dry process will be carried out to obtain this effect: ... 26

12. References ..................................................................................................................... 27

 List of Figures

Figure 1. An image of denim fabric inside out .......................................................................... 5

Figure 2. Rope Dyeing Process .................................................................................................. 7
Figure 3. View of a dye box in a rope dyeing range .................................................................. 8
Figure 4. Indigo molecule in pre-reduced and reduced form................................................... 11
Figure 5. Vat Reduction ........................................................................................................... 12
Figure 6. Measurement of shade variation using shade card ................................................... 15
Figure 7. Grey scale and multi-fabric strips............................................................................. 16
Figure 8. Different levels of blue wool scale ........................................................................... 16
Figure 9. Color strength determination using spectrophotometer ........................................... 17
Figure 10. Stone washed denim ............................................................................................... 19
Figure 11. Acid washed denim ................................................................................................ 21
Figure 12. Enzyme washed denim ........................................................................................... 22
Figure 13. Laser washed denim ............................................................................................... 23
Figure 14. Ozone washed denim .............................................................................................. 24
Figure 15. Bleach washed denim ............................................................................................. 25
Title: You are developing a finished jeans with excellent lustre and following
washing effect.

1. Introduction:

Denim is a strongly built fabric using cotton. It is a warp-faced textile in which the weft passes
under two or in most cases three warp threads. This kind of twill weaving produces a diagonal
ribbing that distinguishes denim fabric from other cotton fabrics. Denim is available in a wide
range of colors. But the most common denim is indigo denim which is a kind of blue shade. In
the denim dyes with indigo, the warp thread is dyed while the weft thread is left undyed. As a
result of the warp-faced twill weaving, one side of the textile is dominated by the blue warp
threads and the other side is dominated by the undyed weft threads. Pants made from this type
of cloth are thus white on the inside. Denim is used to create a wide variety of garments,
accessories, and home textiles. [1]

Figure 1. An image of denim fabric inside out

It is typically made from 100% cotton, although blends with other fibers such as elastane are
also common. Denim is often dyed with indigo, which gives it its characteristic blue color,
although other colors are also used. Denim pants were invented in the 1870s by two
business partners, Jacob Davis and Levi Starauss. This is the same Levi who founded
the Levi’s brand. Jacob Davis turned out to be the first person to use copper rivets in
men’s denim and cotton duck cloth trousers in order to reinforce the weakest points of
the denim fabric. This technique made the pants stronger for a laborer’s daily wear. On
May 20, 1873, a patent was granted to Davis and Levi Strauss & Co. for the jeans we
know and love today.

2. Elaborate The Process Flow in Production of This Garment:

Sr no Process Name
1 Spinning
2 Yarn
3 Ball Warping
4 Rope
5 Rope Dyeing
6 Re-beaming
7 Sizing
8 Drawing in
9 Weaving
10 Singeing
11 Garments Department
12 Cutting
13 Stitching
14 Garment Wet Processing (GWP)
15 Enzyme + Stone Washing
16 Garment Dry Processing (GDP)
17 KMnO4 Spray
18 Laser
19 Finishing
20 Inspection
21 Packing

3. Discuss The Dyeing Machine Type For Bulk Production with Higher
Number of Threads:
There are three types of dyeing machines which can be used for dyeing of yarns. These include
rope dyeing machine, slasher dyeing machine, and loop dyeing machine. However, if we want
to dye yarns in bulk quantity with higher number of threads, then we will use rope dyeing
machine. The reason behind is phenomenon is that the dyeing capacity using slasher is limited.
It can handle a dyeing capacity of over 5000 meter only. There is a problem of centre to
selvedge shade variation. The obtained shade depth is not that good. While the changing of the
lots, the stoppage of machine consumes a lot of time. [2]

On the other hand, the productivity of loop dyeing with a common dye box is essentially equal
to the productivity of a slasher dyeing machine with multiple boxes. This dyeing method
produces warp breakage in the yarn. There is a loss of elasticity in the yarn. In loop dyeing,
there is a problem of centre to selvedge shade variation. Rope dyeing, however, is free from
such problems. That is why, rope dyeing machine is best suited for the production in bulk
quantity with higher number of threads. [2]

3.1 Rope Dyeing:

The rope dyeing technology in which we dye denim with indigo in the production is considered
a much more superior dyeing technology than the other technologies. This is because better
uniformity of dyeing is achieved with rope dyeing as compared to other Indigo dyeing
technologies, like slasher and loop dyeing. Rope dyeing using indigo was originally originated
in USA. Today rope dyeing is responsible for a large amount of warp yarn dyed for denim
production. Due to being a continuous process, this system offers highest production, as there
is no stoppages for set changes. In this dyeing method, there is a maximum continuity of shades
and a very low risk of center to selvedge shade variation can be achieved. Flow diagram of
rope dyeing is shown in Fig.2. During dyeing process, yarn is dyed on the outer side. This
produces a ring of color around the cotton yarn, while the core remains white. This dyeing
effect is known as ring dyeing. [3]

Figure 2. Rope Dyeing Process

3.2 Rope Dyeing Range:

In rope dyeing range, the warp threads are formed along the range in the form of a rope. Usually
300 or 400 end forming ropes are in yarn groups. Depending on the width of the machine the
total number of ropes can range between 12 and 48 in a machine. Depending on the number of
ropes in a machine, the total number of ends can range between 3,600 and 19,200. [4]

Figure 3. View of a dye box in a rope dyeing range

3.3 Rope Dyeing Process:

• The yarn coming out from the ring frames is wound into cheeses or cones and then placed
on the ball warper on which 350–400 warp threads are bound on the ball warper machine
to very thick cables of 10,000–15,000 m in length (sometimes the length of cables may
exceed 25,000 m). Generally 12–36 cables are first fed into one or more scouring baths
containing wetting agents, detergents and sodium hydroxide. The scouring baths are used
to remove naturally occurring impurities found in cotton fibers such as dirt, minerals, ash,
pectin and naturally occurring waxes. It is very important to remove these substances in
order to achieve uniform wetting and uniform dyeing. Then, the cables are fed into one or
more water rinsing baths. [4]
• After that, the cables are dipped into a bath of leuco indigo with an immersion time of 12–
20 seconds, and then are squeezed to give 70%–80% wet pick-up after each dip, followed
by exposure to air for oxidation, multiple times. The oxidation time takes at least 80
seconds. Generally, four to eight dyeing vats are used for dipping. This results in the fine
layer of indigo on the surface of yarn. The cables of yarn are washed in various water baths
to eliminate the non-fixed dye. Next they pass through a softener box, which assists in
obtaining a better opening of the cables in the long chain beamer. Finally, they are dried on
Teflon covered cylinders and coiled into large cans. [4]
• In rope dyeing, ball warps are continuously fed into the rope or chain-dyeing range for
application of the indigo dyeing. Typically, 12–36 individual ropes of yarn are fed side-by-
side simultaneously into the range. The ropes are kept separate from each other throughout
the various parts of the dye range. [4]

4. How will you ensure the quality of yarns so that the dyeing is
reproducible:
Following are the parameters that play a key role in quality of yarns which helps in making the
dyeing reproducible.

• Concentration of Hydrosulphite
• pH Value
• Dye Concentration in Dye Bath
• Dipping Time
• Squeeze Pressure
• Airing Time
• Drying [5]

4.1 Concentration of Hydrosulphite:

We measure the concentration of hydrosulphite by using a vatometer. To make the dye
reproducible, the concentration should be from 1.5 gram per liter to 2.5gram per liter. If we are
talking about the redox potential of dye bath, then it should be from -730 mV to -860 mV. [5]

4.2 pH Value:
The pH of the dye bath should be around 11.5-12.5.

4.3 Dye Concentration in Dye Bath:

The concentration of dye in the bath should always be according to the required shade. It should
be taken in gram per liter.

4.4 Dipping Time:

If dipping time is longer then the dye penetration will be better. But the ring dyeing effect will
be less. Dipping time can vary from 15-22 seconds. [5]
4.5 Squeeze Pressure:
If the squeeze pressure is high then the wet pick will be lower. Higher squeeze pressure can
lead to better dye penetration. The squeeze pressure in rope dyeing range can be 3-7 tones.
Hardness of squeeze rollers is also an important factor. It is about 70-75 degree shores. Degree
shores is the unit to measure the hardness of rubbers and polymers. [5]

4.6 Airing Time:

The airing time in a rope dyeing range is usually 60-75 seconds.

4.7 Drying:
Drying should be done properly. If yarns are dried unevenly, then it will result in poor
rebeaming. The drying temperature can vary from 60°C to 80°C. The time of drying can vary
depending upon the yarn count and moisture content. But it is usually between 20 to 30 minutes.
[5]

5. Methods to Reduce Indigo Dye:

Indigo dye can be reduced by the four possible methods which are discussed below.

• Chemical Reduction
• Fermentation
• Electrochemical Reduction
• Photochemical Reduction

5.1 Chemical Reduction:

Indigo can also be reduced to its leuco form by chemical reduction using a reducing agent such
as sodium dithionite or zinc dust. Below is a step-by-step explanation of the process:

• A solution of the reducing agent is prepared in a container. The concentration of the

reducing agent should be sufficient to reduce the indigo dye.
• Indigo powder is mixed into a separate container with an alkaline solution such as sodium
hydroxide or potassium hydroxide. The pH of the solution should be around 10-11.
• The reducing solution is slowly added to the indigo solution while stirring. The mixture is
stirred continuously for several minutes to ensure thorough mixing.
• As the reducing agent reacts with the indigo dye, the color of the solution changes from
blue to yellow. The progress of the reduction process can be monitored by periodically
checking the color of the solution.
• The solution is filtered to remove any impurities or undissolved solids.
• Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can be used for dyeing textiles. The
leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by fabrics. When exposed to air,
the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble indigo dye, which is trapped
in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-lasting color.

Figure 4. Indigo molecule in pre-reduced and reduced form

5.2 Fermentation:
Indigo can be reduced to its leuco form by fermentation using a process called vat fermentation.
The process involves creating an alkaline solution containing the indigo dye and a source of
nutrients for bacteria. Below is a step-by-step explanation of the process:

• A solution of an alkaline material such as sodium hydroxide or calcium hydroxide is

prepared. The pH of the solution should be around 10-11.
• Indigo powder is mixed into the alkaline solution and stirred until it dissolves completely.
• A source of nutrients such as glucose, fructose, or molasses is added to the solution. The
nutrients provide food for bacteria that will be used to reduce the indigo.
• A small amount of bacteria that are known to reduce indigo is added to the solution. The
bacteria will feed on the nutrients and begin to reduce the indigo to its leuco form.
• The solution is allowed to ferment for several hours or days. During fermentation, the
bacteria break down the nutrients, producing hydrogen gas, which acts as a reducing agent
that converts the indigo dye to its leuco form.
• The reduction process can be monitored by checking the color of the solution. As the indigo
is reduced, the solution changes from blue to yellow.
• Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can be used for dyeing textiles. The
leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by fabrics. When exposed to air,
 the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble indigo dye, which is trapped
in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-lasting color.

Figure 5. Vat Reduction

5.3 Electrochemical Reduction:

Indigo can be reduced to its leuco form by electrochemical reduction. This method involves
the use of an electrical current to transfer electrons to the indigo molecule, which reduces it to
its leuco form. Below is a step-by-step explanation of the process:

• An electrochemical cell is set up with a cathode and an anode. The cathode is typically
made of a conductive material such as platinum, while the anode is usually made of graphite
or another conductive material.
• A solution of an electrolyte such as sodium hydroxide or potassium hydroxide is prepared.
The solution should have a pH of around 10-11.
• Indigo powder is mixed into the electrolyte solution and stirred until it dissolves
completely.
• An electrical current is applied to the electrochemical cell by connecting the cathode and
anode to a power source. The current is typically in the range of 1-10 amps.
• As the electrical current is applied, the indigo dye is reduced to its leuco form. The progress
of the reduction process can be monitored by checking the color of the solution. As the
indigo is reduced, the solution changes from blue to yellow.
• The reduction process is stopped once the desired depth of color and intensity has been
achieved. This is typically done by removing the power source and disconnecting the
electrodes from the electrochemical cell.
• Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can be used for dyeing textiles. The
leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by fabrics. When exposed to air,
the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble indigo dye, which is trapped
in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-lasting color.

5.4 Photochemical Reduction:

Indigo can be reduced to its leuco form by photochemical reduction, which involves using light
to transfer electrons to the indigo molecule. Below is a step-by-step explanation of the process:

• Indigo powder is mixed into an alkaline solution such as sodium hydroxide or potassium
hydroxide. The pH of the solution should be around 10-11.
• A photosensitizer such as triethanolamine or benzophenone is added to the solution. The
photosensitizer absorbs light and transfers the energy to the indigo molecule, which
promotes the reduction process.
• The solution is exposed to light of a specific wavelength, typically in the range of 350-450
nm, which activates the photosensitizer and transfers the energy to the indigo molecule.
The exposure time depends on the intensity of the light and the concentration of the
photosensitizer.
• As the indigo is reduced, the color of the solution changes from blue to yellow. The progress
of the reduction process can be monitored by periodically checking the color of the solution.
• The reduction process is stopped once the desired depth of color and intensity has been
achieved. This is typically done by adding an acid such as acetic acid to the solution, which
neutralizes the alkaline solution and stops the reduction process.
• The solution is filtered to remove any impurities or undissolved solids.
• Once the indigo has been reduced to its leuco form, it can be used for dyeing textiles. The
leuco form is water-soluble and can be easily absorbed by fabrics. When exposed to air,
the leuco form oxidizes and turns back into the blue insoluble indigo dye, which is trapped
in the fibers of the fabric, resulting in a durable and long-lasting color.
6. Which Method is More Sustainable:
Fermentation is a natural process that uses microorganisms such as bacteria to reduce indigo
to its reduced leuco form. It requires minimal energy and produces very little waste compared
to the other methods. The process also uses renewable resources such as molasses or fruit sugar
as a carbon source for the bacteria.

Therefore, in the terms of sustainability, fermentation is considered the most environmentally

friendly and socially responsible method for producing leuco indigo. However, it is important
to note that fermentation may not always be feasible for large scale and bulk industrial
production and that the choice of the reduction method ultimately depends on the specific
circumstances and goals of the dyeing process.

7. Which Parameters Should be Checked After Dyeing of Yarn:

There are a few parameters that should be checked after the dyeing of yarn, which are discussed
below.

• Shade Variation
• Color Fastness
• Light Fastness
• Color Strength

7.1 Shade Variation:

Shade variation refers to the differences in color shade or tone that can occur between different
lots of the same dyed material. In yarn dyeing, shade variation can occur due to a number of
factors, such as variations in dye concentration, temperature, or dyeing time. When dyeing
yarn, it is important to ensure that each lot of yarn is dyed to the same shade or color tone, as
any variation in shade can lead to a loss of consistency in the final product. Shade variation can
also lead to customer dissatisfaction, as the color of the yarn may not match the desired color
or shade.
 Figure 6. Measurement of shade variation using shade card

Manufacturers may use color-matching technology to ensure that each lot of yarn is dyed to
the same shade. Another way to minimize shade variation in yarn dyeing is to dye all the yarn
for a particular product or order at the same time, to ensure that the same dye batch is used for
all the yarn. This can help to ensure that the color of the yarn is consistent across the entire
product or order.

7.2 Color Fastness:

Color fastness refers to the ability of a dyed material to resist fading or running when exposed
to various external factors such as light, washing, rubbing, and other environmental conditions.
In yarn dyeing, color fastness is a critical factor to consider, as it determines the longevity and
durability of the final product.
 Figure 7. Grey scale and multi-fabric strips

Color fastness can be affected by a variety of factors, such as the type of dye used, the fiber
type and quality, the dyeing method, and the finishing processes applied to the yarn. Yarns that
are not color fast can fade or run when exposed to water, or other environmental factors, leading
to a loss of color or an uneven appearance.

7.3 Light Fastness:

Light fastness is the ability of a dyed material, such as yarn, to resist fading or color change
when exposed to light. In yarn dyeing, light fastness is a critical factor to consider, as exposure
to sunlight or other light sources can cause colors to fade or change, leading to an uneven
appearance or loss of color.

Figure 8. Different levels of blue wool scale

Light fastness can be affected by several factors, such as the type of dye used, the fiber type
and quality, and the dyeing method. Yarns that are not light fast can fade or change color when
exposed to light, making them unsuitable for products that will be exposed to sunlight or other
light sources. To ensure good light fastness in yarn dyeing, manufacturers may use quality
control measures such as testing the yarn for light fastness before and after the dyeing process.

7.4 Color Strength:

K/S value is a measure of the color strength of a dye solution, used to determine the amount of
dye that has been absorbed by a material such as yarn. In yarn dyeing, K/S value is a critical
factor to consider, as it helps manufacturers to determine the amount of dye required to achieve
a particular color shade or tone. K/S value is determined by measuring the reflectance and
absorbance of a dye solution on a material, such as yarn. The K value represents the absorption
of light by the dye, while the S value represents the scattering of light by the material. The K/S
value is the ratio of the two values, and is used to determine the amount of dye that has been
absorbed by the material. [9]

Figure 9. Color strength determination using spectrophotometer

K/S value is an important tool in yarn dyeing, as it allows manufacturers to accurately measure
the amount of dye required to achieve a particular color shade or tone, and to ensure consistency
of color across different lots of yarn. By using K/S value as a guide, manufacturers can
minimize waste and ensure that the final product meets the desired color specifications. [9]

8. How Will You Attain Lustre on Denim Fabric:

Lustre on denim fabric refers to the shiny, lustrous, or glossy appearance that is sometimes
visible on the surface of the fabric. It can be caused by a variety of factors, including the type
of fiber used in the fabric, use of different chemicals, and the finishing techniques used on the
denim. Following are a few methods by which we can achieve lustre on the denim fabric.

• Mercerization
• Using Optical Brightening Agent (OBA)
• Using Tencel/Cotton Blend
8.1 Mercerization:
Mercerization is a process in which cotton fibers are treated with a concentrated solution of
sodium hydroxide (NaOH). The treatment causes the fibers to swell, increasing their surface
area and creating microscopic channels in the fibers. The swelling also causes the fibers to
become more round and smooth.

The sodium hydroxide solution causes the cellulose molecules in the cotton fibers to partially
dissolve and then reorganize into a more ordered structure. This reorganization causes the
fibers to become stronger, more lustrous, and more absorbent. The process also increases the
affinity of the cotton fibers for dyes, making them easier to dye. [10]

8.2 Using Optical Brightening Agent:

An optical brightening agent (OBA), also known as a fluorescent whitening agent, is a chemical
compound that is used in the textile industry to enhance the whiteness and brightness of fabrics
and other textile products. OBAs absorb invisible ultraviolet light and re-emit it as visible blue
light, thereby enhancing the perceived whiteness and brightness of the textile. OBAs are
commonly used in textile finishing processes to improve the appearance of white or light-
colored fabrics. In textile industry, OBAs are particularly useful for enhancing the appearance
of synthetic fibers, which tend to have a yellowish or grayish cast. By adding an OBA during
the manufacturing process, manufacturers can achieve a brighter and more vibrant white color
in the final product. [11]

However, it is important to note that OBAs can have some drawbacks. They can be washed out
of the fabric over time, resulting in a loss of brightness or whiteness, and they can also cause
yellowing or discoloration over time. Additionally, OBAs can be harmful to the environment
and may not be biodegradable. [11]

8.3 Using Cotton/Tencel Blend:

Tencel is a great semi-synthetic fiber. which surpasses all other cellulosic fibres in terms of
properties, and aesthetics. Tencel have an extremely soft and silky feel with lustre. It can retain
85% of its dry strength when it is wet. Tencel is the only man-made cellulosic fibre that is
stronger than cotton when it is wet. Other properties of tencel includes it being lighter, finer,
having good breathability, good dimensional stability, retention of moisture, and being
lustrous. [2]
9. Discuss Garment Washing Technologies:
There are different garment washing techniques which are discussed in detail below.

• Stone Wash
• Acid Wash
• Enzyme Wash
• Laser
• Ozone Wash
• Bleach Wash

9.1 Stone Wash:

Stone washing is a process that gives denim garments a worn-out, faded look and rough. This
process involves washing denim fabric with pumice stones or other abrasive materials, such as
volcanic rock or sand. The stones abrade the surface of the fabric, removing the indigo dye
from the surface of the yarns, and creating a faded or distressed appearance. This process uses
small pumice stones to roughen up the surface of the fabric and cause abrasion. The garments
are placed in a large industrial washing machines. Pumice stones are added in it. As the
washing machine chamber rotates, the cloth fibers repeatedly come in contact with the stones
and are beaten as the tumbling stones ride up the paddles inside the drum and fall back down
onto the fabric. [12]

Figure 10. Stone washed denim

Stone washing can be done in a variety of ways, depending on the desired outcome. The process
can be repeated multiple times, using different sizes of stones or abrasive materials to achieve
different levels of abrasion. The amount of water and detergent used can also be adjusted to
achieve different effects. Stone washing can be combined with other techniques, such as
bleaching or dyeing, to achieve a wider range of colors and effects. [12]

9.1.1 Chemicals Used in Stone Washing:

Enzymes: Cellulase enzymes are the most commonly used in the stone washing process to
break down the cellulose fibers on the surface of the fabric, producing a softer, more supple
feel.

Sodium Hydroxide: Sodium hydroxide is a common alkaline agent that is used to adjust the
pH in stone washing.

Anti-back Staining Agent: It is added to the wash bath during the denim washing process. It
works by preventing the removed dye particles from re-depositing onto the fabric. It creates a
barrier between the dye particles and the fabric, allowing the dye to be removed from the fabric
without it being reabsorbed.

Detergent: A small amount of detergent is typically used to help remove dirt and debris from
the fabric during the stone washing process.

9.2 Acid Wash:

Acid washing of denim is a process used to give jeans a faded, worn-out appearance. This
technique involves treating the denim fabric with a mixture of chemicals, and pumice stones,
to remove some of the indigo dye and create a lighter, more faded appearance. The result is a
unique, vintage-looking finish that has become popular in fashion. Acid washing effect gives
the jeans sharp contrasts. Acid wash process uses dilute solution of hydrochloric acid in the
washing process along with the pumice stones, KMnO4, CH3COOH to alter the color in a
nonuniform manner. [13]
 Figure 11. Acid washed denim

9.2.1 Chemicals Used in Acid Washing:

Hydrochloric Acid: This is the primary acid used in the acid washing process. It reacts with the
cotton fibers in the denim fabric, removing the top layer of indigo dye and creating a faded,
worn-out look.

Potassium Permanganate (KMnO4): This chemical is used in conjunction with hydrochloric

acid to create a more pronounced and even fade. It oxidizes the remaining indigo dye, making
it easier for the HCl to remove.

Acetic Acid: This chemical is used to neutralize the acid washing process and stop the
bleaching action. It is also used to wash out excess chemicals from the denim fabric.

Anti-back Staining Agent: It is added to the wash bath during the denim washing process. It
works by preventing the removed dye particles from re-depositing onto the fabric. It creates a
barrier between the dye particles and the fabric, allowing the dye to be removed from the fabric
without it being reabsorbed.
9.3 Enzyme Wash:
Acid enzyme washing is a process used in the textile industry to create a worn or distressed
look on denim fabric. This process involves the use of enzymes and acids to break down the
fibers of the fabric, resulting in a softer and more faded appearance. [14]

Figure 12. Enzyme washed denim

Washing the garments with enzymes is actually more sustainable and environmentally friendly
than other washing techniques like stone washing or acid washing. The reason behind this
phenomenon is that enzyme washing is more water efficient. Residual of pumice stone
fragments from stone washing requires a whole lot of water to be eliminated. Likewise, acid
washing requires multiple wash cycles to produce the desired effect, which is also not very
sustainable method. [14]

9.3.1 Chemicals Used in Enzyme Washing:

Cellulase enzymes: Cellulase enzymes are the most commonly used enzymes in enzyme
washing of denim. They are typically derived from bacteria or fungi and can be purchased from
enzyme suppliers.

Acid: Enzyme washing is often done in an acidic pH (3.5-6.5) to help activate the enzymes
and increase their effectiveness. Acetic acid, which is also known as vinegar, is a commonly
used acid in this process.

Sodium hydroxide: Sodium hydroxide is a strong base that may be used to neutralize the acid
after the enzyme washing process is complete.

Anti-back Staining Agent: It is added to the wash bath during the denim washing process. It
works by preventing the removed dye particles from re-depositing onto the fabric. It creates a
barrier between the dye particles and the fabric, allowing the dye to be removed from the fabric
without it being reabsorbed.

9.4 Laser:
Laser washing of denim is a relatively new technique used in the garment industry to create
unique designs and textures on denim fabric. It involves the use of a laser beam to selectively
burn off the indigo dye on the surface of the fabric, creating a faded or distressed look. Laser
wash is very advance and an exceptional method to get the desired effect. We can create jeans
with a variety of effects and variations. Laser can reduce the environmental impact of the
garment washing industry. In laser wash, we do not use of water or stones or any other
chemicals. The washing done using laser burns the dye molecules. Laser washing is very quick
and efficient. This technology is totally water free and it can give the same vintage and faded
look to the pant without use of any water or chemicals. [15]

Many industries are now shifting to laser technology and they are quitting the traditional
methods of denim washing like bleach washing, ozone washing, acid washing, and stone
washing, etc. This is a very popular and growing technology in the textile industry as this
technology is very green. We can create different images, patterns, designs, and other stuff
using laser. This technology is connected with a computer. [15]

Figure 13. Laser washed denim

Best feature of laser technology is that the patterns or designs created using it are very accurate
because they are created using a computer. There is very little chance of error in the patterns.
This technology has become popular because it is much safer, environment friendly,
sustainable and green. Additionally, it saves time and cuts down the cost of production. [15]

9.5 Ozone Wash:

Ozone washing is a denim washing process that uses ozone gas to bleach and distress the fabric.
Ozone acts as an alternative of chemical bleaching agents. It is an alternative to traditional
stone washing and chemical bleaching, which can be harmful to the environment and to the
workers involved in the process. Ozone washing is becoming increasingly popular in the denim
industry due to its environmentally friendly nature and the desirable effects it has on the fabric.
[16]

Figure 14. Ozone washed denim

The process of ozone washing begins with a specially designed machine that pumps ozone gas
into a sealed chamber containing the denim garments. The ozone gas reacts with the indigo dye
in the fabric, breaking down the color and creating a bleached effect. This process is accelerated
by the moisture present in the chamber, which activates the ozone gas. [16]

9.6 Bleach Wash:

Bleach wash is one of the garment washing techniques that is used to fade a higher degree of
color. We can define bleach wash as the wash which is done to cut more color and bring light
shade on denim garments. Bleach washing is normally carried out with a strong oxidative
bleaching agent. [17]

Figure 15. Bleach washed denim

9.6.1 Chemicals Used in Bleach Washing:

Hydrogen peroxide: This is a common bleaching agent that is often used to lighten the color of
denim fabric. It is typically used in a diluted form to prevent excessive bleaching or damage to
the fabric.

Sodium hypochlorite: This is another commonly used bleaching agent that is often found in
household bleach. It can be used to lighten the color of denim fabric, but it can also be more
damaging to the fabric than hydrogen peroxide.

Anti-back Staining Agent: It is added to the wash bath during the denim washing process. It
works by preventing the removed dye particles from re-depositing onto the fabric. It creates a
barrier between the dye particles and the fabric, allowing the dye to be removed from the fabric
without it being reabsorbed.

10.Which One is More Sustainable:

Out of all these methods, laser wash and ozone wash is more sustainable because laser wash
involves using lasers to fade and distress the fabric. This method uses no water and chemicals
as compared to the traditional washing methods.
While ozone wash uses ozone gas to fade the fabric. This eliminates the need for chemicals.
This method significantly reduces water consumption, chemical use, and energy consumption,
making it one of the most eco-friendly methods available. Additionally, ozone is a natural gas
that breaks down quickly into oxygen, leaving no harmful residue behind.

11.Which type of washing and/or dry process will be carried out to obtain
this effect:
The washing process that will be used to obtain this type of fading can be enzyme wash and
stone wash. Both enzyme and stones could are used at the same time as. The dry process that
we will carry out can be of two types, i.e., laser and pinky spray (KMnO4). Pinky spray can be
done on thighs to get the fading effect. Then laser can be used to get the stripes and distressed
effect. However, we can skip the KMnO4 spray and get the fading on thighs by using laser
only.
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