Army Code No 71568

(Pam 10)

Military Engineering
Volume II
Field Engineering

Pamphlet No 10
Basic Structures for
Operations

1995
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 Army Code No 71568 (Pam 10)
D/HQDT/18/27/15

Military Engineering Volume II

Field Engineering
Pamphlet No 10
Basic Structures for
Operations

Prepared under the direction

of the Chief of the General Staff
Ministry of Defence
December 1995
Crown Copyright Reserved

1995
 CONDITIONS OF RELEASE

(Applicable to copies supplied with Ministry of Defence approval to Commonwealth

and Foreign Governments).

1. This information is released by the United Kingdom Government to the

recipient Government for Defence purposes only.

2. This information must be accorded the same degree of security protection as

that accorded thereto by the United Kingdom Government.

3. This information may be disclosed only within the Defence Department of the
recipient Government, except as otherwise authorized by the Ministry of Defence
(Army).

4. This information may be subject to privately owned rights.

ii
CONTENTS
Section Page

CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

1.1 Introduction 1-1

1.2 Types of members 1-3
1.3 Connectors 1-7
1.4 Weapon effects 1-9
1.5 Units and conversion factors 1-15

CHAPTER 2 MATERIALS 2-1

CHAPTER 3 CAUSES OF FAILURE IN

STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

3.1 Ties 3-1

3.2 Struts 3-3
3.3 Cantilevers and simply supported beams 3-5
3.4 Concrete members 3-11
3.5 Brickwork and Masonry 3-13
3.6 Ropes 3-15

CHAPTER 4 LOADING ON STRUCTURES

4.1 Types of loads 4-1

4.2 Wind loads 4-5

CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

5.1 Introduction 5-1
5.2 Stability and equilibrium of forces 5-3
5.3 Resolution of forces 5-9
5.4 Method of sections 5-15
5.5 Bending theory 5-17
5.6 Bending moments, shear force and deflection in beams 5-21
5.7 Stress and strain 5-31
CHAPTER 6 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES
6.1 Timber 6-1
6.2 Steel 6-11
6.3 Concrete 6-17
6.4 Bricks and Mortar 6-21
6.5 Blocks 6-29

iii
Issue 1.1: Nov 03
Section Page
CHAPTER 7 CONNECTIONS

7.1 Timber connections - General 7-1

7.2 Timber connections - Nailed joints 7-3
7.3 Timber connections - Screwed joints 7-11
7.4 Timber connections - Bolted joints 7-15
7.5 Other timber connectors 7-21
7.6 Connection of metal members 7-23
7.7 Metal connections - Welding 7-25
7.8 Bolted metal connections 7-37

CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF SIMPLE TIES

8.1 Effective cross sectional area 8-1

8.2 Timber ties 8-3
8.3 Steel ties 8-7

CHAPTER 9 DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED

STRUTS AND COLUMNS

9.1 Timber struts 9-1

9.2 Steel struts and columns 9-5

CHAPTER 10 DESIGN OF BEAMS

10.1 Timber beams 10-1

10.2 Steel beams 10-11
10.3 Reinforced concrete beams and slabs 10-15

CHAPTER 11 SCAFFOLDING

11.1 Introduction 11-1

11.2 A brief guide to good practice 11-5
11.3 Design data and procedure 11-9
11.4 Load bearing scaffolding - Design example 11-29
11.5 Horizontally loaded structures 11-41
11.6 Detailed design procedure - Horizontally loaded structure 11-45
11.7 Horizontally loaded structure - Design example 11-55

ANNEXES

A Grade stresses and Young's modulus for timber by

strength class in wet exposure condition A-1
B Geometrical properties of softwoods B-1
C Dimensions and properties of steel sections C-1

iv Issue 1.1: Nov 03

Figure Page

FIGURES

1/1 Structural member subject to tension 1-3

1/2 Structural member subject to compression 1-3
1/3 Structural member subject to bending 1-4
1/4 Simply supported beam 1-4
1/5 Cantilever beam 1-4
1/6 Continuous beam 1-5
1/7 Principles of connectors 1-7
1/8 Protection parameters - 155mm shell 1-13

3/1 Effective area of ties 3-1

3/2 Bolt hole failures 3-2
3/3 Failures in struts 3-3
3/4 Bending stresses in beam 3-5
3/5 Lateral buckling in steel sections 3-6
3/6 Shear failure 3-7
3/7 Timber failure in shear along the grain 3-7
3/8 I-beam bearing failure 3-8
3/9 Web buckling 3-8
3/10 Stress reversal in reinforced concrete beam 3-9

4/1 Loads on structures 4-2

4/2 Basic wind speed 4-6
4/3 Sectional steel tank loading example 4-12
4/4 Example 2, Wind loading 4-14
4/5 Wind loading of tank and tower 4-16

5/1 Horizontal equilibrium 5-3

5/2 Rotational equilibrium 5-4
5/3 Sanger 5-4
5/4 Simply supported beam 5-7
5/5 Shear legs - Non axial loads 5-9
5/6 Forces at right angles 5-9
5/7 Resolution of a force 5-10
5/8 Resolution of forces 5-11
5/9 Method of sections 5-15
5/10 Section modulus equation 5-17
5/11 Force couple under bending 5-18
5/12 Stress 5-31
5/13 Strain 5-31
5/14 Stress-strain relationship 5-32

6/1 Effective lengths of columns or struts 6-5

6/2 Degrees of lateral support for timber beams 6-6

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 v

Figure Page

6/3 The behaviour of mild steel under stress 6-12

6/4 Cracking of brick structures 6-22
6/5 Loading capacity of 90 mm single leaf brick wall 6-25
6/6 Loading capacity of 102.5 mm single leaf brick wall 6-26
6/7 Loading capacity of 215 mm single leaf brick wall 6-27

7/1 Shaped timber joints 7-1

7/2 Minimum nail spacings for timber joints 7-4
7/3 Nailing definitions 7-5
7/4 Bolt spacing for joints in timber 7-16
7/5 Multiple shear loads in timber joints 7-17
7/6 Timber connectors 7-21
7/7 Oxy-acetylene welding equipment 7-25
7/8 Electric arc welding equipment 7-26
7/9 Butt and fillet welds 7-27
7/10 Weld nomenclature 7-28
7/11 Fillet welds - dimensions 7-30
7/12 Spacing of long fillet welds 7-31
7/13 Welding faults 7-33
7/14 Bolts in tension 7-37
7/15 Bolts in shear 7-38
7/16 Bolt spacing rules 7-42
7/17 Use of tapered washers in bolted steelwork 7-43

8/1 Effective cross sectional area 8-1

8/2 Lug angles 8-8
8/3 Tie end connections 8-10

9/1 Single angle used as a strut 9-5

10/1 Reinforced concrete bending 10-19

10/2 Reinforced concrete nomenclature 10-20
10/3 Reinforced concrete beam design 10-28
10/4 Concrete slab design 10-30

11/1 Components of load bearing scaffold 11-3

11/2 Allowable concentric axial loads/ effective length for
steel standards 11-12
11/3 Allowable eccentric axial loads/effective length for
struts in steel 11-13
11/4 Allowable load/span graph for tube in bending -
Uniformly distributed load 11-14
11/5 Allowable load/span graph for tube in bending -
Central point load 11-15
11/6 Typical sheeting layout 11-17
11/7 Safe working loads for props 11-18
11/8 The basic components of a horizontally loaded structure 11-41
Issue 1.1: Nov 03
vi
Figure Page

11/9 Guide to good practice 11-43

11/10 Effective lengths of raking tubes 11-51

TABLES

1-1 Small arms effects on materials 1-11

4-1 Static Loadings (BS 6399: Part 1) 4-4
4-2 Ground roughness, building size and height above
ground. Factor S2 2
4-8
4-3 Dynamic wind pressure, q N/m 4-9
4-4 Force coefficients, Cf 4-10
4-5 Wind loading - Simplified guide 4-11
5-1 Values of A, r, I and Z for simple sections 5-18
5-2 Simply supported beam bending moment, shear force
and deflection formulae 5-22
5-3 Cantilever bending moment, shear force and
deflection formulae 5-23
6-1 Modification factor K1 - Geometrical properties under
wet exposure conditions 6-2
6-2 Modification factor K2 - Stresses and moduli under
wet exposure conditions 6-3
6-3 Modification factor K3 - Duration of loading 6-3
6-4 Maximum depth to breadth ratios 6-6
6-5 Modification factor K12 for compression members 6-9
6-6 Maximum permissible stresses for steel 6-12
6-7 Permissible stresses for axial compression of mild steel 6-14
6-8 Effective lengths for beams 6-15
6-9 Permissible compressive
2
bending stresses for mild
steel beams (N/mm ) 6-16
6-10 Practical concrete mixes for small batches 6-19
6-11 Brick classification 6-21
6-12 Mortar mixes 6-22
6-13 Brick class matched to mortar 6-23
6-14 Compressive stresses for brickwork walls 6-24
6-15 Reduction factors for slenderness (axially loaded
members) 6-24
6-16 Characteristic compressive strength of blockwork
with blocks having a ratio of height to least horizontal
dimension of 0.6 6-29
6-17 Characteristic compressive strength of blockwork
with hollow blocks having a ratio of height to least
horizontal dimension of between 2.0 and 4.0 6-30
6-18 Characteristic compressive strength of blockwork
with solid concrete blocks having a ratio of height to
least horizontal dimension of between 2.0 and 4.0 6-30

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 vii

Table Page

7-1 Minimum nail spacings 7-4

7-2 Basic single shear lateral loads for round wire nails
driven at right angles to the grain 7-6
7-3 Withdrawal loads for round wire nails driven at right-
angles to the grain in green timber 7-8
7-4 Basic single shear lateral loads for wood screws
driven at right angles to the grain 7-13
7-5 Basic withdrawal loads for wood screws inserted at
right-angles to the grain 7-14
7-6 Basic shear loads for one bolt in a two member joint 7-18
7-7 Modification factor K57 for lines of bolts 7-19
7-8 Safe load for timber connectors 7-22
7-9 Strength of full penetration butt welds for mild steel
and high yield steel 7-29
7-10 Strength of fillet welds using mild steel 7-32
7-11 Shearing and bearing values in kilonewtons for black
bolts of strength grade 4.6 in 2mm clearance holes 7-39
7-12 Shearing and bearing values in kilonewtons for black
bolts of strength grade 8.8 in 2mm clearance holes 7-40
7-13 Bolt spacing 7-41
7-14 Spacing of holes in columns and beams 7-44
7-15 Spacing of holes in joists and tees 7-44
7-16 Spacing of holes in channels 7-44
7-17 Spacing of holes in angles 7-45
10-1 Approximate densities of common timbers by strength
class and description 10-2
10-2 Prescribed mix for concrete with seven
2
days
compressive strength of 15 N/mm 10-21
10-3 Safe bending moment capacity (kNm) per metre width:
Reinforced concrete beams and slabs 10-23
10-4 Safe shear force capacity (kN) per metre width:
Reinforced concrete beams and slabs 10-24
10-5 Cross sectional area of single bars at different spacings
(sq mm per metre width of slab) 10-25
10-6 Link spacing (mm) for given beam width and bar
diameter 10-26
11-1 Tubular scaffolding - steel tubes. Physical properties
and specification 11-9
11-2 Tubular scaffolding - aluminium alloy tubes
(BS 1139:1964) Physical properties and specification 11-10
11-3 Nominal properties of steel and aluminium alloy tubes
used in scaffolding 11-11
11-4 Safe working loads for couplers and individual fittings
(steel) 11-16
11-5 Detailed design procedure 11-20

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

viii
Table Page

A-1 Grade stresses and Young's modulus for timber by

strength class in wet exposure condition A-1
B-1 Geometrical properties of softwoods B-1
C-1 Dimensions and properties of universal beams C-2
C-2 Dimensions and properties of universal columns C-8
C-3 Dimensions and properties of joists C-10
C-4 Dimensions and properties of channels C-12
C-5 Dimensions and properties of equal angles C-14
C-6 Dimensions and properties of unequal angles C-18
C-7 End bearing and buckling values for universal beams with
unstiffened webs in steel grade 43 C-20
C-8 End bearing and buckling values for universal columns
with unstiffened webs in steel grade 43 C-23
C-9 End bearing and buckling values for joist sections with
unstiffened webs in steel grade 43 C-24
C-10 End bearing and buckling values for channels with
unstiffened webs in steel grade 43 C-25

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 ix

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
x
 CHAPTER 1 GENERAL

SECTION 1.1 INTRODUCTION

0101. Aim. The aim of this pamphlet is to enable field units to design and build
basic structures, in an operational area, which are suitable to the task,
safe, economical in material and will last the projected length of the
operation.

0102. Application and scope. The design methods discussed in the pamphlet
are safe for structures intended to last up to two years and should be able
to be used by officers and senior NCOs without specialist training in
construction engineering.

0103. While most of the techniques described in the pamphlet may be used for
administrative and communications structures between the front line and
the rear areas they can also be used for the design of defensive positions.
Even behind the front line, structures can be subject to enemy action.
Section 1.4 discusses weapon effects and gives guidance to enable at
least some resistance to attack to be designed into the structure.

0104. The design procedures, in some cases, have been simplified because they
are intended to be used for structures which are needed quickly, but will be
in use for a relatively short time. The construction of field defences in the
front line is well known, practised and covered in ME Volume II, Pam 2. In
the rear areas, where considerable structural effort may be needed, the
construction units, STREs and RE professional engineers will be deployed.
They have access to more sophisticated design methods.

0105. It is always possible to sketch out a plan, without formal design, based on
the properties of the materials available and to produce a structure.
However:

a. The structure could be unsafe or unstable. Even in war this is not

acceptable.

b. It is possibly more important that a design should save materials,

manpower and time, all of which are in short supply in any theatre of
operations.

0106. The design of beams and foundations using concrete is included, but no
attempt is made to cover the design of complete concrete structures.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 1-1

0107. Chapters 1 to 7 introduce concepts and techniques providing background
to the design of structures. Subsequent chapters cover the design of
structural members and structures in timber, steel, concrete, brickwork,
blockwork and scaffolding.

0108. Other related manuals on the design and construction of basic structures
are ME Vol II Pam 1 and ME Vol III, Part 1 to which reference is made in
the text.

0109. Eurocodes and Limit State Design philosophies have been introduced for
steel, concrete, timber and wind loading. However, Permissible Stress
Design, as used in this manual, is still a valid and simple methodology that
takes into consideration the large variations in material quality that can be
found on operations, without the application of complicated partial safety
factors.

0110. Spare.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

1-2
 SECTION 1.2 TYPES OF MEMBERS
0111. Whatever the form of a structure it will have up to three types of structural
member. This may not be immediately apparent in the case of concrete or
brickwork but nonetheless the principle applies. Structural members are
joined by connectors.

0112. Ties. Ties are structural members under axial tension. There is no
bending. A tie stretches under load and fails by cracking at its weakest
point (see Figure 1/1). A tie is not designed to take compression. It can,
for example, be made of steel wire rope (SWR).

Stretches then cracks

Fig 1/1. Structural member subject to tension

0113. Struts. Struts are structural members under axial compression. The line of
action of the load coincides with the centre of gravity and there is no
bending in an ideal strut. A strut is not designed to take tension and can
be a stack of unbonded bricks. However, a strut may have to act as a tie
and vice versa. Materials can be selected so that a member can take
tension (Tie) and compression (Strut). A strut normally fails by buckling.

Shortens and wrinkles

Fig 1/2. Structural member subject to compression.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 1-3

0114. Beams. Beams are structural members subject to bending. When a beam
is loaded it starts to bend. The bending is resisted by the top shortening
and becoming compressed and the bottom stretching placing the fibres in
tension. The compressive and tensile forces increase from the centre (the
neutral axis) of the beam to reach maximum values in the outer fibres.

Top shortens = compression

Bottom stretches = tension

Fig 1/3. Structural member subject to bending.

0115. There are three main categories of beam:

a. Simply supported beams. Simply supported beams rest on two bearings

with no restraint other than the vertical support of the bearings and
some horizontal restraint.

Fig 1/4. Simply supported beam.

b. Cantilever beams. Cantilever beams have one end fixed firmly so that it
cannot move in any direction. It should be noted that the stresses in a
cantilever beam are reversed when compared to a simply supported
beam. The top is in tension and the bottom is in compression.

Fig 1/5. Cantilever beam.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

1-4
 c. Continuous beams. Continuous beams are supported on three or more
bearings and are not covered as such in this pamphlet. More
information is given in ME Vol III Part 1 and ME Vol XIV.

Fig 1/6. Continuous beam.

0116. Spare.
to
0120.

1-5
1-6
 SECTION 1.3 CONNECTORS
0121. In almost all cases the members making up a structure must be joined
together by some form of connector. There are two main classes of
connector used in structural work:

a. Rigid connectors. Rigid connectors are part of the structure. They fix
members in relation to each other on all axes and can transmit forces
and moments.

b. Pin joints. Pin joints connect members but do not, in themselves,

prevent the members rotating in relation to each other and can transmit
axial loads and shear, but not moments.

0122. Calculations for rigid connectors are beyond the scope of this pamphlet
and all connectors are considered to be pin joints. Where a connector
introduces stiffness to a structure that structure will be stronger than the
design indicates. A rectangle with pin joints is a mechanism; a triangle is a
structure.

0123. Connectors are often overlooked in the design phase and given scant
attention during construction; failures in connectors are a common cause
of structural failure.

(a) Rigid Connectors

(b) Pin Joints - Mechanism

(c) Pin Joints - Structure

Fig 1/7. Principles of connectors.

0124. Spare.
to
0130.
1-7
1-8
 SECTION 1.4 WEAPON EFFECTS
0131. While this pamphlet is intended to enable structures to be designed for
use, for the most part, just out of the front line it is useful to have some
idea what effects enemy action will have on them and to be able to
estimate the resistance of the structure to attack. Given some basic
information about the effects of various weapons on structures it will often
be possible to modify the design at little extra cost in time or material to
give a known degree of protection. Alternatively, if the weapons likely to
be used in the area are known, it may be possible to provide a significant
degree of protection from them.

0132. The figures given must be used in conjunction with other precautions
against enemy attack. These include such things as ensuring that the
enemy cannot approach easily by removing cover for a known distance;
the protective measures can then be based on weapons fired from that
range.

0133. Clearly it is almost impossible to design against a continuous barrage, a

direct hit from an artillery shell or within certain distances of ground zero of
a nuclear weapon. However, if one considers a relatively small structure in
a sizeable target area, most strikes could be near misses.

0134. It is difficult to guarantee the total protection of personnel or equipment in a

building or emplacement particularly if people have to enter or leave the
structure and more so if it is to be used for observation or as a fire base.
Nonetheless, it is possible to give a considerable degree of protection by
careful siting, design and the selection of materials. Often this can be
achieved without needing greater resources.

0135. In the field, the more sophisticated ways of providing protection against
weapon effects are probably impracticable. There are, however, four
principles which can be applied to reduce the effects of weapons on
structures:

a. Cover from view. Cover from view screens and communications

trenches do not necessarily provide physical protection but they do
prevent the enemy, and particularly snipers, having precise aiming
marks. They also conceal the amount of activity in a particular location.

b. Design. Structures can be designed so that blast and shrapnel go past

the entrance to a structure rather than into it. They can sometimes be
shaped to deflect blast past the structure.

1-9
 c. Distance. The further away from a structure the enemy has to operate
the less accurate will be his fire. This can be achieved by ensuring that
he has no cover for as far as possible.

d. Reinforcement, redundancy and sacrificial elements. This principle

applies mainly to existing structures which can be reinforced both to
strengthen the structure and to provide redundant supports so that the
loss of, say, a load bearing pillar does not cause the collapse of the
structure. It may be possible to decree that the top floor of a building
will not be used and similarly, corridors or rooms facing the enemy. The
empty spaces can be used to dissipate or negate the effects of enemy
weapons. Screens can also be erected away from the building to cause
premature detonation of explosive ordnance.

0136. The principles outlined above are covered in ME Vol II, Pamphlet 2, Field
Fortifications. There are two areas in which the data given in this pamphlet
can be used to ensure the maximum protection. These are the selection of
the most suitable materials and designing the structure to withstand attack.
The selection of materials is most useful in countering small arms fire
while, with some knowledge of the forces involved, structures can be
designed to resist blast from explosive ordnance.

0137. Materials. The resistance of various materials to small arms fire is fairly
well documented so the thickness required to stop bullets can be
estimated. Table G-1 in ME Vol II, Pamphlet 2, Field Fortifications, gives a
summary of the thickness of various materials needed to stop small arms
fire and shrapnel in general. Table 1-1 goes into some more detail but it
must always be remembered that materials will vary in quality as will the
quality of construction. It will also seldom be possible to determine which
weapons the enemy will use although it may be possible to say which
weapons are not in theatre. Shell fragments will almost always be stopped
by the minimum thickness of each material given for bullets.

0138. Explosive ordnance. Any building constructed above ground using the
methods and techniques available to units in the field will be vulnerable to
direct hits from tanks and artillery firing HE and rockets unless there are
sacrificial elements. Some protection can be given against solid shot but
the quantity of material will be considerable. Underground structures can
be designed to reduce the effects of artillery fire. The detailed calculations
of the forces acting when HE detonates are beyond the scope of this
pamphlet as they require the size and velocity of the incoming round
together with a fairly detailed knowledge of the soil type and condition.
While it must be assumed that a direct hit on any rapidly constructed
underground position must almost certainly result in its destruction, it is

1-10
 TABLE 1-1 SMALL ARMS EFFECTS ON MATERIALS
Thickness Required (mm)

Ser Typical Cal Range High Christchurch Reinf Timber Compact Brick MS Armour
Weapon Density Block Block Concrete & Soil Soil Plate
(10.5N/mm )
2 2 2
(mm) (m) (28N/mm ) (23N/mm )

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)

1. 9 mm Pistol 9 0 75 55 55 170 85 50 6 4
50 65 50 50 150 75 45 5 4
100 60 45 50 140 70 40 5 3

2. 5.56 mm 5.56 0 220 145 155 810 405 265 21 15

Armalite 50 200 130 140 780 390 235 19 14
100 180 115 125 720 360 220 17 12
200 145 95 105 570 285 171 14 10

3. 7.62 mm SLR 7.62 0 270 175 190 1050 525 315 23 17

AP (NATO) 50 250 160 175 990 495 300 22 16
100 235 150 165 930 465 280 21 15
200 200 130 140 840 420 235 18 13

4. 0.5 Inch 12.7 0 500 325 355 1950 975 585 41 30

50 475 310 335 1860 930 550 39 29
100 450 295 320 1770 885 535 37 27
200 410 265 290 1620 810 485 34 25

5. 20 mm 20.0 0 735 475 520 2880 1440 865 59 43

Recoilless 50 680 440 480 2670 1335 800 56 40
Rifle PVG 100 630 410 445 2460 1230 740 51 37
M142 (APT) 200 540 350 385 2130 1065 640 44 32
1-11
 possible to take a single, commonly used munition and work out figures
for the cover needed and the forces applied to it by the detonation
outside an envelope around the structure. This is a valid approach as,
provided the structures are reasonably well spaced, most shots will be
misses.

0139. For planning purposes the munition to be considered is a 155mm howitzer

shell bursting at least 10m overhead or on the surface at least 2m from the
nearest wall of the structure (see Fig 1/8). Using these parameters:

a. The top loading for an air burst should be assumed to be 21 kN/m2 in

addition to any dead load.

b. For a ground level burst at least two metres from any structure showing
above ground level, the walls should be designed to take a load of
21kN/m2 horizontally. They must be designed as beams to withstand
the over pressure force and must also have restraints to prevent
overturning.

c. The effects of a delay fuze detonation 2m underground at least 2m from

the nearest wall are very dependent upon soil type. However, some
protection will be given if the walls are designed to take 42kN/m 2
horizontally. Once again, the walls must be restrained against tipping or
sliding against the same forces. Particular care is required to tie or
brace in the footings to ensure they are not pushed inwards.

0140. Chatham Arch. The Chatham Arch has been found to be capable of
surviving a 10m airburst or a ground burst at least 2m away. It may have
to have footings along the bottom of the split hairpins, or pads at the
corners, to prevent it being pushed further into the earth and horizontal
restraints to prevent horizontal movement. Unless spacers are placed
between the footings it is unlikely to withstand an underground burst at the
same range.

0141. Spare.
to
0144.

1-12
 ;;;
;
Overhead Burst 155mm Shell

;;;
;

10m

Overhead Protection

155mm Ground Burst Shell

;;;
;
;;;
;
1.8m Revetting 2.0m

;;;
;
;;;
;
155mm Delayed Fuse
2.0m Ground Burst Shell

0.75m

Fig 1/8. Protection parameters - 155mm shell

1-13
1-14
 SECTION 1.5 UNITS AND CONVERSION
FACTORS
0145. Units.

a. SI

Newton N Kilonewton kN

Millimetre mm Metre m

b. Metric Technical

Kilogram kg Tonne t

0146. Conversion factors.

1000 mm = 1m

1000 kg = 1 tonne

1 kg = a force of 10 N

(Strictly, 1 kg = 9.81 N but the simplified conversion is acceptable for

almost all structural calculations and is accurate to two per cent. Work
in kN for consistency in calculations. In summary, a weight of 1 kg
exerts a force of 10 N under the influence of gravity).

1-15
1-16
 CHAPTER 2 MATERIALS

SECTION 2.1 INTRODUCTION

0201. The most usual materials that can be used for structures, and which are
widely available, are timber, steel, concrete, brick and masonry. Rock and
soil may be required for foundations. Other made up materials such as
cordage, steel wire rope and chains, together with pulley blocks and other
fittings, are also commonly used.

0202. A basic knowledge of the properties, and limitations, of the materials used
is necessary in order to be able to make the most effective use of the
material available and to know what to order. Common field engineering
materials are described in ME Vol II Pam 1, but detailed design data is
given in this pamphlet.

0203. Structures rely on natural or artificially created foundations. Information on

the characteristics of common rocks and soils is contained in ME Vol II
Pam 1 and ME Vol IV.

0204. Scaffolding. Scaffolding in its various forms, can be treated as structural

steel or aluminium but is dealt with separately in Chapter 11. Scaffolding
systems have been designed for specific uses and the relevant stresses
and loadings predetermined. The calculations for a wide range of
structures are therefore relatively simple and straightforward.

2-1
2-2
 CHAPTER 3 CAUSES OF FAILURE IN
STRUCTURAL MEMBERS

SECTION 3.1 TIES

0301. Ties fail for three main reasons:

a. Account may not have been taken of the smallest cross sectional area
of the tie within its overall length. This is particularly important when
using second hand materials. Any hole or notch will reduce the effective
cross sectional area. This is illustrated in Figure 3/1.

b. The material may not be up to standard. Account must be taken of

defects in and possible deterioration of material if it is being re-used or
has had to be acquired from sources other than proper suppliers.

c. The connection at the end of the tie may fail as a result of the parent
material failing in one of the modes shown in Figure 3/2, or as a result
of the bolts in the connection failing.

Min area

Tie bar

Design the tie using the smallest

cross-sectional area.

Min area

Picket

Fig 3/1. Effective area of ties.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 3-1

 (a) Plate tearing (b) Ovalling of holes (plate
crushing in bearing)

(c) Plate shearing (d) Plate bursting

Fig 3/2. Bolt hole failures.

0302. Spare.
to
0310.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

3-2
 SECTION 3.2 STRUTS
0311. Struts fail in two different modes which are illustrated in Figure 3/3. The
mode of failure will depend upon the ratio of the length to the cross
sectional area of the strut (Slenderness Ratio). A short, thick strut has a
low slenderness ratio while a long, thin one has a high slenderness ratio.

(a) Crushing (b) Buckling

Fig 3/3. Failures in struts.

0312. Crushing. Short struts tend to fail on overload by crushing or squashing. A

ductile material can squash without necessarily breaking. Other materials
will shatter (concrete) or splinter and disintegrate (timber.)

0313. Buckling. Longer struts tend to fail due to buckling. Buckling is when a
member deflects in a direction perpendicular to the direction of the applied
load.

0314. Spare.
to
0320.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 3-3

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
3-4
 SECTION 3.3 CANTILEVERS AND SIMPLY
SUPPORTED BEAMS
0321. The failure of ties and struts is fairly easy to understand. Beams, on the
other hand, can fail in a variety of different ways:

a. Bending stress failure.

b. Longitudinal buckling or lateral torsional buckling (for steel beams).

c. Shear failure.

d. Bearing failure.

e. Web buckling (for steel beams).

f. Excessive deflection.

0322. Bending stresses. A beam fails when the stresses in the outermost fibres
exceed the maximum permissible stress. Note that the stresses in a
cantilever are reversed with respect to a simply supported beam. In
reinforced concrete the tensile stresses are carried almost entirely by the
steel reinforcement which will be some 50 mm inside the surface of the
beam.

Compression

Tension

Compressive outer fibre

Neutral Axis

Tensile outer fibre

Fig 3/4. Bending stresses in beam.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 3-5

0323. Lateral buckling. When the flange of a steel beam is placed into tension
under bending, the opposite flange will be in compression. This results in
the compression flange behaving in a similar manner to that of a slender
strut, ie it tends to buckle laterally out of alignment. Resistance to lateral
buckling depends on the following:

a. The level of fixity at the ends of the section.

b. The amount of restraint along the length of the compression flange.

c. The slenderness of the section.

Clamped at root

Tension

Compression

Unloaded
position

Buckled
position

Dead Weight Load

applied vertically

Fig 3/5. Lateral buckling in steel sections.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

3-6
0324. Shear failure. A beam must be able to withstand the maximum shear force
imposed on it at any point. The way in which an overload beam will fail with
excessive shear force depends upon the material and the structure of the
beam:

a. Pure shear. Pure shear can only occur in an homogeneous material

which is equally strong in all directions as is the case with most metals.
In flanged steel beams, other modes of failure are likely to occur first.

Fig 3/6. Shear Failure.

b. Timber beam failure. Timber is weak in shear along the gain.

Overstressing and severe distortion cause the layers along the grain to
slide over each other. Longitudinal cracks appear and the cohesion and
structure of the wood are destroyed.

Fig 3/7. Timber failure in shear along the grain.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 3-7

0325. Bearing failure. Some beams, especially when short and heavily loaded,
fail in bearing at their supports or at point loads. The failure is a crushing of
the beam material in the support region. In steel I-beams the crushing will
usually occur at the joint between the web and the flange. In timber
members the section fails in compression perpendicular to the grain.

Crushing

Fig 3/8. I-beam bearing failure.

0326. Web buckling. The web of a beam can buckle in the same way as a strut.
The failure occurs in areas of high concentrated loads such as supports or
point loads.

Fig 3/9. Web buckling.

0327. Excessive deflection. Excessive deflection could make the beam

unserviceable and not fit for its purpose when used for such things as
lintels, floors and bridges. Even when it can be shown that the excessive
deflection is safe, users will be apprehensive. Structures must look and
feel stable.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

3-8
0328. Stress reversal. If a reinforced concrete beam is designed to be simply
supported the majority of the reinforcement will be in the bottom. It may fail
if it is lifted in the centre when the relatively lightly reinforced top will be in
tension (see Figure 3/10).

Link hangers in
tension

Main reinforcement
in compression

Fig 3/10. Stress reversal in reinforced concrete beam.

0329. Spare.
to
0330.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 3-9

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
3-10
 SECTION 3.4 CONCRETE MEMBERS

0331. Concrete will almost always be used in the form of struts, columns, beams
and slabs. Slabs can be regarded as special varieties of beams. Concrete
itself cannot take tensile loads and cannot, technically, be used for ties.
However, the reinforcement can be designed to take the full tensile load.
The concrete then acts only as cladding in tension, but enables the
member to be effective in compression if there is a stress reversal.

0332. Concrete will fail on overload in most of the modes described for other
materials. Compared with steel and timber it is a brittle material so will
shatter on crushing and crack under tension or in buckling.

0333. Concrete can fail in other ways which will be described. However, it must
be stressed that the failure is uncommon and is almost always a result of
faulty mixing or placing. Many faults will not lead to failure in the lifetimes of
structures used in operations.

0334. Causes of failure of concrete.

a. Overheating while curing. The chemical reactions which cause concrete

to set and cure generate heat. If concrete is allowed to heat up too
much while it sets stresses can be set up which crack the partially cured
concrete. Therefore concrete must be properly cured once placed in
position. If the ambient temperature is much over 26oC green concrete
should be kept cool and damp by flooding it with water and covering it
with something like wet hessian or sandbags.

b. Spalling. If the concrete does have cracks, water and air can get in. In
winter, water in the cracks can freeze generating large forces which can
make lumps of concrete spall off. The resulting reduction in cross-
section can weaken the member and allow exposure of the
reinforcement to air and water causing rusting. This weakens the
member even more and may cause failure. It is important to check that
reinforcement has enough cover of concrete, usually 30 - 50 mm, and
that binding and support wires do not link formwork to reinforcement.

c. Segregation. If concrete is carried across rough ground or over-vibrated

in situ, particularly if it is a wet mix, the cement grout and aggregate can
separate. Sometimes the aggregate will separate in itself so the end
result is pure cement on top, sand and fine aggregate in the middle and
coarse aggregate with very little cement at the bottom. Even in ground
floor slabs this is unsatisfactory and in walls and roofs it cannot be
accepted.

3-11
 d. Voids. If concrete is not placed and compacted correctly voids can be
left in the structure which may or may not be visible when the formwork
is removed. Voids are most likely when closely spaced reinforcement is
used and the largest size of aggregate in the concrete mix has not been
related to the reinforcement design. Voids clearly have a serious effect
upon the strength of a member and are often difficult to detect. In
general, they should not occur in the size of structure covered by this
book, but care should be taken to match aggregate size to the spacing
of reinforcing bars and compact correctly.

e. Low temperatures. If concrete is placed when the temperature is near,

but above, freezing it will take longer to set and cure, but should be
perfectly acceptable as long as it is not loaded too soon. If it is placed
when the temperature is below freezing there is a risk that the water in
the concrete will freeze before it reacts with the cement. If reinforcement
is being used, the water can freeze round the steel which will prevent
the concrete bonding to it even if the bulk of it does set. Overall, the
risks are that the concrete will be weak if not useless because the
cement will not have reacted with the water. The water, in turn, will have
expanded as it froze and may have cracked any concrete that has set. If
it is essential to pour concrete in freezing conditions warm water can be
used and the reinforcement and formwork preheated. Under these
conditions, any concrete should be placed mid-morning to allow the first
set to occur during the warmest part of the day. The work should, if at
all possible, be insulated with hessian or fibreglass and waterproof
sheeting so the heat of reaction of the setting concrete can be used to
help to keep temperatures up.

f. Impact. Because it is brittle, concrete is less resistant to impact than

timber or steel which may deform, but tend to hold together under
impact loads. Concrete will take a considerable impact with nothing
more than some chipping. However, a point is reached where it will
shatter leaving exposed reinforcement and greatly reduced
compressive strength.

0335. Spare.
to
0340.

3-12
 SECTION 3.5 BRICKWORK AND MASONRY

0341. General. Brickwork and masonry cannot take bending or shear. They
therefore fail by crushing, failure of the material itself or failure of bonding.

0342. Crushing. Bricks and masonry are dense materials so most of the weight
of a structure is self-weight. If the wrong bricks are used in the lower
courses, particularly the base courses, they can be crushed by the courses
above even before the structure is loaded.

0343. Material failure. Bricks, and less so masonry, are porous. If water gets
into them it can freeze and split the material. The usual entry points for
water are the top and through the mortar joints. All walls should be
protected at the top and joints should be sealed with pointing. Class 1
bricks are for internal work only. Class 2A and 2B bricks can be used for
external work but not in very exposed conditions or below the damp proof
course (DPC) where higher classification bricks should be used (see Table
6-11).

0344. Bonding failure. The mortar bonding bricks and masonry can fail in two
ways:

a. If the mortar joints are not pointed, water can get into the bond which
can break up when the water freezes.

b. Settlement cracks can appear in the mortar. Indeed, the mortar should
be designed to ensure that they occur in the bond where they are fairly
easy to repair rather than in the bricks. The mortar should always be
slightly weaker than the brick or masonry. If the mortar is the stronger
the bricks will tend to crack.

0345. Spare.
to
0349.

3-13
3-14
 SECTION 3.6 ROPES

0350. Ropes can be used only as ties and can never take bending or
compression.

0351. If the ropes have been selected correctly for the task any failure will usually
occur at the ends or where they touch other members.

0352. The prime causes of failures at the ends are:

a. Fastenings. Poorly made or loose connections can become undone.

Cordage can be secured perfectly satisfactorily using the correct knots.
However, rope ends should be seized to the standing part particularly if
the structure is likely to flex or vibrate. ME Vol II Pam 1, Basic Field
Engineering, gives good coverage of knots and lashings. While SWR
can be spliced, it is a difficult skill to acquire. It should usually be
fastened with clamps as described in ME Vol II Pam 1.

b. Short radius bends. All ropes are damaged if bent round too sharply.
SWR is particularly sensitive and should not be taken round a curve
with a diameter of less than 12 times that of the rope. Cordage can be
looped round relatively smaller diameters, but the aim should be to have
a minimum of six times the diameter of the rope. Cordage should never
bear against the corners of squared timber or any sharp edges on metal
such as flanges of girders or holes cut in them. Timber can be trimmed
or packed to reduce sharp curves. Structural steel can be fitted with
curved saddles or the rope can be fastened through a ring, shackle or,
best of all, a pulley block. Eyes at the end of any rope can be formed
round thimbles which ensure the correct curvature and protect the rope
from abrasion at the connection. The safe curvatures given earlier apply
to static ropes. The sheaves of blocks through which rope will move
under load should have minimum diameters of 18 and nine times the
diameter of SWR and cordage respectively. There are separate blocks
for cordage and SWR because the guides in the sheaves are matched
to the diameter of the rope. If the wrong block, or a wrong sized block, is
used the rope can be damaged by pinching or flattening in the groove of
the sheave when under full load.

0353. If a rope being used as a tie in a structure crosses over another member,
even another piece of rope, two things can happen:

a. The rope can be abraded if the structure flexes. Where crossovers

cannot be avoided the ropes can be protected with plastic or canvas
sleeves where they touch.

3-15
 b. If a rope under tension is pushed out of line sideways there is an
increase in the force along the rope out of all proportion to the force
used to displace it. If the rope can stretch no more, and the structure
cannot give, the rope could break or tear out of its anchorage.

0354. Natural fibre ropes shrink when wet. If a rope under tension gets wet it can
shrink enough to snap it or break the fastenings. Similarly, a wet rope
drying out may become too slack. If natural fibre ropes have to be used in
structures they should be protected from getting wet by greasing, painting
or being under cover. SWR and man-made fibre ropes are not affected in
this way.

0355. Man-made fibre ropes have a fairly low melting point, in the order of
200oC. They can be partially melted by abrasion particularly if run out
quickly round a stiff bearing such as a post. Local hardening of a rope is
an indication of heat damage.

0356. Natural fibre ropes smoulder and eventually burn in direct flame. A new
rope is little more susceptible to flame than timber, but an old rope with
frayed ends and loose fibres will burn much more easily.

0357. The permissable stresses in ropes and design calculations are described
in ME Vol II, Pam 1 and ME Vol III, Part 1 and not therefore included in
Chapter 6 of this manual.

3-16
 CHAPTER 4 LOADING ON STRUCTURES

SECTION 4.1 TYPES OF LOADS

0401. Introduction. All structures are subjected to four types of loading
illustrated in Figure 4/1:

a. Dead loads. These are the weights of materials in the structure and
cannot be changed except by redesign.

b. Live loads. These are variable loads from the use of the structure by
men, vehicles, furniture, stores, etc. Construction loads and snow loads
in winter must be allowed for in the design. Construction loads should
be carefully monitored because they will almost always be imposed on
an incomplete structure which may not be at full design strength.

c. Wind loads. Wind loading is a particularly important factor in the design

of temporary structures. By their very nature the structures will be as
light as possible with the minimum of foundations which will make them
sensitive to high winds. On the other hand, if the effect of wind is not
treated logically, it is possible to waste a lot of material making a
structure that will never shift. Those materials could well be used on
other tasks.

d. Enemy action. While not strictly a structural loading in a civil

engineering sense, many structures used in the field will be for defence
and others may be subject to enemy activity. It is not possible to design
against all forms of attack, but the degree of protection given by any
structure can be estimated and designs can be modified to increase the
protection. Chapter 1, Section 1.4 gives some weapon effects and
capabilities with sufficient information to enable structures to be
designed to give a known degree of protection.

0402. Dead load. The dead load is calculated by totalling the weights of all
components of the structure or, particularly with concrete placed in situ, by
taking the volume of the structure and multiplying it by the density of the
materials. Typical densities are:
3
a. Steel. 7840 kg/m . The weight per metre run of steel sections is always
listed in the tables of properties.
3
b. Concrete. 2400 kg/m . Wet concrete, which could be temporarily part of
3
the live loading, should be taken as 2600 kg/m .
3 3
c. Timber. 750 kg/m (SC3) to 1000 kg/m (SC5).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 4-1

 Dead load

Wind load

Live loads

Live load

Construction load

Fig 4/1. Loads on structures.

0403. Live loads.

a. Vehicle loads. These usually apply to bridges but ground level roof
slabs of underground structures may be crossed or used by vehicles in
which case they can be regarded as bridges. The parameters for the
design of slabs and beams based on military load classifications are in
ME Vol III Part 1 - Basic Bridging. It is sometimes necessary to design
using the actual weights and dimensions of vehicles.

b. Pedestrian loads. The most severe pedestrian loading likely to be

encountered is that of men crowded together and is in the order of 5.0
kN/m2. A fully laden foot soldier can be assumed to weigh 110 kg. Care
should be taken, with human loading, that worst case conditions are
assumed. The designer will not be on hand to direct how people should
behave on his structure! On a grandstand or an observation post people
tend to move towards the focus of interest and will pack in tightly to get
a good view; the effect of an off centre concentrated load which may
well be moving and changing must be taken into account.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

4-2
c. Static loads. Static loads are often forgotten. In buildings these include
things like furniture and filing cabinets. Heavy loads placed on tables
can cause very high point loading under the legs. In most cases the
flooring, which should be thick enough to resist bending, will be able to
take high point loads. These loads can be calculated individually, but
British Standard 6399: Part 1: 1984 gives standard loadings for most
situations. Some examples for institutional, ie military, occupation are
given in Table 4-1.

d. Snow loads. Loading of roofs by natural causes other than snow can
usually be ignored although in some parts of the world sand may have
to be considered especially on the tops of underground structures. In
temperate regions standard loadings for beaten snow and ice are
allowed for as follows:

(1) UK and central Europe - 1.5 kN/m2

(2) Scandinavia and Canada - 4.0 kN/m2

e. Construction loads. The ability of the structure to take construction

loads may have to be calculated. Concrete may be dumped prior to
placing or materials may be stockpiled on the partially completed
structure. It should be noted that materials may be loaded eccentrically
and that construction plant will almost certainly be used on the
structure. Concrete mixers and cranes will often be placed on the roofs
of underground structures. Hoists may be attached to partially
completed buildings.

4-3
 TABLE 4-1 STATIC LOADINGS (BS 6399: PART 1)

Intensity of Concentrated
Ser Floor area usage distributed load load
kN/m2 kN

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1. Dense mobile stacking 4.8 for each metre 7.0

(books) on mobile of stack height with
trolleys a minimum of 9.6

2. Stock rooms (books) 2.4 for each metre 7.0

of stack height with
a minimum of 6.5

3. Stationery stores 4.0 for each metre 9.0

of storage height

4. Plant rooms 7.5 4.5

5. Corridors 4.0 4.5

6. Bars 5.0 -

7. Assembly areas 5.0 3.6

8. Dining rooms, lounges 2.0 2.7

9. Bedrooms, dormitories 1.5 1.8

0404. Spare.
to
0405.

4-4
 SECTION 4.2 WIND LOADS
0406. As explained earlier, the effect of wind loading on temporary structures can
be critical and the loads have to be calculated; they cannot be added up
simply in the same ways as dead and live loads.

0407. General. Wind acting upon a structure causes loading which could make
the structure unstable particularly if it is incomplete or not fully loaded
vertically. For instance, an empty water tank on a tower is much less stable
than a full one because there is less vertical load to give a righting moment
to resist the overturning moment produced by the wind. All structures must
be designed to be stable during construction, when unloaded, partially
loaded and fully loaded. Wind may apply pressure or suction to a surface
depending upon the direction of the wind and the shape of the surface. In a
gale, windows are as likely to be sucked out of buildings by low pressure
downwind as they are of being blown in by the force of the gale upwind.
Wind may produce different loading conditions at various stages of
construction especially if temporary formwork and scaffolding are used.

0408. Basic wind speed V. The assessment of the wind loading is based upon
the basic wind speed relevant to the geographical area. The speed is
defined as that of a three second gust which, statistically, can be expected
to be exceeded only once in 50 years. For the United Kingdom, the chart at
Figure 4/2 may be used. Elsewhere, the basic wind speed may have to be
determined from local records or other intelligence. However, as a general
guide the maximum expected wind velocities which should be used are:

General inland - not unduly exposed - 36 m/s.

Inland exposed - 44 m/s.
Coastline or mountains, exposed - 56 m/s.
Known typhoon or tornado areas - 72 m/s.

0409. Design wind speed Vs. The design windspeed is based on the basic wind
speed modified by three factors, which are discussed below, and is given
by the formula:

Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3 m/s

a. Topography (Ground) factor, S1. The basic wind speed V applies to

open country with no obstructions. Local topographic features such as
hills, valleys, cliffs and ridges can significantly affect the wind speed in
their vicinity. The modification factor (S1), which should be applied for
the structures covered in this manual is:

4-5
 Map of Great Britain and Ireland HM HN HO JL
showing basic wind speed in m/s. 56 54
3 s gust speed likely to be HR HS HT HU JO

equalled
or exceeded on the average once
in 50 years at 10 m above the
ground in open level country. HW HX HY HZ JV

Lines are drawn at 2 m/s intervals.

NA NB NC NE OA

52
50
NF NJ NK OF

Inverness 48
NL NM Aberdeen OL

Perth Dundee

NQ NU OQ

Glasgow
Edinburgh 46

4
54 Londonderry NY NZ OV OW
Newcastle

Belfast
Carlisle

3
SC SE TB
York
Preston Leeds
Kingston upon Hull
52 Dublin Manchester
2 Liverpool
SH Sheffield TG
Shannon Stoke
Nottingham
46 44
44
Birmingham Norwich
1
SM SO Leicester TM
Aberystwyth Northampton
Bedford 42
48 40
50 Swansea Cardiff
0
1 SR SU Oxford TR
2
3
Irish grid
SQ Bristol 38
50
Brighton
Bournemouth
Kilometres SW TV
SV
20 60 100 140 Plymouth
42 Based on information
provided by the
20 40 60 80 100
50 48 46 44 Meteorological Offices
at London and Dublin.
Statute Miles
National grid identification

Fig 4/2. Basic wind speed.

4-6
 (1) Level, open country with no obstructions S1 = 1.0

(2) Exposed hill slopes, crests and valleys causing S1 = 1.2

funnelling

(3) Extreme or unknown situations. S1 = 1.36

b. Ground roughness and building class factor, S2. This factor takes
account of the effects of buildings, other local obstructions and the
height of the structure above ground level. For ease of selection of the
factor the Code specifies four categories of ground roughness and three
classes of buildings and their elements. The third class of building
(Class C), where any dimension exceeds 50 metres, is not included
here. The figures given in Table 4-2 may be used to determine S2.

(1) Ground roughness categories.

(a) Cat 1. Long stretches of level or nearly level country with no

shelter.

(b) Cat 2. Flat or undulating country with obstructions such as

hedges or walls around fields, scattered windbreaks of trees
and occasional buildings.

(c) Cat 3. Surfaces covered by numerous large obstructions

with heights around 10 metres such as woodlands, forests,
towns and the outskirts of cities.

(d) Cat 4. Surfaces covered by numerous large obstructions

with a general height of 25 metres or more.

(2) Cladding and buildings classes.

(a) Class A. All units of cladding, glazing, roofing, their

immediate fixings and individual members of unclad
structures.

(b) Class B. All buildings and structures where the greatest

dimensions do not exceed 50 metres.

4-7
 TABLE 4-2. GROUND ROUGHNESS, BUILDING SIZE AND HEIGHT
ABOVE GROUND. FACTOR S2

Ground roughness category

1 2 3 4
Top of
structure Class Class Class Class
above ground
level (m) A B A B A B A B

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

3 or less 0.83 0.78 0.72 0.67 0.64 0.60 0.56 0.52

5 0.88 0.83 0.79 0.74 0.70 0.65 0.60 0.55
10 1.00 0.95 0.93 0.88 0.78 0.74 0.67 0.62

15 1.03 0.99 1.00 0.95 0.88 0.83 0.74 0.69

20 1.06 1.01 1.03 0.98 0.95 0.90 0.79 0.75
30 1.09 1.05 1.07 1.03 1.01 0.97 0.90 0.85

NOTE: Structures for operations are unlikely to exceed 30 metres in height. An exception is
where a structure is on a cliff top. The height above ground level for wind coming
towards the cliff must be the height of the cliff. Figures are given in the Code of
Practice, but a value of S2 = 1.25 will cover all but extreme situations.

c. The Statistical factor, S3. This is based on the risk of winds of a given
speed occurring during a given period. Typical values for S3 are:

(1) Normal use S3 = 1.00

(2) Temporary structures including

formwork and buildings with a
forecast maximum life of two years S3 = 0.77

(3) Buildings designed for a life of S3 = 1.05

greater than 100 years

(4) Very exceptionally, where greater than

normal protection is required.
eg. A water tower near an ammunition
dump if it supplies water for fire fighting S3 = 1.20

0410. Dynamic wind pressure,q. Having determined the design wind speed,
Vs, the dynamic wind pressure arising from it may be read off from Table
4-3.
4-8
 TABLE 4-3 DYNAMIC WIND PRESSURE, q N/m2

Vs
m/s 0 1.0 2.0 3.0 4.0 5.0 6.0 7.0 8.0 9.0

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

10 61 74 88 104 120 138 157 177 199 221

20 245 270 297 324 353 383 414 447 481 516
30 552 589 628 668 709 751 794 839 885 932

40 981 1030 1080 1130 1190 1240 1300 1350 1410 1470
50 1530 1590 1660 1720 1790 1850 1920 1990 2060 2130
60 2210 2280 2360 2430 2510 2590 2670 2750 2830 2920

70 3000

2 2
NOTE: 1. The value of q in the table is derived from the formula, q = 0.613 V s N/m .
2. Read off Vs as tens of m/s vertically and units horzontally.

0411. Wind force, F. The wind force on the structure may be calculated from the
formula:

F = q x Cf x Ae Newtons

Where Cf is a force coefficient and Ae is the effective area.

0412. Force coefficient, Cf.

a. The force coefficient applies to a building or a structure as a whole and,

when multiplied by the effective frontal area A e and the dynamic
pressure q will give the total wind load on a structure or the part of it
under consideration.

b. If the wind load is calculated by dividing the structure into parts, the
value of Cf applied to each part must be that appropriate to the type of
structure of each part. Extracted values for Cf are shown in Table 4-4.

c. The coefficient takes into account the effect of wind passing around a
structure whether it is solid or a lattice. The value of Cf for buildings
varies depending upon the plan dimensions and height. For rectangular
plan buildings with flat roofs, values of Cf ranging from 0.7 to 1.6 are
tabulated in Table 10 of Code of Practice 3, Chapter V, Part 2. For
buildings whose height does not exceed twice the width a value of Cf = 1.0
would be appropriate.
4-9
 TABLE 4-4 FORCE COEFFICIENTS, Cf

Serial Item Shape of Members Cf

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 Individual members Flat sided and channel 2.00

members
Circular section 1.20

2 Single frame Flat sided 1.80

Circular section 1.20

3 Square lattice towers Flat sided 3.70

Circular section 2.20

4 Triangular lattice towers Flat sided 3.00

Circular section 1.70

5 Universal beams and - 1.9

columns

6 Cover from view and - 2.0

anti-rocket screens

0413. Effective area, A e . Although the wind can come from a number of
directions the most unfavourable load conditions, which are the ones
normally taken, will correspond to the wind acting in a direction normal to
the surface of the member of frame. The effective area is therefore the
width or diameter multiplied by the length or height. Calculations will
normally be based on the longest side of a structure, but if there is
unsymmetrical loading other aspects may have to be considered. When
using the Force Coefficients listed above effective areas should be
calculated as follows:

a. Tubular scaffolding (single frames). In the special case of tubular

scaffolding, only the vertical tubes (standards) and horizontal tubes
(ledgers) need be measured to give the projected area of scaffold tube
in the relevant frame. The effective area of diagonal bracing and
couplings can be allowed for by multiplying the area of standards and
ledgers by a factor 1.2 ie a 20 per cent allowance is made for them.

4-10
 b. Square towers (4 legs only). The area of the relevant elevation of the
tower.

c. Triangular lattice towers. The area on one elevation of the tower.

d. Cover from view and anti rocket screens. The surface area of the
screen that offers resistance to the wind.

0414. Shielding factor. Some references give shielding factors with particular
application to formwork and scaffolding which are very sheltered by, for
example, being in the lee of a large building or in a quarry. For military
purposes this should be ignored.

0415. Simplified guide. The preceding paragraphs of this section together with
the tables in Code of Practice 3, Chapter V, Part 2 - Wind, enable detailed
calculations of wind loadings to meet any situation. Table 4-5 may be used
for quick designs and will meet almost all the requirements for structures in
operations. The force coefficient is included in the figures given. The
limitations in the use of Table 4-5 are:

a. Normal topography or open ground is assumed.

b. The height of the structure is limited to 10 metres.

c. The design life is no more than ten years.

TABLE 4-5 WIND LOADING - SIMPLIFIED GUIDE

Ser Wind Conditions Loading

(a) (b) (c) (d)

2
1 Highest loading in UK On structure 3.0 kN/m
2
Wind approx 50 m/s Local load on cladding 5.5 kN/m
2
2 Lowest loading in UK On structure 1.3 kN/m
2
Wind approx 35 m/s Local load on cladding 2.4 kN/m
2
3 Adequate loading for On structure 2.2 kN/m
most cases
2
Wind approx 40 m/s Local load on cladding 3.7 kN/m

4-11
0416. Example 1 - Wind loading.

a. A water tank of sectional steel panels, which are one metre square, is to
be erected on the top of a small hill on the outskirts of Inverness. The
height of the hill above the general ground level is 15 metres. The tower
is 3.6 metres high and the tank is four panels square. The structure is to
be removed in about eighteen months. Calculate the wind loading on
the tank and the tower. Figure 4/3 shows the general arrangement.

Fig 4/3. Sectional steel tank loading example.

4-12
0417. Calculations

Serial Reference Calculation Output

1 Effective frontal area, Ae.

2 2 2
Tank area = 4 x 1m = 4m At = 4m

Area of one frame = 2 2

6 x 3.6 x 0.0483 x 1.2 = 1.252m 2 Af = 3.76m
So, area of three frames = 3.75 m

(0.0493m is the outside diameter of a standard

scaffolding tube. The factor 1.2 is included for the
standard 20% allowed for the area of bracing
and couplers in scaffolding.)

2 Fig 4/2. Basic wing speed, V.

V at Inverness = 50 m/s. V = 50 m/s.

3 Wing speed factors.

Para 0409a S1 (Ground factor) = 1.36 S1 = 1.36

Table 4-2 S2 (Building factor) (Class B, 15 m) = 0.95 S2 = 0.95
Para 0409c S3 (Statistical factor) = 0.77 S3 = 0.77

4 Design wind speed, Vs.

Para 0409 Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3
= 50 x 1.36 x 0.95 x 0.77 = 49.74 m/s V = 49.74 m/s

5 Dynamic wing pressure, q.

Table 4-3 from Table 4-3, or calculate:

2 2 2 2
q = 0.613V s = 0.613 x (49.74) = 1517 N/m q= 1517 N/m

6 Resultant wind force.

Para 0411 F = q x Cf x A

Force coefficients:
Table 4-4 Scaffold frame Cf = 1.2
Para 0412 Square tank (solid building) Cf = 1.0

(1) Wind force on scaffolding. -3

FSCAFF = 1517 x 1.2 x 3.76 x 10 FSCAFFOLD
=6.84 kN = 6.84 kN

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 4-13

 Serial Reference Calculation Output

Wind force on tank.

-3
FTANK = 1517 x 1.0 x 4 x 10 = 6.07 kN FTANK = 6.07 kN
-3
(10 converts to kN)

(Note that from Figure 4/3 these two forces

act as if on the centre of the scaffold and the
tank respectively since the structure is
symmetrical.)

0418. Example 2 - Wind loading. The first example was a very simple case in
which there was no support structure between the scaffolding tower and
the tank. An intermediate structure is almost always needed and the effect
must be calculated. Very often there will be a delay in placing the tank, or
other superstructure (and a further delay before it is fully loaded). The
support structure can provide significant wind resistance while there is little
weight on the partially completed structure to stabilise it. A typical support
structure is shown in Figure 4/4. The calculation that follows can be applied
to any extra pieces attached to a structure during or after construction.

W1

d1 d2

W2

Fig 4/4. Example 2, Wind loading.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

4-14
0419. Before starting the calculations, very careful note should be taken of the
direction of any prevailing winds because, as will be seen, the orientation
of any support structure can have an important effect upon the wind
loading:

a. W1 is blowing parallel to the primary beams. These show only two ends
and have a good airflow round or past them. They can be ignored for
calculation purposes so the effective area of the tank support platform is
d1 x l. Of course the individual areas of the ends of the primary beams
can be included if wished but the effect is small.

b. On the other hand, W2 is blowing normal to the primary beams and

parallel to the secondary beams. In this case the total depth, d2, must be
used:

(1) Because there are more secondary beams with ends facing the
wind to increase the area.

(2) The secondary beams are relatively confined by the primary

beams and the superstructure so give rise to a substantially
higher drag. For this reason the total depth of the platform must
be used even though there are gaps between the secondary
beams.

0420. Calculations for support platform

Serial Reference Calculations Output

(Let l = 4.2m, d1 = 0.1m, d2 = 0.25m)

1 Effective frontal areas, Ae are:

(1) Wind parallel to primary beams

2
(W1) 2
Ae1 = ld1 = 4.2 x 0.1 = 0.42m Ae1 = 0.42m

(2) Wind normal to primary beams2 (W2) 2

Ae2 = ld2 = 4.2 x 0.25 = 1.05 m Ae2 = 1.05m

2 Para 0417 The dynamic wind pressure is the same as 2

that calculated in Example 1 and is 1517 N/m .
3 The resultant wind force

F = q x Cf x A.

Para 0412 As the platform is almost solid, Cf can be taken

as 1.0.

4-15
 Serial Reference Calculations Output
-3
FA1 = 1517 x 1.0 x 0.42 x 10 = 0.64 kN FA1 = 0.64 kN
-3
FA2 = 1517 x 1.0 x 1.05 x 10 = 1.59 kN FA2 = 1.59 kN

0421. Summary. Figure 4/5 shows the total of the maximum wind forces acting
on the tower, platform and tank.

The overturning moment of the wind is:

(6.54 x 1.8) + (1.59 x 3.70) + (6.07 x 4.35) = 44.06kNm

By taking moments it can be seen that, for stability, the self weight,
assuming symmetry, of the tank (empty) and tower should be at least
44.06 ÷ 1.6 = 27.5 kN, say 28 kN or even 30 kN. If this cannot be achieved
the tower will have to be guyed or anchored.

Fig 4/5. Wind loading of tank and tower.

4-16
 CHAPTER 5 STRUCTURAL ANALYSIS

SECTION 5.1 INTRODUCTION

0501. In order to design any structure the forces that will act in and on the
structure must be determined. Only when they are known can the materials
be selected and the size of sections decided. An ability to calculate the
strength of existing, possibly damaged, structures is needed if they are to
be modified, repaired or used for a purpose other than that for which they
were designed.

0502. The mathematics needed for simple structural analysis is not complicated
and, provided that a calculator giving sines and cosines of angles is
available, no tables are needed and the calculations can be made from
rough sketches. It should be noted that if a sketch can be drawn
approximately to scale the end results can be seen more clearly. Structural
analysis at this level often can be done graphically, but does need full
drawing facilities and the technique is not covered here.

0503. This chapter covers the following:

a. Stability and equilibrium of forces.

b. The resolution of forces to analyse the forces in struts and ties.

c. The method of sections to analyse forces in struts and ties.

d. Bending theory.

e. Bending, shear force and deflection in cantilevers and beams.

f. Stress and strain in materials.

0504. Spare.
to
0505.

5-1
5-2
 SECTION 5.2. STABILITY AND EQUILIBRIUM OF
FORCES
0506. Stability. An object is stable, and in equilibrium, if:

a. It does not start to move sideways.

b. It does not start to move vertically.

c. It does not start to rotate.

As this pamphlet deals with structures, no attempt is made to deal with

dynamic equilibrium where, in the final analysis, there has been no net
movement or energy gain or loss. Orbiting satellites, pendulums and boats
rocking on the waves are in dynamic equilibrium.

0507. Horizontal equilibrium. Horizontal equilibrium exists when all the

horizontal forces acting on a body added together equal zero.

5 Assuming that forces

acting from the left are
8 positive and those from
3 the right, negative
5+3-8=0
Horizontal equilibrium
exists.

Fig 5/1. Horizontal equilibrium.

0508. Vertical equilibrium. Vertical equilibrium exists when the sum of the
vertical forces is zero. This condition is sometimes difficult to visualize
because, in a structure or anything that is expected to remain on the
ground, the reaction of the ground will always balance the load exactly.
Important exceptions, leading to failure, occur when the ground is soft and
can only take a certain load. If that load is exceeded the reaction cannot
balance the load and the structure, or part of it, starts to move downwards.
As structures should be in vertical equilibrium, the balance of forces is
assumed and used to calculate the ground reaction to be used in the
design of foundations.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-3

0509. Rotational equilibrium. A structure is in rotational equilibrium if the sum
of the clockwise moments (Moment = Force x Perpendicular distance)
about any point equals the sum of the anticlockwise moments about the
same point. For example, will this cricket screen blow over?

Wind = 11 kN

Weight = 7 kN
2m

2.5m 2.5m
A B

Fig 5/2. Rotational Equilibrium.

Taking moments about the wheel at B:

a. Overturning moment (clockwise) = wind = 11 kN x 2.0 m = 22 kNm.

b. Stabilizing moment (anti-clockwise) = Self weight = 7 kN x 2.5 m = 17.5

kNm.

c. The screen will blow over because the overturning moment exceeds the
stabilizing moment. 22 kNm > 17.5 kNm.

0510. Equilibrium, Example 1 - Sangar. Find the foundation loads and forces
that the base plates must resist by calculating the vertical and horizontal
reactions. What are the foundation loads if there is no wind loading?

Wind 6.5 kN RA & RB

Vertical reactions

8m Weight of 50 kN
QA & QB
structure
1.5 m 1.5 m Vertical reactions
50 kN

QA QB

RA RB
Fig 5/3. Sangar.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-4
 Wind Loading = 6.5 kN
Weight of structure = 50 kN

a. Rotational equilibrium. The moments about B must balance.

Stabilizing moment (anti clockwise) = 50 kN x 1.5 m = 75 kNm

Overturning moment (clockwise) = 6.5 kN x 8 m + (RA x 3 m) = 52 + 3 RA

For rotational equilibrium, stabilizing moments must equal overturning

moments.

75 = 52 + 3 RA
RA = 7.7 kN.

b. Vertical equilibrium. The vertical forces must balance:

RA + RB = 50 kN
RB = 50 – 7.7kN = 42.3 kN (RA taken from above).

c. Horizontal equilibrium. The horizontal forces must balance:

QA + QB = 6.5 kN (The wind force).

Without further information it could be assumed that each base carries

equal load:

QA = QB = 3.25 kN.

However, this could be a dangerous assumption because leg B is carrying

a much greater load (due to wind loading) than leg A, almost causing leg A
to lift and therefore transferring all the horizontal load to leg B. A
conservative assumption would be to design both base plates for the full
horizontal load:

QA = QB = 6.5 kN.

d. Symmetrical loading. If there was no wind load, there would be no

horizontal loading and no overturning moment. Therefore, the
foundation loads would be equal:

RA + RB = 50 kN
RA = RB = 25 kN.

It can be seen that the wind loading significantly increases the design
loading of the foundation.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-5

0511. Equilibrium, Example 2 – Simply Supported Beam. The dead loading
of a bridge deck and bridge beams can be represented as a Uniformly
Distributed Load (UDL) eg a vehicle’s axles by two point loads. Find the
maximum reaction as shown in Fig 5/4. If the vehicle is in the middle of the
bridge what are the reactions?

UDL = 3 kN/m
Point loads = 7 kN each.

a. Rotational equilibrium. Take moments about A to find RB :

Note: a UDL can be represented as an imaginary point load of magnitude

(3 kN/m x 7 m = 21kN) acting through its own centre of gravity ⇒ 3.5 m
from A.

(clockwise) = (21kN x 3.5 m) + (7 kN x 5 m) + (7 kN x 7 m) = 157.5 kNm

(anticlockwise) = (RB x 7 m) = 7 RB

7 RB = 157.5

RB = 22.5 kN.

Take moments about B to find RA :

(clockwise) = (RA x 7 m) = 7RA

(anticlockwise) = (21kN x 3.5 m) + (7 kN x 2 m) = 87.5 kNm

7 RA = 87.5 kNm

RA = 12.5 kN.

b. Vertical equilibrium. The vertical forces must balance:

RA + RB = (3kN/m x 7 m) + 7 kN + 7 kN

RA + RB = 35 kN 12.5 kN + 22.5 kN = 35 kN ∴ calculations work.

Or the vertical equilibrium could be used to find the second reaction having
calculated the first:

RA + RB = 35 kN

RA = 35 – 22.5 kN = 12.5 kN (RB taken from above).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-6
 d. Symmetrical loading. If the vehicle is in the middle of the bridge, the
loading is symmetrical. Therefore, the foundation loads are equal.

RA + RB = 35 kN
RA = RB = 17.5 kN

It can be seen that the vehicle at the end significantly increases the
reaction and the foundation loading that must be designed.

7 kN 7 kN

3.5 1.5 2.0

RA RB

Fig 5/4. Simply supported beam.

0512. Spare.
to
0514.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-7

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
5-8
 SECTION 5.3 RESOLUTION OF FORCES
0515. Ties and struts often have forces acting at their ends which are not axial to
the member. For example, what loads are induced in a pair of shear legs
when a load W is lifted?

Fig 5/5. Shear legs - Non-axial loads.

0516. Perpendicular forces. Where two forces are at right angles the single
resultant combined force, R, can be defined precisely in magnitude and
direction by drawing, using Pythagoras' theorem or from trigonometry.

2 2 2
Pythagoras: R = F1 + F2
F1
Trigonometry: Tan φ = F1/F2 R

and R = F1/Sin φ or F2/Cos φ

F2

Fig 5/6. Forces at right angles.

0517. General case. Often there are single forces which are neither horizontal
nor vertical. Each force can be resolved into horizontal and vertical
components. These components can then be used in all the equilibrium
equations to calculate the unknown forces, as shown in Figure 5/6. The
unknown forces themselves will appear with horizontal and vertical
components which can be combined, as shown in Paragraph 0516, to give
a single resultant force in a known direction.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-9

 F
V = FCos φ φ

H = FCos O V

φ
θ
H

Fig 5/7. Resolution of a force.

Notes:
1. While H and V can be calculated using either of the two angles shown it is generally easier,
both to use and remember, to calculate the value of component as:

Force x Cos (Angle turned through from the original force).

2. It should be noted that the direction of the force components will be the same as the original
force. ie All outwards from a common origin or all inwards towards it.

0518. General method for the resolution of forces.

a. Ensure that all the loads acting on the structure are known. These need
not be actual figures: letters are used for those where the magnitude is
not yet known.

b. Select and sketch an isolated node within the structure, cutting the
structural members where appropriate. It is important to note that, as
only two equations of equilibrium are being used, horizontal and
vertical, the node selected must have no more than two unknown forces
acting through it.

c. Draw in two axes at right angles to each other, usually vertical and
horizontal, and annotate which directions are to be regarded as positive.

d. Assume the unknown forces along the members that have been cut act
in a certain direction. At this stage it does not matter which direction.
Mark these directions on the sketch.

e. Resolve horizontally and vertically for all the forces acting on the node.

f. Solve the horizontal and vertical equilibrium equations to find the

unknown forces. A negative answer means that the direction assumed
for that force was wrong.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-10
 g. Continue round the structure in a logical manner until the forces in all
the members have been found. Remember that no more than two
unknown forces can be calculated at each node. This will sometimes
dictate the start point.

0519. Example - resolution of forces.

3m 3m 3m 3m

50 kN 100 kN 100 kN 100 kN 50 kN

A B C D E
30°

RA RE
H F

Fig 5/8. Resolution of forces.

a. Calculate the reactions. The structure is symmetrical so:

RA = RE = 400 kN = 200 kN
2

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-11

 b. Consider joint A.

50 kN

F1
A

RA = 200 kN F2

(1) Draw node.

(2) Draw axes with positive directions marked.

(3) Assume direction of forces, F1 and F2, in the members that have
been cut.

(4) Resolve vertically.

o
200 - 50 - F2Cos60 = 0

Thus: F2 = 300 kN
(Positive so the direction of the force as shown is correct)

(5) Resolve horizontally.

F1 + F2Cos30 = 0 so F1 + 300Cos30 = 0

o
Thus: F1 = -300Cos 30 = -260 kN
(Negative so the direction of the force is opposite to that shown)

c. Continue the analysis in a logical manner.

(1) Joint B.

(2) Joint H. (Reverse the negative force calculated in member A-H).

(3) Joint C.

(4) No more joints need be considered because symmetry allows the

other forces to be put in by inspection.
Issue 1.1: Nov 03
5-12
0520. Forces in cables. A very simple calculation using the resolution of forces
demonstrates why the angles of multi-leg strops and the amount of sag in
aerial ropeways are critical. Consider a load of 300kN being lifted by a two
leg strop:

a. Assume first that the legs of the strop are angled from the vertical by
o
30 .

Resolve vertically at A.

o
300 = 2FCos30 = 1.732F

F = 300 = 173kN.
1.732

b. Now assume that the strops are too short for the load and that the angle
o
from the vertical of each strop is 75 .

Resolve vertically at A.

o
300 = 2FCos75 = 0.5176F

F = 300 = 580kN.
0.5176

Note how quickly the tension in the strops rises as the angle increases.
The lesson here is always to use strops of the right length, or spreader
bars, when lifting wide loads. Ideally the strops and the top of the load
o
should all be at 60 to each other so the tension in the strops, where there
are two legs, will be the same as the load. The same analysis applies to
loads suspended from cables like aerial ropeways which should never be
over tensioned. If large angles have to be used the potential tensions must
be calculated and the cable selected accordingly.

0521. Spare.
to
0525.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-13

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
5-14
 SECTION 5.4 METHOD OF SECTIONS
0526. Method of sections. The method of sections is a simple method of
calculating the forces within a framework using the techniques for both the
resolution of forces and the conditions of equilibrium. This method enables
up to three unknown forces to be calculated in a section. However, if the
frame is cut so that there are no moments, as in the example in Paragraph
0519, only two unknowns can be resolved.

0527. Example.

Fig 5/9. Method of Sections.

Find the forces in members DE, DG and CE.

a. Taking moments about A and/or B.

RA = 60kN RB = 40kN

b. Take a section of the frame.

NB. Cut frame so that there are

not more than three unknowns
(every unknown requires
another equation to solve it)

This part of the structure still

must be in equilibrium with the
forces acting onit.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-15

 c. Resolve vertically for the part structure.

o
60 + QCos45 = 40

Q = 40 - 60 = -28.3 kN (Negative, so the original direction assumed

0.7071 for Q was wrong)

d. Take moments about point D for the part structure. (This eliminates two
forces, Q and S, from the equation because they act through D).

2P + (2 x 60) = 0 so P = -60kN (Again negative, so the original

direction assumed for P was
wrong)

e. Resolve horizontally for the part structure.

o
P + S + QCos45 = 0 (Using the original directions assumed and
the results as calculated).

o
-60 + S + (-28.3) Cos45 = 0

S = 60 + 20.01 = 80kN

f. The full analysis is:

0528. Spare.
to
0530.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-16
 SECTION 5.5 BENDING THEORY
0531. Section properties. The cross sectional shape of a member influences
how it will behave. There are four properties of sections which together can
be used to describe the shape of a member and predict its behaviour
precisely when loaded. Without going into the detail of how they are
derived they are:
2
a. Cross Sectional Area - A mm .

b. Radius of Gyration - r mm
A weighted average of the distance of the material from the axis
considered, usually the neutral axis, used as an indication of a strut's
resistance of buckling.

4
c. Moment of Inertia - I mm
2
Also referred to as the Second Moment of Area (Ar ).

3
d. Section, or Elastic, Modulus - Z mm
An indication of a beam's resistance to bending. The Section Modulus
equation is demonstrated graphically in Figure 5/9.

y Z= I
y
NA
y = Distance from the
Neutral Axis
y

Fig 5/10. Section modulus equation.

0532. Bending stress. For any beam in bending there is a tension and a
compression force. These forces are at a maximum in the outer fibres of
the member and decrease towards the centre. At some point the tension
force becomes zero and reverses to become a compressive force. The
forces are zero at the Neutral Axis which will be at the centre of a
symmetrical, homogenous member. The neutral axis also passes through

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-17

 f

the centre of gravity of a symmetrical member. In the beam under load the
compressive and tensile forces set up act as a couple (equal and opposite
forces acting as a lever arm) to resist the bending moment caused by the
loads.
Compressive force C

NA Lever arm L

Tensile force T

Resisting moment = C x L =T x L

Fig 5/11. Force couple under bending.

0533. Section formulae. The values of A, r, Ι and Z for simple symmetrical

sections are shown in Table 5-1. The properties of standard steel joists,
universal beams, channels, equal angles and several others are
summarised in Annex C. More detailed tables are contained in Military
Engineering Volume III, Part 1.

TABLE 5-1 VALUES OF A, r, I AND Z FOR SIMPLE SECTIONS

d d
b b b
d

y y y y y y y y y
d d d d d d
GG G GG G GG G

Section (a)(a)Rectangle
Rectangle
(a)Rectangle
(a)Rectangle (b) Square
(b)Square
(b)Square
(b)Square (c)(c)Circle
Circle
(c)Circle
(c)Circle

2 2
Area (A) bd d ∏d
4
σ
σ σ
y4 y
3 x x x 4 y
I bd d NANA NA ∏d
12 y y y
12 64y y
y

y d
f f f
d d
2 2 2
2 3 3
Z bd d ∏d
6 6 32
Compressive force C
Compressive force C force C
Compressive
3
0.098d
NANA NA Lever arm L
Lever arm L arm L
Lever

r 0.29d Tensile force T

Tensile Tensile 0.29d
force T force T d
Resisting moment = C x L =T x L
Resisting momentmoment
= C x L =T
4
Resisting = CxxLL =T x L

5-18 Issue 1.1: Nov 03

 d
b
0534. Bending equation. The general
y bending equation states: y
d
a. At a distance x from the neutral axis: G G
M = σ where σ = the stress at distance x
Ι x

(a)Rectangle (b)Square

σ
x

b. At the outer fibre:

y
M = f
Ι y

Stress distribution of a
non-symmetrical section.

c. But, Ι = Z (para 0531)

y

So the Bending Equation is M = fZ where f is the stress at the outer fibre, ie

the maximum stress.
NA

0535. Spare.
to Tensile force T
0540.
Resisting momen

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-19

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
5-20
 SECTION 5.6 BENDING MOMENTS, SHEAR
FORCE AND DEFLECTION IN
BEAMS
0541. Having calculated the loads acting in and on the members of a structure
they must be related to real building materials. When considering beams
there are three parameters which will describe the beam, or cantilever, for
various loading conditions:

a. Bending moment.

b. Shear force.

c. Deflection.

0542. In this section it is not intended to go into the theory in any depth. The
formulae given in Tables 5-2 and 5-3 cover most situations. Continuous
beams are not considered in this pamphlet.

0543. Simply supported beams. The formulae needed to calculate the bending
moment, shear force and deflection of simply supported beams under
simple loading conditions are shown in Table 5-2.

0544. Cantilever beams. The formulae needed to calculate the bending

moment, shear force and deflection in cantilevers under simple loading
conditions are given in Table 5-3.

0545. Shear force and bending moment diagrams. The first steps in
designing a beam are to calculate or construct the shear force and bending
moment diagrams. A simple example demonstrating both is given below.
There are certain relationships between the diagrams which can be useful
when dealing with load combinations. They are:

Relationships

SF Diagram BM Diagram

Horizontal straight line Sloping straight line

Sloping straight line Curved Line (Parabola)

Shear is zero or goes through zero Maximum value of BM

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-21

 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAMS

5-22
FORCE AND DEFLECTION FORMULAE.

W = Total Load = wL where w = Load Intensity (kN/m)

Simplified Situations – Simply Supported Beam.

2
Continuous UDL w = kN/m max bending = wL /8
max reaction = wL/2
4
max deflection = 5 wL /384 EΙ
TABLE 5-2 SIMPLY SUPPORTED BEAM BENDING MOMENT, SHEAR

Point Load at midspan P = kN max bending = PL /4

max reaction = P/2
3
max deflection = PL /48 EΙ

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

Note: Assuming a point load at midspan will give an overestimate of maximum bending and deflection but an under estimate of maximum
reaction.
 CANTILEVERS

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

DEFLECTION FORMULAE

W = Total Load = wL where w = Load Intensity (kN/m)

Simplified Situations – Cantilever Beam.

2
Continuous UDL w = kN/m max bending = wL /2
max reaction = wL
4
max deflection = wL /8 EΙ
TABLE 5-3 CANTILEVER BENDING MOMENT, SHEAR FORCE AND

Point Load at end P = kN max bending = PL

max reaction =P
3
max deflection = PL /3 EΙ

5-23
Note: Assuming continuous UDL loading or a point load at the end will give an overestimate of all the results.
0546. Example 1 - Simple beam loading
11kN/m

A B

RA 6m RB

a. From first principles:

(1) Rotational equilibrium. Take moments about A clockwise to find

RB:

(11 x 6) x 6/2 – RB x 6 = 0

RB = 66 x 3 = 33 kN.
6
Note: A UDL can be represented as an imaginary point load of magnitude
(11 kN/m x 6m = 66kN) acting through its own CofG ⇒ 3 m from A.

(2) Vertical equilibrium. The vertical forces must balance:

RA + RB = (11 x 6)

RA = 66 kN - RB RB = 33 kN

RA = 33 kN.

Note: The loading is symmetrical therefore the reactions must be equal.

b. Shear force diagram. The convention used in this pamphlet (there are
others) is that if the resultant forces on either side of a section, working
from the left, tending to shear the member form a clockwise couple, the
shear force is positive. If they form an anti-clockwise couple, the shear
force is negative. Upward forces, such as reactions, are positive.
Downward loads are negative.

(1) In this case, at A there is an upward force of 33kN (the reaction)

which is reduced by the distributed load - to 0 at the mid point and
to -33kN at B. The couple is clockwise so the shear force at A is
positive. At B, the reaction, 33kN, is balanced in the same way
but the couple is anti-clockwise so the resultant shear force,
33kN, is negative. Thus:

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-24
 33 kN Shear force diagram
C
A B
3.0 m
33 kN

(2) Alternatively, the shear forces at A and B can be calculated from

the formulae in Table 5-2. With these the shear force diagram can
be constructed. Note that the shear forces at the end of a simply
supported beam always equal the reactions at that point. In this
symmetrical case:

SFA = SFB = RA = RB = wL = 33 kN
2

(3) The shear force can be calculated from the algebraic sum of the
forces to one side of the point under consideration. For example
at point C, which is 1.5 m from point A, looking to the left (up is
positive):

33 kN – 11 kNm x 1.5 m = 16.5 kN

c. Bending moment diagram

(1) By inspection, the largest bending moment is at the centre of the

span. If this is not apparent the designer may have to take
moments along the beam at intervals until the largest bending
moment is found. It can also be found as the point where the
shear force is zero. If there are several such points the maximum
bending moment will be at the most highly loaded point.

(2) Taking moments clockwise at the centre considering the left hand
side:

RA x 3 – ((11 x 3) x 1.5) = BMmax

33 x 3 - (33 x 1.5) = 49.5 kNm

Note: A UDL can be represented as an imaginary point load of magnitude

(11 kN/m x 3m = 33kN) acting through its own CofG ⇒ 1.5 m from the centre.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-25

 A uniformly distributed load gives a parabolic bending moment diagram.
Thus:

BH max = 49.5 kN/m

Bending moment diagram

(3) Or, using Table 5-2:

2 2
MMAX = WL = wL = 11 x 6 = 49.5 kNm
8 8 8

d. This example demonstrates that a problem can be solved from first

principles or the use of tables. Generally, the simple problems are best
solved using tables. More complex problems should be approached
from first principles.

0547. Load combinations. In almost every case beams will be subject to a

combination of loads. At the very least a beam will have its own weight, as
a uniformly distributed load, together with any imposed loads which could
be distributed, point or moving loads. The example worked through below
shows a typical combination. It pays to lay out the calculation logically and
to go through it step by step so that intermediate results are always clear.
Even for non-mathematicians each step is fairly simple. It is particularly
important to have the intermediate results to hand if considering, say,
moving loads. The dead loads will remain constant but the effect of the
moving load may have to be calculated for several locations. It should be
noted that, with a little bit of thought, the worst case conditions can be seen
by inspection and there should seldom be any need to do more than a few
calculations.

0548. Example 2 - Complex beam loading. Consider the following load

combination. The shear force and bending moment diagrams can be
devised by taking moments or by using the formulae in Table 5-2.

P= 20 kN
10 kN/m
A B
a= 8 m b=6 m

L= 8 m
RA RB

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-26
 a. From first principles:

(1) Take moments about B:

2
RA = (20 x 6) + (10 x 8 /2) = 55.0 kN
8

(2) By equilibrium:

RB = 20 + (10 x 8) - 55.0 = 45 kN

(3) The shear forces at A and B will equal the reactions numerically
but the shear force at B is negative because the couple is anti-
clockwise.

(4) Shear force immediately to the left of the point load at C (looking
left):

55 - (2 x 10) = 35 kN (clockwise, so positive).

(5) Shear force immediately to the right of the point load C (looking
left):

55 - (2 x 10) - 20 = 15 kN (clockwise so positive).

(6) Thus the shear force diagram is as shown below. Note that the
point of zero shear force is the point of maximum bending
moment for a simply supported beam. That point D, may be
calculated from the diagram using congruent triangles, eg:

45 = 15 cross multiply 45 (6-x) = 15 x

x (6-x) 270 – 45 x = 15 x
270 = 60 x
x = 4.5 m.

55 kN
35 kN
15 kN

A C D B

2m (6-x) x 45 kN

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-27

 The maximum bending moment is 4.5 m from B at point D.

(7) Taking moments from D, looking right:

2
BMMax = (45.0 x 4.5) - (10 x (4.5) ) = 101.25 kNm
2

Alternatively, take moments from D, looking left:

BMMax = (55.0 x 3.5) - (20 x 1.5) - (10 x 3.5 x 3.5)

2
= 101.25 kNm

3.5 m 4.5 m
A C D B

b. Solution using Table 5-2.

(1) Shear forces. The loadings have to be dealt with separately.

RA=15 kN
RA=40 kN
A B A B
RB=40 kN RB=5 kN

Distributed Load Point Load

RA = RB = wL RA = Pb = 20 x 6 = 15.0 kN
2 L 8

10 x 8 = 40 kN RB = Pa = 20 x 2 = 5.0 kN
2 L 8

Total: RA = 40 + 15 = 55 kN

RB = 40 + 5 = 45 kN

The shear force diagrams can now be added.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-28
 RA = 40+15
= 55 kN
35 kN
15 kN
A C D B

RB = 40 + 5
= 45 kN

(2) Bending moments. As in the shear force calculation, the

maximum bending moment for the combined loads will be 4.5 m
from B, at D. The maximum bending moment is therefore
calculated in both cases for point D.

Distributed Load:

BM at D = wL x (1 - x )
2 L

= 10 x 8 x 4.5 (1 - 4.5) = 78.75 kNm.

2 8

Point Load:

BMMax, at C = RA x a (or RB x b) = 15 x 2 = 30kNm

BMD, = RB x k or RA x (L - k) - P (r - b)

= 5 x 4.5 = 22.50 kN.

Adding the BMs at D: 78.75 + 22.5 = 101.25kNM

Distributed Load Point Load

A D B A C D B

+
22.5 kN
78.75 kN
A D B

= 101.25 kN

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-29

0549. Spare.
to
0554.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-30
 SECTION 5.7 STRESS AND STRAIN
0555. Stress. Stress is a measure of the intensity of loading within a member
and is represented mathematically by σ. It is calculated by dividing the load
by the cross-sectional area.

x x Area of cross sections = A mm2

x x

=W
A

(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress

Fig 5/12. Stress.

0556. Strain. Under load a member will change length. The change in length of
the material, as a proportion of its original length, is known as strain and is
represented by ξ.

W
L = original length
e
e = extension
L
e
W =( )
L

(a) Tensile stress (b) Compressive stress

Fig 5/13. Strain.

0557. The stress-strain relationship. When a load is applied to a structural

member there is a change in stress and, consequently, a change in length.
This change of length, as a proportion of the original length, is known as
strain. It can be shown by experiment that stress is proportional to strain.
This is true only for materials that remain elastic, ie they regain the original
size and shape when the applied load is removed. The stress-stain
relationship is known as Hooke's Law which states that:

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 5-31

 Stress = Constant
Strain

This constant is known as Young's Modulus for the material and, for a
homogenous material such as steel and most timbers, is the same in
tension or compression. It is denoted by E and hence:

E = σ (see Figure 5/14)

ξ

Some values of Young's Modulus for timber are given in Annex A and for
steel in Table 6-6.

Stress (σ)
= Youngs Modulus (E)
Strain (ξ)

Steel

Stress
σ

Timber

Strain ξ

Fig 5/14. Stress-strain relationship.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

5-32
 CHAPTER 6 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES

SECTION 6.1 TIMBER

0601. While it may be stating the obvious, timber is derived from a living material.
Although its properties can be measured, allowance has to be made for
possible faults, variation in strength between pieces, even from the same
tree, and its water content. Water content has a considerable effect upon
the variation in the properties of a particular timber.

0602. The Eurocode for timber design (EC 5) uses limit state design philosophy
and the old system of grade stresses has been replaced. However, due to
the nature of operations and the inherent safety of using permissible stress
design, it is appropriate to use the existing methods in this pamphlet.
Military Engineering Volume II, Pamphlet 1 gives the basic properties for
timber. In this section almost all the data is taken from British Standard
5268 Part 2, 1991 - Structural Use of Timber. Because the aim of this
pamphlet is to enable the construction of temporary structures much of the
data is abbreviated and several factors omitted. If it is intended to produce
a permanent or highly stressed structure the British Standard 5268 or
Eurocode 5 should be consulted.

0603. Grade stresses. Grade stresses are the permissible stresses for each
strength class of timber and are given in Annex A together with Young's
Modulus for the class. These are for good quality green (wet) timber with a
limited number of defects. Modification factors K1 and K2 from BS 5268 are
incorporated (see Paragraph 0606).

0604. Permissible stress. Permissible stresses in timber are obtained by

multiplying the grade stresses by various modification factors to take
account of:

a. Exposure conditions.

b. Duration of load.

c. Type of loading conditions.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-1

0605. Modification factors. BS 5268 bases all its data on dry timber with a
section size of 38 mm x 89 mm. Limited interpolation of the figures is
permissible. Modification factors, numbered K1 to K69 are then used to
modify that data. By no means are all of these factors included in this
pamphlet, but where they are, the same numbers are used to make
reference to BS 5268 easier. In this manual, the tables at Annex B give the
geometrical properties of a selection of green timber sections under wet
exposure conditions (ie Factor K1 and K2 have been incorporated). These
are conservative but safe values which may be used for temporary
structures in the field. The values of K1 and K2 to be applied to dry timber in
wet exposure conditions are shown in Paragraph 0606 below.

0606. The modification factors used are:

a. K1. The modification factor by which the geometrical properties of timber

for dry exposure conditions should be multiplied to obtain values for the
wet exposure condition which will apply to most work in the field. These
are shown in Table 6-1.

TABLE 6-1 MODIFICATION FACTOR K1 - GEOMETRICAL

PROPERTIES UNDER WET EXPOSURE CONDITIONS

Ser Geometrical Property Value of K1

(a) (b) (c)

1 Thickness, width, radius of gyration 1.02

2 Cross-sectional area 1.04

3 First moment of area, section modulus 1.06

4 Second moment of area 1.08

b. K2. The modification factor by which dry stresses and moduli should be
multiplied to obtain stresses and moduli applicable to wet exposure
conditions. This is shown in Table 6-2.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-2
 TABLE 6-2 MODIFICATION FACTOR K2 - STRESSES AND MODULI
UNDER WET EXPOSURE CONDITIONS

Ser Property Value of K2

(a) (b) (c)

1 Bending parallel to grain 0.8

2 Tension parallel to grain 0.8

3 Compression parallel to grain 0.6

4 Compression perpendicular to grain 0.6

5 Shear parallel to grain 0.9

6 Mean and minimum modulus of elasticity 0.8

c. K 3. The modification factor for the duration of loading. One of the

properties of timber is that it can take high overloads for short periods,
which can be extremely useful in economising on material. This is
shown in Table 6-3.

TABLE 6-3 MODIFICATION FACTOR K3 - DURATION OF

LOADING

Ser Duration of loading Value of K3

(a) (b) (c)

1 Long term (eg dead + permanent imposed) 1.00

2 Medium term (eg dead + snow or dead + 1.25

temporary imposed)

3 Short term (eg dead + imposed + wind or 1.50

dead + imposed + snow + wind) (wind =
15 sec gust) (use for temporary structures)

4 Very short term (eg dead + imposed + Wind) 1.75

(wind = 3 sec gust) (use for tactical loading)

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-3

 d. K12. The modification factor which takes into account the slenderness of
struts and the value of Young's Modulus for the material which
determines its inherent stiffness. It is dealt with in Paragraph 0611.

e. The fact that other modification factors such as K4, for bearing stress,
K9, for elasticity in lintels etc, are not included does not lessen their
importance under limiting conditions. Their effect in military field
engineering is masked by the uncertainty that will almost always prevail
over the precise properties of the material in use. Even if the type of
timber is known its quality may be in doubt. It could be difficult to assign
it a strength class with any degree of accuracy. Unless the timber is
tested there is little point in attempting to use the minor modification
factors. The figures in the tables, which include safety factors, do
provide a valid basis for calculations even if the detailed properties of
the timber are unknown. As was discussed in Paragraph 0603, there is
always considerable variation of permissible stresses within a grade.

0607. The true load carrying capacity of a structural member in compression is

not just dependent on the strength of the material. It is significantly
influenced by the shape and length of the member being considered and
how it is supported along its length. It is logical that a short stocky member
has greater capacity and is more stable than a long slender member. A
square beam is going to be more stable as a bridge beam resisting
bending and lateral loads than a tall thin beam, which may be efficient in
bending but inherently unstable unless restrained. These effects are
described by slenderness ratio (λ) and effective length (le).

0608. Effective length. Effective length is the term used to describe the effect of
end restraints on the load carrying capacity of timber struts. Figure 6/1
shows the various forms of restraint together with the effective lengths of
the struts with the restraint. This, in turn, enables an effective length (le) to
be assumed from the real length (L) which is then used in all calculations.
It should be clear that, taking a pin jointed strut as the basic member, a
fully or partially restrained strut can take more load because it has
additional resistance to buckling. It can, therefore, be regarded as a
shorter, pin jointed, strut which would have the same properties. On the
other hand, if one end is free to move about, a strut is clearly less stable
and any axial load making it bend will have an increasing effect as it moves
away from the centre line. It must therefore be regarded as longer than the
pin jointed real strut. It should be noted that it is very difficult to restrain
timber well enough for the joint to be regarded as truly rigid. In most cases
all timber joints should be treated as pin joints. An exception may be where
an upright is bedded in concrete when that end can be regarded as fully
restrained.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-4
 Typical Diagrammatic

le = 0.7L

le = 0.85L

le = L

le = 2L

A = End restrained in position and rotational direction

B = End restrained in position but not rotational direction

L = Length as shown
le = Effective length for strength calculations

Fig 6/1. Effective lengths of columns or struts.

0609. Depth to breadth ratios. Recommended depth to breadth ratios for

beams with various degrees of support are tabulated in Table 6-4 and
illustrated in Figure 6/2. If these are observed there is little chance of
buckling. It will also be found that they look right both on drawings and in
the structure which is always a good guide.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-5

 TABLE 6-4 MAXIMUM DEPTH TO BREADTH RATIOS

Maximum depth to
Ser Degree of lateral support
breadth ratio

(a) (b) (c)

1 No lateral support 2

2 Ends held in position 3

3 Ends held in position and members 4

held in line, as by purlins or tie rods

4 Ends held in position and compression 5

edge held in line eg direct connection
of sheathing, deck or joists

5 As above together with adequate 6

bridging or blocking spaced at
intervals not exceeding six times the
depth

6 Ends held in position and both ends 7

held firmly in line

Fig 6/2. Degrees of lateral support for timber beams.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-6
 Compression edges held in line Edges firmly held in line

End held in position and Members held in line by

compression edge held in line purlins and tie rods

Fig 6/2 cont. Degrees of lateral support for timber beams.

0610. Slenderness ratio. This term is used to describe and measure the
tendency of long thin struts to buckle and bend:

Slenderness Ratio, = Effective length λ = le

Radius of Gyration rmin

This gives a figure which can be calculated for any cross sectional shape.

Note: r min is taken from tables of standard sections and for simple
sections may be calculated from Table 5-1. For non-symmetrical sections
the weakest direction must be used.

0611. The permissible stress in compression, parallel to the grain, must finally be
modified by factor K12 which is given in Table 6-5. It is derived from the
slenderness ratio calculated in Paragraph 0610 and the ratio E/σc (where E
= the minimum Young's Modulus and σ c// is the Grade Stress in
compression parallel to the grain x K3). Modification factor K12 is important
because it includes the effects of both Young's Modulus and the
slenderness ratio. The table also allows the use of effective
length/minimum width, for rectangular sections only, to be used to derive
K12.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-7

0612. Spare.
to
0620.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-8
 TABLE 6-5 MODIFICATION FACTOR K12 FOR COMPRESSION MEMBERS

Values of Slenderness Ratio λ (= le/rmin)

Ser

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u) (v)

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

E/σc// <5 5 10 20 30 40 50 60 70 80 90 100 120 140 160 180 200 220 240 250
(Min) Equivalent le/b (for rectangular sections)
<1.4 1.4 2.9 5.8 8.7 11.6 14.5 17.3 20.2 23.1 26.0 28.9 34.7 40.5 46.2 52.0 57.8 63.6 69.4 72.3
1 400 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.896 0.827 0.735 0.621 0.506 0.408 0.330 0.271 0.225 0.162 0.121 0.094 0.075 0.061 0.051 0.043 0.040
2 500 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.899 0.837 0.759 0.664 0.562 0.466 0.385 0.320 0.269 0.195 0.148 0.115 0.092 0.076 0.063 0.053 0.049
3 600 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.901 0.843 0.774 0.692 0.601 0.511 0.430 0.363 0.307 0.226 0.172 0.135 0.109 0.089 0.074 0.063 0.058
4 700 1.000 0.975 0.951 0.902 0.848 0.784 0.711 0.629 0.545 0.467 0.399 0.341 0.254 0.195 0.154 0.124 0.102 0.085 0.072 0.067
5 800 1.000 0.975 0.952 0.903 0.851 0.792 0.724 0.649 0.572 0.497 0.430 0.371 0.280 0.217 0.172 0.139 0.115 0.096 0.082 0.076
6 900 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.904 0.853 0.797 0.734 0.665 0.593 0.522 0.456 0.397 0.304 0.237 0.188 0.153 0.127 0.106 0.091 0.084

7 1000 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.904 0.855 0.801 0.742 0.677 0.609 0.542 0.478 0.420 0.325 0.255 0.204 0.167 0.138 0.116 0.099 0.092
8 1100 1.000 0.986 0.952 0.905 0.856 0.804 0.748 0.687 0.623 0.559 0.497 0.440 0.344 0.272 0.219 0.179 0.149 0.126 0.107 0.100
9 1200 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.857 0.807 0.753 0.693 0.634 0.573 0.513 0.457 0.362 0.288 0.233 0.192 0.160 0.135 0.116 0.107
10 1300 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.905 0.858 0.809 0.757 0.701 0.643 0.584 0.527 0.472 0.378 0.303 0.247 0.203 0.170 0.144 0.123 0.115
11 1400 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.859 0.811 0.760 0.707 0.651 0.595 0.539 0.486 0.392 0.317 0.259 0.214 0.180 0.153 0.131 0.122
12 1500 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.860 0.813 0.763 0.712 0.658 0.603 0.550 0.498 0.405 0.330 0.271 0.225 0.189 0.161 0.138 0.129

13 1600 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.861 0.814 0.766 0.716 0.664 0.611 0.559 0.508 0.417 0.342 0.282 0.235 0.198 0.169 0.145 0.135
14 1700 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.861 0.815 0.768 0.719 0.669 0.618 0.567 0.518 0.428 0.353 0.292 0.245 0.207 0.177 0.152 0.142
15 1800 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.906 0.862 0.816 0.770 0.722 0.673 0.624 0.574 0.526 0.438 0.363 0.302 0.254 0.215 0.184 0.159 0.148
16 1900 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.907 0.862 0.817 0.772 0.725 0.677 0.629 0.581 0.534 0.447 0.373 0.312 0.262 0.223 0.191 0.165 0.154
17 2000 1.000 0.976 0.952 0.907 0.863 0.818 0.773 0.728 0.681 0.634 0.587 0.541 0.455 0.382 0.320 0.271 0.230 0.198 0.172 0.160

6-9
 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
6-10
 SECTION 6.2 STEEL
0621. The Eurocode for steel design (EC 3) uses limit state design philosophy
and the old system of permissible stresses has been replaced. However,
due to the nature of operations and the inherent safety of using permissible
stress design, it is appropriate to use the existing methods in this
pamphlet. The data used in this section is taken from British Standard
449, Part 2, 1969, Use of Structural Steel in Building. It will tend to produce
designs on the safe side with heavier than required sections. For a more
rigorous design to limit state analysis, reference should be made to British
Standard 5950, Part 1, 1985, or Eurocode 3.

0622. Steel is an homongeneous material and its properties can be predicted. In

many cases the properties can be designed into the particular alloy or
created by heat treatment and are repeatable so the calculations for its use
tend to be simpler than those for timber. Nonetheless, care must be taken
in steelwork design; the stresses that can be taken by steel are high so
failure can be serious.

0623. Figure 6/3 shows the behaviour of mild steel through the full range of
stresses to failure. The permissible stress is about a third of its ultimate
stress. This safety factor is important and allows for design, manufacture,
fabrication, erection and loading errors. Permissible stresses must not be
exceeded by the designer. The maximum permissible stresses together
with Young's Modulus for commonly used steels are listed in Table 6-6.
The permissible stresses apply only to sections with a least dimension of
up to 40 mm. Above that, uniform stress distribution cannot be guaranteed.
It is unlikely that steel thicker than 40 mm will be required for structures in
the field; if it is, advice should be sought.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-11

 Fig 6/3. The behaviour of mild steel under stress.

The dimensions and properties of several common sections are shown in

Annex C. Note that each nominal size of section often has variations with
the mass per unit length and material thicknesses changed.

TABLE 6-6 MAXIMUM PERMISSIBLE STRESSES FOR STEEL

Axial Young's
Ser Material Bending tension or Shear Bearing Density Modulus
compression (ρ) (E)
2 2 2 2 3 2
N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm kg/m N/mm
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

1 Grade 43 steel (MS)

5
a. Rolled sections 165 155 100 190 7840 2.1 x10
5
b. Plates 165 155 115 190 7840 2.1x10

2 Grade 50 Steel (HYS)

5
a. Rolled sections 230 215 140 260 7840 2.1x10
5
b. Plates 230 215 160 260 7840 2.1x10

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-12
0624. Struts. When steel members are used as struts the safe working stress
must be reduced to take account of buckling depending on the struts'
slenderness ratio. Because the steel used for struts will seldom have a
simple cross section the slenderness ratio is always expressed as le/rmin
where:

a. le = effective length (From Figure 6/1).

b. rmin = minimum radius of gyration. A glance at the tables will show that
the radius of gyration is given for at least two axes of bending. The axis
for beams is obvious; struts are more difficult so use the lowest value
for safety.

Table 6-7 gives the permissible stresses in Grade 43 (mild) steel for a
range of slenderness ratios.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-13

 TABLE 6-7 PERMISSIBLE STRESSES FOR AXIAL COMPRESSION
OF MILD STEEL
2
Ser Permissible stresses (N/mm ) for grade 43 steel
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l)
le/rmin 0 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9

1 0 155 154 154 153 153 153 152 152 151

2 10 151 151 150 150 149 149 148 148 148 147
3 20 147 146 146 146 145 145 144 144 144 143
4 30 143 142 142 142 141 141 141 140 140 139
5 40 139 138 138 137 137 136 136 136 135 134
6 50 133 133 132 131 130 130 129 128 127 126

7 60 126 125 124 123 122 121 120 119 118 117
8 60 115 114 113 112 111 110 108 107 106 105
9 80 104 102 101 100 99 97 96 95 94 92
10 90 91 90 89 87 86 85 84 83 81 80
11 100 79 78 77 76 75 74 73 72 71 70

12 110 69 68 67 66 65 64 63 62 61 61
13 120 60 59 58 57 56 56 55 54 53 53
14 130 52 51 51 50 49 49 48 48 47 46
15 140 46 45 45 44 43 43 42 42 41 41
16 150 40 40 39 39 38 38 38 37 37 36

17 160 36 35 35 35 34 34 33 33 33 32
18 170 32 32 31 31 31 30 30 30 29 29
19 180 29 28 28 28 28 27 27 27 26 26
20 190 26 26 25 25 25 25 24 24 24 24
21 200 24 23 23 23 23 22 22 22 22 22

22 210 21 21 21 21 21 20 20 20 20 20
23 220 20 19 19 19 19 19 19 18 18 18
24 230 18 18 18 18 17 17 17 17 17 17
25 240 17 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 16 15
26 250 15

27 300 11

28 350 8

Note: Read off tens of le/rmin in column b and units along the top.

6-14 Issue 1.1: Nov 03

0625. Beams.

a. Bending. As with struts the basic permissible stresses have to be

reduced to take account of the shape and slenderness of the member in
order to account for lateral buckling. The reduction in permissible
stresses in beams in bending depends upon two main ratios:

(1) l/ry where l = The effective length between

restraints (Table 6-8) and ry = The
radius of gyration (from property tables)

(2) D/T where D = Depth of section

T = Flange thickness } from property
tables

TABLE 6-8 EFFECTIVE LENGTHS FOR BEAMS

Effective
Ser Restraint Condition Length
(l)

(a) (b) (c)

1 Compression flange fully restrained against 0.85L

rotation in plan at the supports.

2 Compression flange partially restrained 1.05L

against rotation in plan at the supports.
eg securely cleated connections.

3 Compression flange not restrained against 1.20L

rotation in plan at the supports.

4 Bottom flange at support section restrained 1.50L

against twisting about its own longitudinal
axis but beam not otherwise restrained
elsewhere in its span.

NOTE: L is the span between supports.

Table 6-9 takes in both l/r y and D/T and gives the permissible
compressive bending stresses for mild steel beams.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-15

 TABLE 6-9 PERMISSIBLE COMPRESSIVE BENDING STRESSES
2
FOR MILD STEEL BEAMS (N/mm )

Ser l/ry D/T

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
10 15 20 25 30 35 40 50

1 90 165 165 165 165 165 165 165 165

2 95 165 165 165 163 163 163 163 163
3 100 165 165 165 157 157 157 157 157
4 105 165 165 160 152 152 152 152 152
5 119 165 165 158 147 147 147 147 147

6 115 165 165 152 141 141 141 141 141

7 120 165 148 136 136 136 136 136 136
8 130 165 139 126 126 126 126 126 126
9 140 165 149 130 115 115 115 115 115
10 150 165 143 122 104 104 104 104 104

11 160 163 136 113 96 94 94 94 94

12 170 159 130 104 91 85 82 82 82
13 180 155 124 96 87 80 76 72 71
14 190 151 118 93 83 77 72 68 62
15 200 147 111 89 80 73 68 64 59

16 210 143 105 87 77 70 65 61 55

17 220 139 99 84 74 67 62 58 52
18 230 134 95 81 71 64 59 55 49
19 240 130 92 78 69 61 56 52 47
20 250 126 90 76 66 59 54 50 44

21 260 122 88 74 64 57 52 48 42
22 270 118 85 72 62 55 50 46 40
23 280 114 84 70 60 53 48 44 39
24 290 110 82 68 58 51 46 42 37
25 300 106 80 66 56 49 44 41 36

b. Shear. It can be seen from Table 6-6 that the permissible average shear
2
stress in mild steel rolled sections is 100 N/mm . However, when steel
greater than 40 mm in thickness is used, this figure should be reduced
2
to 90 N/mm . This is because the shear stress distribution through the
section cannot be guaranteed to be completely uniform at the bearings.

0626. Spare.
to
0635.
Issue 1.1: Nov 03
6-16
 SECTION 6.3 CONCRETE
0636. General. It has been said earlier that concrete is an extremely good
construction material, but that the use of it in operations is limited by the
time it takes to reach full strength. In order to obtain the highest strengths
the design of the mixture, mixing the concrete and placing it all have to be
quite closely controlled, which may not be possible in the field. However,
there will be occasions when it can be used to good effect provided that its
limitations are taken into consideration.

0637. Concrete is a mixture of cement, sand, coarse aggregate and water. By

exercising strict control of all phases of its production it is possible to
predict the qualities of the final product. Depending upon the proportions of
each component in the mix, the time it has to cure and the curing
conditions, it can have a compressive strength within the range 10 to
2
50N/m . The strength is tested by making standard cubes from each batch
of concrete. The cubes are cured under the same conditions as the main
mass of concrete. They are normally tested by crushing after 7 days, with
another test after 28 days, although up to 56 days can be specified by the
designer. Detailed procedures for making and testing the cubes are given
in ME Vol XIV, Part 1, Concrete Practice. The strength quoted is always
that for 28 days unless otherwise stated. At the seven day point the
strength is usually at least 50 per cent of the 28 day strength. The concrete
will continue to get stronger for the duration of its lifetime.

0638. It is unlikely that it will be possible to make, let alone test, cubes in
operational situations. The strength of concrete, even for a stated mix, can
vary considerably with slight variations in the water content and the
effectiveness of compaction. The permissible strengths of concrete made
by field units without testing facilities should therefore be reduced
considerably from the calculated strengths.

0639. Concrete is usually referred to by the test cube strengths that the design of
the mix should be able to achieve. The terms Cube Strength 15, 25 or 35
Newtons will be heard. As a very general rule:
2
a. 15 Newton (N/mm ) concrete is for base slabs carrying no significant
load or acting as a sub base for a higher quality slab.

b. 20-25 Newton concrete is used for general construction.

c. 35 Newton concrete is for special purposes such as blast walls and

highly stressed bridges.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-17

0640. Practical concrete strengths.

a. Delivered or designed mixes. If a concrete mix has been specified or it

is proposed to import ready mixed concrete for use on a site with limited
test and supervision facilities, the nominal strength should be reduced
by about one third so that:

2 2
15N/mm concrete is taken for design purposes as 10N/mm .
2 2
25N/mm concrete is taken for design purposes as 15N/mm .
2 2
30N/mm concrete is taken for design purposes as 20N/mm .

The mixes may be used for the same purposes stated in Paragraph
0639, but the design for the lower strength figure will allow for possible
faults in placing and curing.

b. General purpose concrete strengths. When concrete is mixed on site

the proportions of materials are usually given in the form of a ratio which
is cement: sand: coarse aggregate measured by volume, for example
1 : 2 : 4 means two volumes of sand and four volumes of aggregate for
each volume of cement. The water content will be specified as a
proportion or percentage of the cement and will commonly be in the
order of 0.5 water/cement ratio by weight. ie 50kg of water to 100 kg of
cement. Any water in the sand or aggregate is included in this figure so
the proportion is often quoted as 20 to 50 per cent. If the aggregate is
damp only 20 per cent of extra water may be needed. Some typical
mixes, for small batches, their uses and strengths are shown in Table 6-
10.

0641. Tensile and shear strengths. It must be clear that concrete has some
tensile and shear strength because, if it did not, it would be impossible to
pick up a flagstone by its edge let alone stand on one not fully supported
over all its area. However, for design purposes the tensile and shear
strengths are assumed to be zero and wherever concrete is to be used to
take anything but pure compressive stresses it must be reinforced, usually
with steel, which does provide the tensile and shear qualities needed.
Examples of the use of steel reinforcement for beams and slabs are given
in Chapter 10.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-18
TABLE 6-10 PRACTICAL CONCRETE MIXES FOR SMALL BATCHES

Ser Use Nominal Compress Cement Sand Aggregate Water

mix strength

2 3 3
MN/m kg m m l

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

1 Foundations and mass 1 : 3: 6 16 50 0.14 0.21 27

concrete generally

1
2 Machinery bases and 1 : 2 /2 : 5 20 50 0.11 0.18 24
walls below ground

3 Mass walls above ground, 1 : 2 :4 25 50 0.09 0.14 22

road slabs and general
RC work

1
4 Watertight floors pavements, 1 : 1 /2 : 3 30 50 0.07 0.11 20
Walls & tanks, pits, steps,
paths.

5 Thin sections such as 1:1:2 38 50 0.05 0.07 18

fence posts and lintels

NOTES:

1. These mixes and, particularly, the water content are for small batches only (up to four bags
of cement per mix) and should give a slump of 50 - 100 mm.

2. An allowance has been made for the bulking of the sand by 30%. This leads to the apparent
discrepancies in the volume of ratios of the sand and aggregate.

3. If the proportions do not give a workable mix, alter the quantities of sand and aggregate
slightly. Do NOT add more water.

4. A batching box for measuring sand and aggregate with 300 mm internal measurements will
3 3
hold approximately 0.03 m and one of 400 mm internal measurements, 0.06 m . Details of
batching and mixing generally are given in ME Vol II Pam 1, Basic Field Engineering.

0642. Spare.
to
0650.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-19

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
6-20
 SECTION 6.4 BRICKS AND MORTAR
0651. Bricks. The general characteristics of bricks are described in ME Vol II,
Pam 1. Table 6-11 gives details of their alpha-numeric classification. If
bricks are obtained from a major supplier the classification should be
available. If it is not, the supplier or a unit bricklayer should be able to use
Table 6-11 to estimate a very good working figure based on the normal use
to which the bricks available would be put.

TABLE 6-11 BRICK CLASSIFICATION

Minimum Average
Class Crushing Strength Use
2
(N/mm )

(a) (b) (c)

A 69.0 Engineering
B 48.5 Engineering

15 103.5 Very concentrated loads

10 69.0 Very concentrated loads

7 48.5 Brickwork that will be

6 41.5 heavily loaded, repeatedly
5 34.5 exposed to frost while in
4 27.5 a saturated condition or
3A 20.5 continuously wet.
3B 20.5 As 3A with higher drying
shrinkage. Must be used
with less strong mortars.
2A 14.0 General use externally and
internally.
2B 14.0 As 2A with higher drying
shrinkage. Must be used
with less strong mortars.
1 7.0 Internal non-facings in less
strong mortars.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-21

0652. Mortar. The figures given in Table 6-11 are minimum crushing strengths of
bricks. Brick structures are a combination of bricks and mortar so the
strength of the structure depends as much on the mortar used as the
strength of the bricks. Mortar also has to be selected to match the strength
of the brick. If it is too weak the structure will be weaker than could be
obtained with a given brick. If it is too strong and there is settlement,
expansion or contraction in the structure, the bricks will fail before the
mortar. It is easier to repair cracked mortar than to replace broken bricks
(see Figure 6/4). The ideal is to have a mortar which is slightly weaker than
the bricks so the structure has maximum strength but the mortar will fail
first if there is movement. Unless otherwise specified, the mortars used for
bricklaying should be of cement, lime and sand. Plasticisers may be added
if required. There are several mixes which may be regarded as standard.
These are shown in Table 6-12. Table 6-13 matches mortars to brick
classes.

Mortar Stronger than Brick Brick Stronger than Mortar

Fig 6/4. Cracking of brick structures.

TABLE 6-12 MORTAR MIXES

Proportion by volume
Average compression
Ser
strength at 28 days
Cement Lime Sand
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)
1 2
1 1 0 to /4 3 11.0 N/mm Strong
1 1 2
2 1 /2 4 to 4 /2 4.5 N/mm "
2
3 1 1 5 to 6 2.5 N/mm "
2
4 1 2 8 to 9 1.0 N/mm Flexible

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-22
 TABLE 6-13 BRICK CLASS MATCHED TO MORTAR

Mortar Mix

Ser Element of construction Brick Risk of No risk of

Qual frost during frost during
construction construction

1 Inner leaf of cavity and 2 1 : 1: 5-6 1 : 2 : 8-9

internal walls
2 Backing to external 2 1 : 1 : 5-6 1 : 2 : 8-9
solid walls
3 External walls including
the outer leaf of cavity
walls and facing to solid
construction:
(a) Above dpc near 2 1 : 1 : 5-6 1 : 2 : 8-9
ground level
(b) Below dpc but more 2 1 : 1 : 5-6 1 : 1 : 5-6
than 150 mm over
ground level
(c) Within 150 mm of 3 1 : 1 : 5-6 1 : 1 : 5-6
ground
4 External free-standing 3 1 : 1 : 5-6 1 : 1 : 5-6
walls
5 Parapets - unrendered 3 1 : 1 : 5-6 1 : 1 : 5-6
rendered 3 1 : 2 : 8-9 1 : 1 : 5-6
1 1 1
6 Brick sills and copings 4 1 : /2 : 4-4 /2 1 : /2 : 4-4
and earth retaining
walls*

* Where sulphates are present in the soil or groundwater, sulphate

resisting cement should be used.

0653. Permissible stresses. Having established the crushing strength of the

bricks and the strength and application of the mortar it is possible to give
permissible stresses for brick structures. These are summarized in Table
6-14.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-23

 TABLE 6-14 COMPRESSIVE STRESSES FOR BRICKWORK WALLS

2
Basic stress in N/mm corres-
Ser Mortar Mix Hardening ponding to bricks of class and
2
time (days) crushing strength (N/mm ) shown

Cement: Lime: Sand Cl 2 Cl 3 Cl 4 Cl 5 Cl 6 Cl 7

14.0 20.5 27.5 34.5 41.5 48.5

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

1
1 1 : 0- /4 : 3 7 1.26 1.65 2.05 2.50 2.90 3.30

2 1:1:6 14 1.07 1.30 1.60 1.85 2.11 2.37

3 1:2:9 14 0.95 1.15 1.45 1.65 1.81 1.97

0654. Where there is a load on a wall, the stresses have to be modified by a

factor determined by the slenderness ratio of the wall which is given in
Table 6-15. The slenderness ratio is the effective height of the wall, usually
three quarters of the actual height, divided by the effective thickness,
usually the actual thickness. The slenderness ratio should not exceed 27,
except in the case of walls less than 90 mm thick or in buildings of more
than two storeys, where it should not exceed 20.

TABLE 6-15 REDUCTION FACTORS FOR SLENDERNESS

(AXIALLY LOADED MEMBERS)

Slenderness ratio 6 8 10 12 14 16
Reduction factor 1.00 0.95 0.89 0.84 0.78 0.73

Slenderness ratio 18 20 22 24 26 27
Reduction factor 0.67 0.62 0.56 0.51 0.45 0.43

0655. Figures 6/5 to 6/7 summarize permissible brick loading, giving a quick
reference to the permissible loads, in kN/m run, for three common wall
thicknesses at various heights, and indicate the correct mortar mix for the
various qualities of brick. The difference in loading with height takes into
account the slenderness ratio of the finished wall.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-24
 Wall Heights

H1 = 2300
H2 = 2600
H3 = 2900
H4 = 3200
Allowable Load (kN/m)

2
Brick Crusing Strength (N/mm )

Fig 6/5. Loading capacity of 90 mm single leaf brick wall

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-25

 Wall Heights

H1 = 2300
H2 = 2600
H3 = 2900
H4 = 3200
H5 = 3500
Allowable Load (kN/m)

2
Brick Crushing Strength (N/mm )

Fig 6/6. Loading capacity of 102.5 mm single leaf brick wall.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-26
 Wall Heights

H1 = 2300
H2 = 2600
H3 = 2900
H4 = 3200
H5 = 3500
Allowable Load (kN/m)

2
Brick Crushing Strength (N/mm )

Fig 6/7. Loading capacity of 215 mm single leaf brick wall.

0656. Spare.
to
0664.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-27

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
6-28
 SECTION 6.5 BLOCKS
0665. The general characteristics of blocks are described in ME Vol II Pam 1.
The permissible stresses for blockwork structures are calculated in much
the same way as those for brickwork. The crushing strength is the basic
2 2
parameter and this can range from just under 3.0 N/mm to over 35 N/mm .
The density of a block is some indication of its strength and uses although
the density depends not only on the material but also the volume of holes
or hollows in the block.

0666. As with bricks, the permissible loading is a function of the strength of both
the block and the mortar. The mortar should, if possible, be slightly weaker
than the block although it may be necessary to use a stronger mortar to
obtain the required strength. Tables 6-16 to 6-18 give the permissible
compressive strength of some blockwork walls. There are further
modification factors in British Standard 5628, Part 1 but the figures given
here cover most situations. The inclusion of the ratio of height to horizontal
dimensions enables the enhancement of the strength of the structure, due
to the shape of the blocks, to be included. In the limit if large, carefully
shaped blocks are used with relatively thin mortar layers, the permissible
loading will approach the crushing strength of the block. This applies more
to natural stone masonry.

TABLE 6-16 CHARACTERISTIC COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

BLOCKWORK WITH BLOCKS HAVING A RATIO OF
HEIGHT TO LEAST HORIZONTAL DIMENSION OF 0.6
2
Compressive strength of block (N/mm )
Ser Mortar
2.8 3.5 5.0 7.0 10 15 20 35+
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1
1 1 : 0- /4 : 3 1.4 1.7 2.5 3.4 4.4 6.0 7.4 11.4
1 1
2 1 : /2 : 4-4 /2 1.4 1.7 2.5 3.2 4.2 5.3 6.4 9.4
3 1 : 1 : 5-6 1.4 1.7 2.5 3.2 4.1 5.0 5.8 8.5
4 1 : 2 : 8-9 1.4 1.7 2.2 2.8 3.5 4.4 5.2 7.3

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 6-29

 TABLE 6-17 CHARACTERISTIC COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF
BLOCKWORK WITH HOLLOW BLOCKS HAVING A
RATIO OF HEIGHT TO LEAST HORIZONTAL
DIMENSION OF BETWEEN 2.0 AND 4.0

2
Compressive strength of block (N/mm )
Ser Mortar
2.8 3.5 5.0 7.0 10 15 20 35+
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1
1 1 : 0- /4 : 3 2.8 3.5 5.0 5.7 6.1 6.8 7.5 11.4
1 1
2 1 : /2 : 4-4 /2 2.8 3.5 5.0 5.5 5.7 6.1 6.5 9.4
3 1 : 1 : 5-6 2.8 3.5 5.0 5.4 5.5 5.7 5.9 8.5
4 1 : 2 : 8-9 2.8 3.5 4.4 4.8 4.9 5.1 5.3 7.3

TABLE 6-18 CHARACTERISTIC COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF

BLOCKWORK WITH SOLID CONCRETE BLOCKS
HAVING A RATIO OF HEIGHT TO LEAST
HORIZONTAL DIMENSION OF BETWEEN 2.0 AND 4.0

2
Compressive strength of block (N/mm )
Ser Mortar
2.8 3.5 5.0 7.0 10 15 20 35+
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1
1 1 : 0- /4 : 3 2.8 3.5 5.0 6.8 8.8 12.0 14.8 22.8
1 1
2 1 : /2 : 4-4 /2 2.8 3.5 5.0 6.4 8.4 10.6 12.8 18.8
3 1 : 1 : 5-6 2.8 3.5 5.0 6.4 8.2 10.0 11.6 17.4
4 1 : 2 : 8-9 2.8 3.5 4.4 5.6 7.0 8.8 10.4 14.6

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

6-30
 CHAPTER 7 CONNECTIONS

SECTION 7.1 TIMBER CONNECTIONS -

GENERAL
0701. This section deals entirely with the strength of connections made with
some form of fastening. Timber can be cut to shape for jointing using
halved joints, dovetails, mortices, etc. Any fastening then used can be
regarded as a locator contributing no strength itself. The strength of joints
utilising shaped timber can be calculated from the basic properties, usually
shear strength, quoted in Chapter 6. The Romans had transportable
timber gatehouses, the main sections of which locked together using only
dry, shaped joints. Unit carpenters should be able to make shaped joints
for applications where they are suitable. Figure 7/1 gives examples of
several joints. On their own, these are most useful for struts which will not
have stress reversals.

Fig 7/1. Shaped timber joints.

0702. There are three main types of fastener used for joining timber structural
members, plywood and other man made boards together and to each
other.

7-1
 Fasteners may also be used to attach drilled metal plates to those
materials. These include:

a. Nails.

b. Screws.

c. Bolts.

0703. In addition there are glue and proprietary connectors. Proprietary

connectors are touched upon later, but glue is not considered further. A
well made joint using modern adhesives can be the strongest form of joint,
but conditions in the field will often be unsuitable for the production of good
glued joints. For example, very few glues are effective on damp timber.
Nonetheless, it is often an advantage to reinforce joints with glue.
Calculations for the additional strength gained are not given here, but may
be obtained from British Standard 5268, Part 2, 1984 and commercial
publications. In addition to strengthening a joint, glue will make it stiffer and
can prevent the ingress of water so reducing the effects of one cause of
decay.

0704 Spare.
to
0705.

7-2
 SECTION 7.2 TIMBER CONNECTIONS - NAILED
JOINTS
0706. There are many sorts of nail. Here only round wire nails, the common nail,
are considered. Other types are for particular applications. For those
applications they will probably be easier to use and will make a stronger
joint. If a lot of decking or flooring is to be laid cut nails may be used as
they need no pre-drilling, have less tendency to split the wood and can be
hammered flush with the timber. Clout nails have larger heads than round
nails and can be used to secure thin cladding, such as ply or hardboard,
with no risk of the material pulling over the nail head. Roofing nails, with
their associated shaped washers, should be used for CGI. Despite the
advantages of special nails, unless a task can be planned well ahead, the
diversity of stock should be kept to a minimum.

0707. A nailed joint must have at least two nails. If holes for the nails are pre-
drilled the diameter of the hole should not exceed 0.8 of the nail diameter.
Timbers of strength class SC6 and above, ie hardwoods generally, will
usually have to be pre-drilled. When time allows it is sometimes better to
pre-drill for all nails to reduce the risk of splitting the timber, but see
Paragraph 0708 for the effect of the holes on the effective cross section of
the member which can be important if there are a lot of small nails. In order
to avoid splitting, the end distances, edge distances and spacing of nails
should not be less than the values given in Table 7-1 and illustrated in
Figure 7/2.

7-3
 TABLE 7-1 MINIMUM NAIL SPACINGS

Timber to Timber Joints Steel Plywood or

plate-to-timber tempered
Without With joints hardboard-to-timber
Ser Spacing pre-drilled pre-drilled joints
holes holes
Without Without
pre-drilled pre-drilled
holes holes

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

1 End distance parallel 20d 10d 14d 14d

to grain
2 Edge distance 5d 5d 5d *
perpendicular to
grain
3 Distance between 10d 3d 7d 7d
lines of nails.
4 Distance between 20d 10d 14d 14d
adjacent nails in any
one line, parallel to
grain

Note d is the nail diameter

* The edge distance in timber should be not less than 5d.
The edge distance in plywood should be not less than 3d.
The edge distance in tempered hardboard should be not less than 6d.

Fig 7/2. Minimum nail spacings for timber joints.

7-4
0708. Effective cross section. When assessing the effective cross section of
multiple nailed joints all nails that lie within a distance of five nail diameters,
measured parallel to the grain, from a given cross section should be
considered as occurring at that cross section. The effective cross section is
determined by deducting the net projected area of the nails from the gross
area of the cross section under consideration. No reduction of cross
section need be made for nails of less than 5.0 mm diameter driven without
pre-drilling. Note that this exception will apply to most small tasks.

0709. Basic single sheer lateral loads. The basic single sheer lateral loads for
round wire nails driven at right angles to the grain are given in Table 7-2. In
connection with the table there are a few points to note:

a. Headside. Headside is the term used to denote the piece of timber

nearest the head of the nail. That is the one into which the nail point is
driven first.

b. Pointside. Pointside is the term used to denote the timber underneath

receiving the point of the nail after it has been driven through the
headside.

c. The headside and pointside thicknesses are the minimum to guarantee

the shear strengths quoted. The diameters given are related to the
lengths of the wire nails required to give the quoted strengths. An
increase in the headside or pointside thicknesses for a given nail
diameter will not give increased strength. However, if the thickness of
members or nail penetrations are less than the standard values given,
the basic load should be reduced by the smaller of the two ratios:

(1) Actual to standard thickness of headside member, or

(2) Actual penetration to standard pointside thickness.

Headside

Pointside

Fig 7/3. Nailing definitions.

7-5
 TABLE 7-2 BASIC SINGLE SHEAR LATERAL LOADS FOR
ROUND WIRE NAILS DRIVEN AT RIGHT ANGLES
TO THE GRAIN

Basic lateral load per

Standard thickness
Diameter nail for timber in
Ser of members
of nail strength class

Headside Pointside SC1 SC3 SC5 SC6

mm mm mm N N N N

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

1 2.65 19 25 145 180 210 265

2 3.00 22 29 190 230 265 340
3 3.35 25 32 235 285 335 420

4 3.75 29 38 295 355 420 530

5 4.00 32 44 335 405 475 600
6 4.50 38 51 425 515 600 760

7 5.00 44 57 525 635 740 940

8 5.60 51 67 655 795 930 1180
9 6.00 57 76 755 910 1070 1350

10 6.70 64 89 845 1020 1200 1520

11 8.00 83 108 940 1130 1330 1680

0710. Basic withdrawal loads. The basic withdrawal loads for single nails at
right angles to the grain of green timber are given in Table 7-3. The figures
apply to each millimetre depth of penetration and, for a particular nail,
should be multiplied by the actual pointside penetration achieved which
should be a minimum of 15 mm for any nail. No withdrawal load should be
carried by a nail driven into the end grain of timber. As a general rule, nails
should not be used in tension even when driven across the grain except for
very light duties such as nailing battens to a ceiling.

7-6
0711. Nailing plywood and hardboard. If it is intended to use plywood or
hardboard as structural members, and the shear strength of the joints is a
critical factor, reference should be made to British standard 5268, Part 2,
1988, Section 6. In most cases it is assumed that the materials will be
used as cladding where the withdrawal loads may have to be applied to the
wind loading. It is usually safe to assume that the shear strength of
plywood or hardboard joints to timber is 0.7 or 2/3 of the shear strength of
timber to timber joints. Withdrawal loads can be taken from Table 7-3 as
before.

0712. Steel plate to timber joints. Steel plates need to be fixed to timber and
timber to steel plates on many occasions. Assuming that the steel plate is
adequately designed, the basic load given in Table 7-2 can be increased
by a modification factor (K46) of 1.25. The holes in the plate should be, as
nearly as possible, the diameter of the nails.

0713. Permissible load for a joint. The permissible load for a nailed joint
should be determined as the sum of the permissible loads for each nail in
the joint. Each permissible nail load can be calculated as the basic nail
load multiplied by various factors:

a. K48 is the modification factor for the duration of load and is:

(1) 1.00 for long term loads.

(2) 1.12 for medium term loads.

(1.25 for tempered hardboards).

(3) 1.25 for short and very short term loads.

(1.62 for tempered hardboard).

b. K49 is the modification factor for the moisture content and is covered by
the notes to Table 7-3.

c. K50 is the modification factor for the number of nails in each line and is
1.0 unless there is a line of more than ten nails parallel to the line of
action of the load when it becomes 0.9. This would be a most unusual
situation

7-7
TABLE 7-3 WITHDRAWAL LOADS FOR ROUND WIRE NAILS
DRIVEN AT RIGHT-ANGLES TO THE GRAIN IN
GREEN TIMBER

Basic withdrawal loads per 1 mm of

pointside penetration for timber in
strength class
Diameter
Ser
of nail SC1 SC3 SC5 SC6
and and to
SC2 SC4 SC9

mm N N N N

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

1 2.65 1.13 1.59 2.67 4.28

2 3.00 1.27 1.80 3.02 4.85
3 3.35 1.43 2.01 3.37 5.42

4 3.75 1.60 2.25 3.78 6.07

5 4.00 1.70 2.40 4.03 6.47
6 4.50 1.92 2.70 4.54 7.28

7 5.00 2.13 3.00 5.04 8.12

8 5.60 2.38 3.36 5.64 9.03
9 6.00 2.56 3.60 6.05 9.73

NOTES:

(i) If the timber is dry, the loads may be increased by a factor of 1.4.
(ii) Divide the loads by four if cyclic changes in moisture content can occur
after nailing.

0714. It is not the intention that detailed calculations are made for every joint.
The basic dimensions of members and the loads to be transmitted across
the joints will be determined by the design. The dimensions will almost
dictate the best nail sizes which should then, if possible, be standardised
for the structure to ease construction even if some joints have a few extra
nails. The load to be transmitted will then enable the number of nails
needed for each joint to be decided by dividing the load acceptable for one
nail into the load. If the number of nails needed cannot be fitted into the
joint using Table 7-1, or the effective area is reduced to unacceptable
levels, another method of connection will have to be investigated. Where it
7-8
 is not possible to calculate the shear load as in, say, nailing down floors or
decking, the decking thickness is the headside thickness which then
indicates the optimum nail size from Table 7-2, eg a 50 mm thick deck
should be nailed with 110 - 120 mm nails.

0715. Spare.
to
0719.

7-9
7-10
 SECTION 7.3 TIMBER CONNECTIONS -
SCREWED JOINTS
0720. While there are, apparently, many different sorts of woodscrews, the
differences are mostly in the shape of the head and the material from
which they are made. Threads vary very little and are usually single start.
There are some special purpose screws such as those for chip board,
which have double start threads. The main types of woodscrew are
described below:

a. Shape of head.

(1) Countersunk - the most common.

(2) Raised head - more attractive than countersunk.

(3) Roundhead - useful for thin materials where

countersinking would take away too
much of the strength.

b. Type of drive.

(1) Slotted - These have a straight slot which

accepts standard screwdrivers.

(2) Crosshead - These screws have a cruciform recess

in the head which takes the point of a
special screwdriver. Crosshead
screws come in two forms, Phillips
and Posidrive. The recesses look
similar, but the appropriate screwdriver
must be used. Crosshead screws are
almost essential if power screwdrivers
are to be used.

c. Material.

(1) Mild steel - General purpose for use indoors or for

short term external work. A mild steel
screw exposed to water will often rust
through in the middle of the joint
before there is any sign of deterior-
ation on the surface.

(2) Bright zinc - The term is self descriptive. They are

plated resistant to corrosion.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 7-11

 (3) Brass - Very corrosion resistant, except in
some timbers such as oak.

(4) Stainless steel - Excellent for outdoor work, especially

if they have to be removable, but
probably not cost effective for short
term structures unless the materials
are to be re-used.

(5) Black japanned - These are black enamelled, usually

roundhead, screws. They are used
mostly in a semi decorative mode for
attaching black fittings such as hinges,
bolts and shelf supports. The paint
does give some resistance to
corrosion.

(6) Chrome plated - Very much for decorative internal

work attaching bright metal fittings.

(7) Light alloy - Lightweight screws used in furniture

assembly. They are not very strong,
shear off easily while driving and the
slot or recess is easily damaged. The
right size pre-drilled hole is essential
as is the correct screwdriver. Not
recommended for use in the field.

0721. Pre-drilling. Screws should always have pre-drilled holes. The hole for
the shank should be the diameter of the shank and no deeper than its
length. The pilot hole for the threaded portion of the screw should have a
diameter about half that of the screw. However, depending upon the
density of the timber, 0.4 times the shank diameter may be more suitable
for softwoods and 0.6 times the shank diameter for hardwoods.

0722. Effective cross section. Because screws should always have pre-drilled
holes the effective cross section is the gross cross section less the
projected area of the pre-drilled holes. As with nails, all screws lying within
a distance of five screw diameters, measured parallel to the grain, from the
cross section are considered to be included in it.

0723. Minimum screw spacing. The minimum spacing for screws is the same
as that shown in column (d) of Table 7-1 for nails with pre-drilled holes,
where d is the shank diameter of the screw.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

7-12
0724. Basic single shear lateral loads. The basic single shear lateral loads for
single screws inserted at right-angles to the grain of dry timber are given in
Table 7-4. If a screw has to be inserted into an end grain the figure must
be modified by the factor K 43 which is equal to 0.7, but this is not
recommended. The rules relating to headside and pointside lengths and
penetration are as given for nails in Paragraph 0709c.

TABLE 7-4 BASIC SINGLE SHEAR LATERAL LOADS FOR

WOOD SCREWS INSERTED AT RIGHT ANGLES TO
THE GRAIN

Ser Standard screw Basic lateral load per screw for

Screw
penetration timber in strength class

Number Shank Headside Pointside SC1 & SC2 SC3 & SC4 SC5 SC6, SC7,
SC8 & SC9

mm mm mm N N N N

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

1. 6 3.45 12 24 170 220 270 330

2. 8 4.17 15 29 250 325 395 480

3. 10 4.88 17 34 345 445 540 655

4. 12 559 20 39 450 580 710 860
5. 14 6.30 22 44 575 740 905 1090

6. 16 7.01 25 49 710 915 1120 1360

7. 18 7.72 27 54 865 1110 1360 1640
8. 20 8.43 30 59 1030 1320 1620 1960

0725. Basic withdrawal loads. The basic withdrawal loads for single screws
inserted at right angles to the grain in dry timber are given in Table 7-5.
The conditions are the same as those given for nails in Paragraph 0710.
No significant withdrawal load can be carried by screws driven into end
grain of timber.

0726. Steel plate to timber joints. The rules are exactly the same as those
shown in Paragraph 0712 with the same modification factor K46 with a
value of 1.25 by which the basic single shear values should be multiplied.

0727. Plywood to timber joints. Detailed formulae for calculating the basic
shear loads for screws in plywood are given in British Standard 5268,

7-13
 Part 2, 1984, Section 6, but if a value of 0.7 or 2/3 of the figures given in
Table 7-4 is used a safe structure will result.

0728. Permissible load for a joint. The figures and factors are the same as
those for nails (see Paragraph 0713). There is no need to allow for the
screws working loose when there are cyclic changes in the moisture
content.

TABLE 7-5 BASIC WITHDRAWAL LOADS FOR WOOD SCREWS

INSERTED AT RIGHT ANGLES TO THE GRAIN

Basic withdrawal loads per 1 mm of

Screw pointside penetration of threaded part
of screws for timber in strength class

SC1 SC3 SC6, SC7,

Shank
Ser Number and and SC5 SC8 and SC9
diameter
SC2 SC4

mm N N N N

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g)

1. 6 3.45 7.19 9.47 14.3 20.9

2. 8 4.17 8.70 11.4 17.3 25.3

3. 10 4.88 10.2 13.4 20.3 29.6

4. 12 5.59 11.7 15.3 23.2 33.9
5. 14 6.30 13.1 17.3 26.2 38.2

6. 16 7.01 14.6 19.2 29.1 42.5

7. 18 7.72 16.1 21.2 32.1 46.8
8. 20 8.43 17.6 23.1 35.0 51.2

0729. Spare.
to
0735.

7-14
 SECTION 7.4 TIMBER CONNECTIONS - BOLTED
JOINTS
0736. Introduction. Bolted joints can be used in timber connections:

a. When the screws or nails available cannot take the load efficiently in
shear.

b. When a structure is prefabricated for later erection on site particularly

using semi-skilled labour.

c. When the structure has to be transportable and has to be partially or

completely stripped to move it.

d. When the forces acting, or likely to act, along the axis of the fastening
exceed the withdrawal loads of nails or screws. The forces can include
twisting and vibration.

0737. General.

a. The recommendations in this section are applicable to joints using Black

bolts, Grade 4-6 which have a yield stress of 238 N/mm2. These are
ordinary bolts, which are usually black, and may have no markings on
the bolt head. Any other bolts will be stronger.

b. Bolt holes should not be more than 2.0 mm larger than the bolt diameter
for bolts up to 24 mm and 3.0 mm larger for bolts over 24 mm in
diameter.

c. Washers should always be fitted under the bolt head and the nut unless
an equivalent bearing such as a steel plate is provided. The
dimensions of the washers should be at least:

(1) Diameter of the washer or the side length of square washers -

Three times the bolt diameter.

(2) Thickness of the washer - One quarter of the bolt diameter.

d. Bolts lengths should be selected so that, when tightened, a minimum of

one complete thread projects from the nut.

0738. Effective cross section. All bolts which lie within a distance of two bolt
diameters, measured parallel to the grain, from a given cross section
should be considered to be on that cross section. The effective cross
section is determined by deducting the net projected area of the bolt holes
from the gross area of the cross section.
7-15
0739. Bolt spacing. The rules for bolt spacing are shown graphically in Figure
7/4. They take into account the necessity to keep away from the edges of
the timber and to provide reasonable separation between bolts.

(a) Loading in Tension

Parallel to Grain

(c) Loading
(b) Edge Distances
Perpendicular
to Grain

(d) Compression
Parallel
to Grain

Fig 7/4. Bolt spacings for joints in timber.

7-16
0740. Basic single shear loads.

a. The basic loads for single bolts in a two member timber joint in which
the load acts perpendicular to the axis of the bolt and parallel or
perpendicular to the grain of the timber are given in Table 7-6.

b. Where the load is inclined at an angle to the grain of the timber the
permissible load, F, lies within the boundaries of a rectangle of which
the basic shear loads, tabulated in Table 7-6, parallel and perpendicular
to the grain form adjacent sides.

FPERP F

FPAR
c. (1) Where parallel members are of uneven thickness, the load for the
thinner member should be used.

(2) Where members of unequal thickness are joined at an angle the

basic load for each member should be determined and the
smaller load used.

0741. Basic multiple shear loads. The basic load for a joint of more than two
members should be taken as the sum of the basic loads for each shear
plane provided that any member having a shear plane on both sides is
regarded as being two parallel members of half the thickness. Figure 7/5
illustrates the point.

Fig 7/5. Multiple shear loads in timber joints.

7-17
TABLE 7-6 BASIC SHEAR LOADS FOR ONE BOLT IN A TWO
MEMBER JOINT

Basic shear load for one bolt in timber of strength class

Actual Nominal
thickness bolt size
SC1 and SC2 SC3 and SC4 SC5
of thinner (No is thread Parallel Perpendicular Parallel Perpendicular Parellel Perpendicular
member diameter) to grain to grain to grain to grain to grain to grain
(mm) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

16 M8 0.560 0.385 0.698 0.499 0.878 0.606

M10 0.703 0.420 0.891 0.544 1.12 0.660
M12 0.845 0.458 1.07 0.595 1.35 0.721
M16 1.13 0.533 1.43 0.692 1.80 0.839
M20 1.41 0.614 1.79 0.796 2.25 0.965
M24 1.69 0.689 2.15 0.894 2.70 1.08

19 M8 0.645 0.457 0.771 0.593 0.969 0.719

M10 0.833 0.498 1.04 0.646 1.31 0.783
M12 1.00 0.544 1.27 0.706 1.60 0.856
M16 1.34 0.633 1.70 0.822 2.14 0.996
M20 1.67 0.729 2.13 0.945 2.68 1.15
M24 2.01 0.818 2.55 1.06 3.21 1.29

25 M8 0.276 0.602 0.819 0.780 1.03 0.940

M10 1.05 0.656 1.24 0.850 1.55 1.03
M12 1.30 0.716 1.61 0.929 2.03 1.13
M16 1.76 0.834 2.23 1.08 2.81 1.31
M20 2.20 0.959 2.80 1.24 3.52 1.51
M24 2.64 1.08 3.36 1.40 4.22 1.69

36 M8 0.724 0.724 0.816 0.816 1.03 1.03

M10 1.13 0.937 1.28 1.21 1.61 1.42
M12 1.63 1.03 1.83 1.34 2.31 1.62
M16 2.47 1.20 3.00 1.56 3.77 1.89
M20 3.16 1.38 3.97 1.79 4.99 2.17
M24 3.80 1.55 4.84 2.01 6.08 2.44

50 M8 0.724 0.700 0.816 0.816 1.03 0.926

M10 1.13 0.999 1.27 1.27 1.60 1.38
M12 1.63 1.33 1.84 1.72 2.32 1.90
M16 2.91 1.67 3.27 2.16 4.12 2.60
M20 4.20 1.92 4.94 2.49 6.22 3.02
M24 5.22 2.15 6.44 2.79 8.10 3.38

63 M12 1.63 1.30 1.84 1.68 2.31 1.80

M16 2.90 2.03 3.27 2.63 4.11 2.95
M20 4.54 2.42 5.12 3.14 6.44 3.77
M24 6.18 2.71 7.21 3.52 9.07 4.26
M30 8.21 3.16 10.1 4.09 12.7 4.96

7-18
TABLE 7-6 (CONTD)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

75 M16 3.27 2.68 4.11 2.88

M20 5.12 3.66 6.44 4.19
M24 7.37 4.19 9.26 5.04
M30 11.1 4.87 14.09 5.91

100 M16 3.27 2.52 4.11 2.57

M20 5.10 3.79 6.41 4.05
M24 7.36 5.18 9.26 5.71
M30 11.5 6.50 14.5 7.73
M36 16.4 7.48 20.6 9.06

150 M24 7.35 4.87 9.24 4.97

M30 11.5 7.43 14.4 7.94
M36 16.6 10.4 20.8 11.5

*The loads for intermediate thicknesses may be obtained by linear interpoliation.

0742. Permissible load for a joint. The figures and factors are the same as
those for nails (see Paragraph 0713). However, there is no need to allow
for cyclic changes in the moisture content. There is an additional factor K57
which is the modification factor for the number of bolts in each line. Where
a number of bolts of the same diameter acting in single or multiple shear
are symmetrically arranged in one or more lines parallel to the line of
action of the load, K57 may be read off from Table 7-7. In all other cases
where more than ten bolts are used in a joint, K57 = 0.7.

TABLE 7-7 MODIFICATION FACTOR K57 FOR LINES OF BOLTS

No of bolts 1 2 3 4 5 6 7 8 9 10 10+
in line

Modification 1.0 0.97 0.94 0.91 0.88 0.85 0.82 0.79 0.76 0.73 0.70
factor

0743. Spare.
to
0750.

7-19
7-20
 SECTION 7.5 OTHER TIMBER CONNECTORS
0751. There are several other methods available for joining timber. Some of the
most useful are specially manufactured connectors and shear plates.
These are illustrated in Figure 7/6.

Bolt
through

(a) Split-ring Connector and Assembly.

Bolt
through

(b) Shear-plates and Assembly.

(c) Bull-dog Connector

Fig 7/6. Timber connectors.

0752. All the connectors illustrated spread the load over a wider area round the
bolts, which still have to be used, and enable fewer connectors to be used.

7-21
0753. The split ring connectors and shear plates do need the timber at the joint to
be machined out accurately to take the assembly. This is probably
impractical in the field, but their use in prefabricated items is worth
consideration.

0754. Bulldog toothed connectors need far less preparation for use and give
results comparable to similar shear plates. They are particularly useful
where calculations indicate that the timber could fail because the loads are
too concentrated. They will also help to resist moments and there are
occasions where one connector will replace two or three bolts. Table 7-8
summarises the safe loads for some connectors. More details may be
found in ME Vol III, Part 1, and British Standard 5268, Part 2, 1984.
TABLE 7-8 SAFE LOAD FOR TIMBER CONNECTORS
Timber
thickness
(see Note (ii)
Bolt Load per connector (kN)
Ser Connector dia dia s (min) t (min)

Type (mm) (mm) (mm) (mm) Along grain Across grain

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h)

1 Split ring 64 12.7 29 50 9.14 6.43

102 19.0 41 75 17.7 12.3

2 Shear plate 67 19.0 41 72 9.74 6.78

102 19.0 44 97 14.7 16.2

3 Bull-dog 51 12.7 19 38 3.6 2.2

63 12.7 19 38 4.3 2.9
76 12.7 19 38 4.6 3.2

NOTES: (i) Other sizes of connectors may be available. Details can be found from CP 112:
Pt 2: 1971 Table 29.
(ii) Minimum timber thickness: s - for connector on one face
t - for connectors on both faces

0755. Spare.
to
0760.

7-22
 SECTION 7.6 CONNECTION OF METAL
MEMBERS
0761. Structural steel members are connected using two main methods or a
combination of both:

a. Welding.

b. Bolting.

0762. Welding. While it is preferable to weld in a fabrication shop, modern

welding equipment can produce perfectly satisfactory welds, using mild
steel, in the field, but it is very weather dependent. Welding is described in
Section 7.7.

0763. Bolting. It has been mentioned earlier that there are great advantages in
bolting together structural members. If a structural steel assembly has to
be transportable, or it has to be broken down into easily moved loads,
bolted joints will be the quickest and most effective way of connecting
sections which could be welded sub-assemblies. Bolted connections are
described in Section 7.8.

0764. There will be many occasions when sub-assemblies can be welded, either
on site or behind the lines, and bolted together on site. The commonest
operation will be to weld predrilled plates to structural members which can
then be bolted together quickly to make the structure.

0765. Welding concealment and safety. It should be remembered that it is

almost impossible to conceal welding operations at night. Even in daylight
the intense light emitted by a welder should be considered and suitable
screening provided.

0766. Spare.
to
0770.

7-23
7-24
 SECTION 7.7 METAL CONNECTIONS -
WELDING
0771. Welding equipment. Two main groups of welding equipment will be
found in service. Figures 7/7 and 7/8 show an example of each type.

0772. Oxy-acetylene welding equipment. Despite the logistic burden of having

to carry and replace gas bottles quite frequently, especially when oxy-
cutting, gas welding equipment is essential for cutting metal quickly both
for fabrication and to assist route clearance in urban areas where steel or
steel reinforced buildings have been partially demolished. There may also
be opportunities to complete preliminary demolitions by oxy-cutting
reinforcing bars after the concrete has been stripped by the first charges.
This could be quicker than placing and firing all the secondary charges. In
structural work gas welding is unlikely to be effective as it is slow and really
limited to steel up to six millimetres thick. After that the time and gas
needed to bring the bulk of the material up to the temperatures required
become unacceptable.

Fig 7/7. Oxy-acetylene welding equipment.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 7-25

0773. Electric arc welding equipment. Most in-service welding equipment is of
the shielded arc type which enables quite complicated and difficult welding
tasks to be carried out with special alloys, but it is also fully effective for
conventional structural welding. However, it is better suited to
prefabrication because the harness of gas, power and electrode feed pipes
makes it rather cumbersome when working above ground level on a
structure. Conventional 'stick' welding sets are available and have the
merit of being simple and easier to use on and in structures and in
confined spaces.

Fig 7/8. Electric arc welding equipment.

0774. There are many types of welded joint which are mostly variations of two
main types. These are butt welds and fillet welds both of which are
illustrated in Figure 7/9. In simple terms:

a. Butt welds. Butt welds are in between the two members to be joined. In
most cases butt welds will be used, in the field, for repairs to equipment
where the surface has to remain flat and for manufacturing assemblies.
They should seldom be used in structural work except where members
are being extended or modified. The angled fillet weld (see Figure
7/9(b)) will seldom be made deliberately, but its existence should be

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

7-26
 noted. While two members are being joined at right angles to each other
should touch all the way along, metal does distort with heat. A fillet
weld turning into an angled fillet weld for part of the weld length is
perfectly acceptable.

b. Fillet welds. Fillet welds join two pieces of metal which are already
touching. Since the weld is on the surface of the metal, it does not
necessarily fill the gap between the two pieces.

Fig 7/9. Butt and fillet welds.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 7-27

0775. Weld nomenclature. Figure 7/10 illustrates many of the terms used to
describe welds and the parameters from which strengths can be
calculated.

Fig 7/10. Weld nomenclature.

0776. Butt welds. The commonest butt welds are the single V and the double V.
The size of a butt weld is specified by its throat thickness (t) which is also

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

7-28
 the thickness of the thinner plate provided that the weld extends above the
surface and has a sealing run added at the back, or it is a double weld. If
the back of the plates being welded is not accessible there will be
incomplete penetration so the effective throat thickness (h) is taken as 0.6 t.

0777. Strength of butt welds. The strength of butt welds may be calculated as
h x l x p and is summarized in Table 7-9. The definitions of h, l and p are:
a. The effective throat thickness, h. The effective throat thickness is
usually the thickness of the thinner member, t, or 0.6 of that thickness if
there is no sealing, or backing, run.

b. The effective length of the weld, l. The effective length is the actual
length of the weld, less twice the throat thickness. The deduction
makes allowance for the start and end of a weld being of variable
quality.

c. The working stress, p. Provided that the welding is up to standard this

is the working stress of the parent metal.

TABLE 7-9 STRENGTH OF FULL PENETRATION BUTT WELDS

FOR MILD STEEL AND HIGH YIELD STEEL.
(Permissible load in kN/mm run) (see Note (i)).

Mild Steel High Yield Steel

Effective Shear Tension or Shear Tension or
Serial Thickness at Compression at Compression
(h) mm 115 N/mm2 at 140 N/mm2 at
155 N/mm 2
215 N/mm2

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f)

1 6 0.69 0.93 0.84 1.29

2 8 0.92 1.24 1.12 1.72
3 10 1.15 1.55 1.40 2.15
4 12 1.38 1.86 1.68 2.58
5 15 1.72 2.33 2.10 3.23
6 18 2.07 2.79 2.52 3.87
7 20 2.30 3.10 2.80 4.30
8 22 2.53 3.41 3.08 4.73
9 25 2.87 3.88 3.50 5.38
10 28 3.22 4.34 3.92 6.02
11 30 3.45 4.65 4.20 6.45
12 35 4.03 5.43 4.90 7.53
13 40 4.60 6.20 5.60 8.60

NOTES
(i) Effective length = l - 2h.

7-29
0778. Fillet welds. Fillet welds are built up of one or more runs to form a
convex, flat or concave section as shown in Figure 7/11. The size of the
weld is defined by the leg length g, and this dimension, coupled with the
shape of the weld section, gives the effective throat thickness, h. For a
convex or flat weld:
g
h= ≈ 0.7 g
√2

Concave welds should be avoided and regarded with suspicion unless

performed by a very good welder as they are often indicative of other faults
such as undercutting and overheating of the parent metal. If they have to
be accepted, h should be taken as 0.4 g which is also advisable if the
welders are out of practice and there is no qualified person to check
welding quality.

(a) Concave

(b) Flat

(c) Convex

o = Root
h = Effective Throat Thickness
g = Leg Length = Fillet Size

Fig 7/11. Fillet welds - dimensions.

7-30
0779. General rules for fillet welds.

a. Fillet welds will often be used for long runs, eg between the web and
flange of a made up plate girder. The strength needed in the weld may
be achieved by a weld less than the length of the girder. The weld need
not then be continuous provided that the gap between weld runs does
not exceed 16t in compression or 24t in tension, up to a maximum of
300 mm in both cases,where t is the thickness of the thinner plate (see
Figure 7/12). Remember that twice the effective throat thickness has to
be deducted from the length of each length of weld to give the effective
weld length.

St > 16t or 300 mm

Compression

St > 24t or 300 mm

Tension

Fig 7/12. Spacing of long fillet welds.

b. In lap joints the length of the lap should be at least four times the
thickness of the thinner plate and, where a fillet would end at a corner, it
should be carried round the corner for a distance of at least twice the
effective thickness of the weld.

c. The strength of fillet welds is given by h x l x p provided that:

(1) The length of the weld, l, must be at least four times the weld size
or leg length, g.

(2) The effective throat thickness, h, has been assessed for the
shape of the weld.

(3) The permissible stress, p, in the welds does not exceed

115N/mm2

0780. Strength of fillet welds. Table 7-10 gives the strength of fillet welds using
mild steel assuming that the conditions in Paragraph 0779 have been met.
The figures apply for angles between the mating faces of 60 degrees to 90
degrees. Over 90 degrees the strengths fall off until, at 140 degrees, they
are 50 per cent of those given.
7-31
 TABLE 7-10 STRENGTH OF FILLET WELDS USING MILD STEEL
(kN/mm run)

Ser Leg length Throat thickness Safe load

mm mm kN/mm run

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1. 5.0 3.5 0.40

2. 6.0 4.2 0.48
3. 8.0 5.6 0.64
4. 10.0 7.0 0.80
5. 12.0 8.4 0.97
6. 15.0 10.5 1.21
7. 18.0 12.6 1.45
8. 20.0 14.0 1.61
9. 22.0 15.4 1.77
10. 25.0 17.5 2.01

NOTE: Permissible stress is taken as 108 N/mm2

0781. Design of welds. The details given in this section are sufficient to enable
welds to be designed properly. However, welding is a complicated process
which has been simplified here. If highly stressed welded joints are
required, the advice should be sought of a Clerk of Works or a
Professionally Qualified Officer particularly in peacetime when safety must
be paramount.

0782. Inspection of welds. A Class 1 welder should be able to inspect welds

and identify the cause of any faults. There are some faults which should
be looked for on routine inspections. When flux coated welding rods are
being used in electric arc welding the slag must be removed from the
completed weld before any inspection is possible. Photographs of a good
weld and of the faults described below are shown in Figure 7/13.
Unacceptable welds can be ground out using an electric grinding wheel
and the weld made again.

a. When the slag is chipped off it should come away in strips leaving a
clean surface. If it seems to be adherent and small pieces are left
behind the welding is probably uneven and there may be other faults.
The cleaned weld should be bright with a row of shallow, evenly
spaced, scallops along the length. The presence of a few lumps does
not matter, but if the weld is very uneven it should be inspected more
closely.
7-32
b. Slag inclusions. If there are black pits, blow holes or lumps of slag buried in
the weld there are probably bits of slag deeper in the body of the weld. If a
suspect area is hit hard with a chipping hammer the weld will often begin to
break up revealing the slag. If the affected areas are small they can be
measured and deducted from the calculated amount of welding to check if
there is still enough strength. The work may be acceptable for short term
use, but slag inclusions form a nucleus for rapid corrosion.

c. Undercutting. This usually occurs in fillet welds and appears as

roughened grooves either side of the weld where the arc has cut into
the parent metal and there has been insufficient weld metal to fill them.
As well as weakening the parent metal by removing some of its
thickness, undercutting can often indicate that the structure of the metal
near the weld may have been adversely affected making it weaker
although this is unlikely in mild steel.

a. Good weld. b. Excess root fusion.

c. Excess spatter. d. Undercutting in a butt weld.

Fig 7/13. Welding faults.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 7-33

0783. Example of a butt weld. A mild steel tie 100 mm x 10 mm has to be
extended by butt welding the extension. The tie has to take a tension of
100 kN. Will a normal butt weld be enough? (Both sides of the plate are
accessible for welding).

100mm

10mm

The effective throat thickness is 10 mm since the back of the weld can be
sealed or a double 'V' weld used.

The effective length

100mm of the weld is 100 - (2 x 10) = 80 mm.
100mm

strength of the weld is10mm

From Table 7-9, Serial 3(d), the or 10mm

1.55 kN/mm run = 1.55 x 80 = 124 kN

This is acceptable. If it were not, lap joints would have to be considered or
using additional plates either side of the joint if linearity is important.

or
or
100mm

10mm
0784. Example of a fillet weld. A tie made from a 20 mm plate 100 mm wide is
to be welded to another plate. It has to be able to take a load of 250 kN.
Design the fillet weld required.

100mm
100mm

10mm
10mm

Try a 10 mm fillet weld (Note the leg length must be less than the metal
thickness).

From Table 7-10, this will give a strength of 0.8 kN/mm.

Therefore, 250/0.8 = 312.5 mm, say 320 mm of weld is needed.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

7-34
 Since it is difficult to maintain continuity going round right angles assume
there are four separate welds. Each one must have twice the effective
throat thickness deducted (see Paragraph 0779). The effective throat
thickness for a 10 mm weld is 10 x 0.7 = 7 mm (see Figure 7/11).

Effective lengths available for welding:

(1) 100 - 14 = 86 mm

(2) 100 - 14 = 86 mm

Therefore (3) has to have an effective length of:

320 - 172 = 148 mm total (say 75 mm each side).

To the two welds must be added 14 mm so the welds at (3) should be 75 +

14 = 89, say 90 mm.

So the weld design is:

(3)

Check that the weld length is at

(1) (2) 100mm least four times the leg length.
4 X 10 = 40 < 90 so OK

(3)

10 mm weld

90mm

20mm
10mm

0785 Spare.
to
0789

7-35
7-36
 SECTION 7.8 BOLTED METAL CONNECTIONS
0790. Bolts. There are three main types of bolt used in structural work. If there
is any doubt about the type of bolt held they should be regarded as black
bolts:

a. Black bolt Grade 4.6. This is the common bolt which may have no
markings at all. It may be assumed to have a yield stress of 238N/mm2.

b. Black bolt Grade 8.8. This bolt may look like a grade 4.6 but the bolt
head will be marked, in the UK, with 8.8. The yield stress is 630N/mm2.

c. High strength friction grip (HSFG) bolts. HSFG bolts are used where
stress reversals are expected. They have to be tightened to precise
torques and much of the strength of the joint is in the friction between
the plates being joined because they are positively clamped together.
Unless a skilled design capability is available HSFG bolts should not be
used as such.

0791. Bolt sizes.

a. The preferred sizes of black bolts are M8, M10, M20, M24, M30 and
M36 where the figures are the bolts diameters in mm over the shank or
thread.

b. Black bolts are used in clearance holes as follows:

(1) Add 2.00 mm for bolts up to 24 mm in diameter.

(2) Add 3.00 mm for bolts over 24 mm in diameter.

0792. Load transmission. Black bolts transmit loads in three ways:

a. Tension.

Fig 7/14. Bolts in tension

7-37
 b. Shear.

Fig 7/15. Bolts in shear.

c. Bearing. It is possible for the joint to fail in bearing before the bolts
shear. This can happen if the bolt hole spacing and, particularly, edge
distances in the member are incorrect or if the cover plates are too thin.
Bolt hole spacings and distances must be correct. As a general rule;

(1) A single cover plate should be 1.1 times the thickness, t, of the
parent member or t + 3 mm whichever is the greater.

(2) Each double cover plate should be at least 0.6t.

d. Shearing and bearing values for Grade 4.6 Black Bolts are shown in
Table 7-11 and for Grade 8.8 Black Bolts in Table 7-12.

7-38
 TABLE 7-11 SHEARING AND BEARING VALUES IN KILONEWTONS FOR BLACK BOLTS OF
STRENGTH GRADE 4.6 IN 2mm CLEARANCE HOLES

Shearing Bearing value at 250 N/mm2 for end distance

Dia value at of 2 x dia of bolt
Ser of bolt Area 80 N/mm2 Thickness, in mm, of plate passed through
shank

mm cm2 Single Double 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 18 20

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o)

1 12 1.13 9 18 15 18 21
2 16 2.01 16 32 20 24 28 32 36
3 20 3.14 25 50 25 30 35 40 45 50 60
4 (22) 3.80 30 61 27 33 38 44 49 55 66
5 24 4.52 36 72 30 36 42 48 54 60 72 90
6 (27) 5.73 46 92 34 40 47 54 61 67 81 101
7 30 7.07 57 113 37 45 52 60 67 75 90 112 135

NOTES:
(i) Bearing values printed in ordinary type are less than single shear; in these cases, the bearing values govern.

(ii) Bearing values printed in bold type are greater than single, and less than double, shear. In cases of single shear, the shearing values govern
while, in cases of double shear, the bearing values govern.

(iii) Bearing values printed in italic type are equal to or greater than double shear; in these cases the shearing values govern.

(iv) The diameters shown in parentheses are non-preferred sizes.

7-39
 TABLE 7-12 SHEARING AND BEARING VALUES IN KILONEWTONS FOR BLACK BOLTS OF STRENGTH
7-40 GRADE 8.8 IN 2 mm CLEARANCE HOLES

Dia Shearing value Bearing value at 250 N/mm2 for end distance
Ser of bolt Area at 80 N/mm2 of 2 x dia of bolt
shank Thickness, in mm, of plate passed through

mm cm2 Single Double 5 6 7 8 9 10 12 15 18 20 22 25

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q)

1 12 1.13 21 42 15 18 21 24 27 30 36 45
2 16 2.01 38 75 20 24 28 32 36 40 50 72 80
3 20 3.14 59 117 25 30 35 40 45 50 60 75 90 100 110 125
4 (22) 3.80 71 142 27 33 38 44 49 55 66 82 99 110 121 137
5 24 4.52 85 169 30 36 42 48 54 60 72 90 108 120 132 150
6 (27) 5.73 107 214 34 40 47 54 61 67 81 101 121 135 148 169
7 30 7.07 132 264 37 45 52 60 67 75 90 112 135 150 165 187

NOTES:
(i) Bearing values printed in ordinary type are less than single shear; in these cases, the bearing values govern.

(ii) Bearing values printed in bold type are greater than single, and less than double, shear. In cases of single shear, the shearing values govern
while, in cases of double shear, the bearing values govern.

(iii) Bearing values printed in italic type are equal to or greater than double shear; in these cases the shearing values govern.

(iv) The diameters shown in parentheses are non-preferred sizes.

0793. Bolt spacing. Because most metals, including mild steel, are
homogenous the rules for spacing bolts are very much simpler than when
they are used in timber. The rules are summarised in Table 7-13 and
explained by Figure 7/16. Note that the only time the quality of the material
has to be considered is for the edge distance to rolled or sheared edges.
In practice, both shearing and flame cutting by hand tend to weaken the
material locally. Machine flame cutting causes very little damage as the
speed and direction are well controlled. If there is any doubt about how the
material was cut, the larger distance should be used.

TABLE 7-13 BOLT SPACING

Spacing (mm)

Ser Condition Maximum

Minimum Remarks
(lesser of)

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e)

1. Single row (r > 75)

a. p - tension 16t or 200 2.5d
b. p - compression 12t or 200 2.5d

2. Staggered row (r < 75)

a. p - tension 24t or 300 3.0d see Paragraph
b. p - compression 18t or 300 3.0d 07113

3. Edge distance
a. x - rolled edge 4t + 40 3.0 x d End
distance
2
not less
b. x - sheared edge 4t + 40 7.0 x d
than 2d
4

7-41
 Fig 7/16. Bolt spacing rules.

0794. Bolted connections using standard rolled sections.

a. The insides of webs and flanges in standard rolled sections are seldom
parallel to the outer faces. In order to produce good joints taper
washers should be used to give parallel opposing faces for the nuts and
bolts. These can be obtained commercially or made up (see Figure
7/17).
7-42
 Fig 7/17. Use of tapered washers in bolted steelwork.

b. There are standard preferred spacings of the holes for connections in

standard rolled sections. The spacings may be used on continental or
other sections by interpolation and are given in the following tables:

(1) Spacing of holes in columns and beams Table 7-14

(2) Spacing of holes in joints and tees. Table 7-15

(3) Spacing of holes in channels. Table 7-16

(4) Spacing of holes in angles. Table 7-17

c. Note the available flange widths of a universal section may be less than
the nominal size and some adjustment may be necessary in bolt
diameters.

7-43
 TABLE 7-14 SPACING OF HOLES IN COLUMNS AND BEAMS

Nominal Spacings Recommended

flange widths diameter of bolts

S1 S2 S3 S4 S1

mm mm mm mm mm mm
S4

419-368 140 140 75 290 24

330-305 140 120 60 240 24 S3 S2 S3
" 140 120 60 240 20
292-203 140 24
190-165 90 24
152 90 20

TABLE 7-15 SPACING OF HOLES IN JOISTS AND TEES

Nominal S1 Recommended
flange widths diameter of bolts

mm mm mm

146-114 70 20
102 54 12
89 50
76 40
64 34
51 30

TABLE 7-16 SPACING OF HOLES IN CHANNELS

Nominal S1 Recommended
flange widths diameter of bolts

mm mm mm

102 55 24
89 55 20
76 45 20
64 35 16
51 30 10

7-44
 TABLE 7-17 SPACING OF HOLES IN ANGLES

Nominal Maximum
leg Spacing of holes diameter
length of bolt

S1 S2 S3 S4 S5 S6 S1 S2-3 S4-6

mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm mm

200 75 75 55 55 55 30 20
150 55 55 20
125 45 50 20
120 45 50 16
100 55 24
90 50 24
80 45 20
75 45 20
70 40 20
65 35 20
60 35 16
50 28 12
45 25
40 23
30 20
25 15
7-45
7-46
 CHAPTER 8 DESIGN OF SIMPLE TIES

SECTION 8.1 EFFECTIVE CROSS SECTIONAL

AREA
0801. The effective cross sectional area of a tie is that area available to carry the
load after taking account of any bolt holes. Therefore the end connections,
which will include the bolt holes, should be determined first and the number
and size of bolt holes calculated. The tie may then be designed following a
standard procedure. This pamphlet does not cover the use of variable
cross section ties where the ends may be enlarged to take the bolts while
the main length is sized to be just strong enough to take the design load.

0802. To determine the effective cross sectional area, the end connection must
be examined as follows:

a. For timber see Section 7.4 to determine the bolt sizes and numbers to
meet the load requirements and so derive the bolt hole sizes.

b. For steel bars and sections, check the bolt spacing rules using Tables
7-13 to 7-17 depending upon the section.

c. Effective cross sectional area (Ae). Referring to Figure 8/1:

Ae = (b x t) - (N x D x t) where N is the number of holes per section.

In Figure 8/1 the effective cross sectional area, the hatched area is:

Ae = (b x t) - (2 x D x t)

Fig 8/1. Effective cross sectional area.

0803. Spare.
to
0804.

8-1
8-2
 SECTION 8.2 TIMBER TIES
0805. Design procedure. The design procedure for timber ties is shown below.
Due consideration must be given to:

a. The type of end connection to be used and, from that:

b. The effective cross sectional area of the tie.

0806. Calculate loading, W kN. Loading calculations are in Chapter 5.

0807. Determine the permissible stress in tension, pt.

a. Determine the type and grade of timber. Refer to ME Vol II, Pam 1.

b. Determine the strength class. If there is any doubt, assume SC1.

c. Determine the grade stress, p, in tension using Annex A. In every case

the wet exposure conditions should be used for structures in the field.

d. Determine the duration of loading factor, K3, from Table 6-3.

e. Permissible stress:
2
p1 = p x K3 N/mm

0808. Determine the minimum effective area required, AMin.

3

AMin = W x 10 mm
2

p1

0809. Select a suitable section. A suitable section is selected using Annex B if

necessary, such that the actual area of the section, A, is greater than AMin.
As a first try, the selected section should have an area 10 to 20 percent
greater than AMin to allow for the bolt holes reducing the effective cross
sectional area. The ratio of depth to breadth in the section selected will be
dictated partly by the size and number of bolt holes and the bolt spacing
rules covered in Section 7.4.

0810. Determine the actual effective area, Ae.

a. Determine the end connection and hence the number of bolts (N), size
of bolts and their spacing. This step can be calculated sooner, from the
loading, so that a suitable section to take the number of bolts at the
required spacing can be chosen first time. There will be a maximum
width for the section.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 8-3

 b. Determine the bolt hole size.

D = bolt diameter + 2.0 mm

c. The effective cross sectional area.

Ae = A - (N x D x t) (see Figure 8/1)

0811. Determine the actual stress in tension, ft.

3

ft = W x 10 N/mm
2

Ae

0812. Compare ft and pt. If ft, (the actual stress), is less than pt, the permissible
stress, the design is acceptable. If not, a larger section must be chosen
and the calculations for A and ft reworked. Finally, check that the tie can
never be in compression. If this could occur, check the suitability of the
section selected as a strut (Section 9.1).

0813. Design example. A tower is to be constructed from timber. The

calculations from Chapter 5 show that the load in a particular tie is to be 20
kN. The tie is to be fixed to the structure with four x 20 mm bolts in two
rows at each end. It will never be in compression. The timber available is a
moderate quality whitewood. The tower is required for two weeks only.
Determine the minimum dimensions of the tie:

Serial Reference Calculations Output

1 Loading. W = 20 kN W = 20 kN

2 Determine the permissible stress, pt.

(1) The timber is a moderate quality

whitewood so, from ME Vol II Pam 1,
assume SC3.
2
Annex A (2) The grade stress in tension,
2
p, from p = 2.7N/mm
Annex A = 2.7 N/mm .

Table 6-3 (3) The duration of loading is two weeks,

which is short term, so:
Duration of loading factor, K3, = 1.5 K3 = 1.5
2
(4) Permissible
2
stress, pt, = 2.7 x 1.5 = pt = 4.1 N/mm
4.1 N/mm

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

8-4
 Serial Reference Calculations Output

3 Determine the minimum area of the tie, AMin.

3 2
AMin = 20 x 10 = 4748 mm AMin =
2
4.1 4748 mm

4. Select a section.
2
Try 125 mm x 50 mm so A = 6250 mm

5. Determine the effective area, A..

(1) The area of the bolt holes =

2
2(20 + 2) x 50 = 2200 mm
(Four holes in two rows so only
two count).
2
(2) A = 6250 - 2200 = 4050 mm .
This is less than AMin so select a larger
section.
2
(3) Try 150 mm x 50 mm so A = 7500 mm .
The area of the bolt holes remains as
2
before (2200 mm ) so:
2 2
A = 7500 - 2200 = 5300 mm (> 4748 mm
so go on)

6. Determine the actual stress, ft.

3 2 2
ft = 20 x 10 = 3.77 N/mm ft = 3.77 N/mm
5300

This is less than the permissible stress of

2
4.1 N/mm so the design is acceptable using
a 150 mm x 50 mm tie.

0814. Spare.
to
0824.

8-5
8-6
 SECTION 8.3 STEEL TIES
0825. Design procedure. The design procedure for steel ties is shown below.
Due consideration must be given to:

a. The cross section of the tie.

b. The type of end connection to be used.

0826. Calculate loading, W kN. Loading calculations are in Chapter 5.

0827. Determine the permissible stress in tension, pt.

a. For steel less than 40 mm thick the permissible stresses are:

2
(1) Grade 43 (Mild steel) = 155 N/mm (Table 6-6)

2
(2) Grade 50 (HYS) = 215 N/mm

b. If there is any doubt about the quality assume grade 43.

0828. Determine the minimum area of steel required, AMin.

3 2
AMin = W x 10 mm
pt

0829. Select a suitable section.

a. Select a section such that the actual area is greater than AMin by 10-20
percent unless the connection is to be welded when it need be only
slightly greater.

b. The area of a strip or rod may be calculated directly.

c. The areas of rolled steel sections are given in Tables in Annex C.

0830. Determine the effective cross section area, Ae.

a. Decide upon the type of end connection and, if used, the number and
size of bolts from Section 7.8.

b. If bolts are used, determine the bolt hole size:

(1) If the bolt is less than 24 mm diameter, add 2.0 mm.

(2) If the bolt is more than 24 mm diameter, add 3.0 mm.

8-7
 c. Consider the spacing of any bolts under the bolt spacing rules
(Table 7-13 and Figure 7/16) which may dictate a minimum section width.

d. For ties made up from bar.

Ae = (b x t) - No of holes per section x D x t

e. For ties made up from angle with lug angles (see Figures 8/2)

Ae = (b x t) - No of holes per section x D x t

Fig 8/2. Lug angles.

f. Where lug angles are not used with angle ties, which will usually be the
case, the effective area is reduced and is calculated as:
2
Ae = a1 + (3a1 x a2) mm
(3a1 - a2)

Where a1 is the area of the

upstand leg and a2 is the effective area
of the leg bearing on the structures. It is
the actual area less the area of any bolt
holes.

The individual areas may be calculated by regarding each leg as a flat

bar and measuring or taking dimensions from Tables C-5 or C-6 at
Annex C.

0831. Determine the actual stress, ft, and compare with pt.
3 2
a. ft = W x 10 N/mm
Ae

8-8
 b. If the actual stress is less than the permissible stress the design may
proceed or else a larger section must be selected.

0832. Check the extension of the tie. The extension of the tie is checked to see
if it is likely to be significant. It may be necessary to draw a section of the
structure to see any distortion caused by the extended tie. If the possible
resultant distortion is not acceptable a larger section will have to be
selected. This will seldom be a problem.

Ext = FL mm Where F = Load in Newtons

AE L = Length of tie in mm
2
A = Actual area of tie in mm
E = Young's Modulus
5 2
(2.1 x 10 N/mm )

0833. Check end connections.

a. Confirm the size and number of any bolts and that they can comply with
the bolt spacing rules in the section selected.

b. Confirm any assumptions made during the design.

0834. Design example. A steel roof truss has to be renovated. One of the ties in
the truss is three metres long and takes a load of 90 kN. Grade 43 steel is
being used.

Serial Reference Calculations Output

1 Loading. W = 90 kN

2 Determine permissible stress in tension, pt.

2
Table 6-6 Grade 43 steel so pt = 155 N/mm

2
3 Determine minimum area of steel, AMin. AMin = 580 mm
3 2
AMin = 90 x 10 = 580 mm
155

4 Select a suitable section.

Try a steel bar 120 mm x 10 mm.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 8-9

Serial Reference Calculations Output

5 Determine the effective cross sectional area, Ae.

Table 7-11 Decide upon a bolted connection and calculate

the details from Section 7.8. Try four x M20,
Grade 4.6 bolts. Single shear is critical at
25 kN/bolt.

4 x 25 = 100 kN > 90 kN so size and numbers

are acceptable.

Figure 7/ 7 Bolt spacing. Space the bolts using the rules in

Table 7-13 Figure 7/17 and Table 7-13. An acceptable
Figure 8/3 layout is shown in Figure 8/3. Note that there
are only two bolts per section across the tie so
only two bolt areas will be subtracted to give the
effective area. If, for any reason, the bolt layouts
differ at each end (eg the attachment points are
different) both ends will have to be calculated.

2 2
Ae = (120 x 10) - 2(22 x 10) = 760 mm Ae = 760 mm
Fig 8/3. Tie end connections.

Fig. 8/3. Tie end connections.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

8-10
Serial Reference Calculations Output
6 Determine the actual stress, ft, and
compare with pt.
3 2 2
ft = 90 x 10 = 118 N/mm ft = 118 N/mm
760
2 2
118 N/mm < 155 N/mm so the design
is acceptable.

7 Check extension of tie.

3 3
Ext = FL = 90 x 10 x 3 x 10 = 1.1 m,
5
AE 120 x 10 x 2.1 x 10 which is
negligible
over
3000 mm

8 Figure 8/3 Select a 120 m x 10 mm MS bar with holes

for four x 20 mm bolts at each end laid out
as shown in Figure 8/3.

8-11
8-12
 CHAPTER 9 DESIGN OF AXIALLY LOADED
STRUTS AND COLUMNS

SECTION 9.1 TIMBER STRUTS

0901. Design procedure. The design procedure for timber struts and columns is
shown below. Particular attention should be paid to:

a. The end fixity of the strut; how is it anchored?

b. The slenderness ratio of the strut; how thin is it?

0902. Calculate the loading, W. With a long, heavy vertical strut the self weight
may have to be included to check the stress at the bottom.

0903. Calculate the effective length, le. The effective length is calculated after
deciding the end fixity (see Figure 6/1). Most struts will be pin jointed at
both ends so, if the method of fixing has yet to be decided or the rigidity of
the connect cannot be guaranteed, use le = L.

0904. Calculate the slenderness ratio, l/ry. If the dimensions of the strut are not
yet known select a value for l/b of 26 to give a starting point and a first
estimate for ry.

0905. Calculate the permissible stress, pc.

a. Determine the type and its strength class from ME Vol II, Pam 1. If the
type of timber is unknown, assume SC1.

b. Determine the grade stress in compression from Annex A.

c. Determine the duration of loading factor, K3 (Table 6-3)

d. Determine the modification factor, K12 (Table 6-5)

e. Permissible stress, pc = Grade stress x K3 x K12.

0906. Calculate the minimum area of timber required, AMin.

3

AMin = W x 10 mm
2

pc
0907. Select a suitable section. Select a suitable section such that A > AMin and
calculate the actual stress = W/A. Check l/ry and recalculate pc.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 9-1

0908. Compare the actual and permissible stresses.

a. If the actual stress is less than the permissible stress the design can
proceed.

b. If the actual stress is more than the permissible stress select another
section and re-calculate.

0909. Design example. A spectator stand is to be constructed of timber frames.

Each frame contains a strut 3.25 m long. It is fixed at each end to the
structure by one bolt. The strut is to carry a load of 25 kN. Only spruce of
uncertain quality is available. The structure is for medium term use.

Serial Reference Calculations Output

1 Preliminaries.

Loading, W = 25 kN.

Effective length, le. The strut is pinned at

both ends so:

Fig 6/1 le = 1.0 x 3250 = 3250 mm le = 3250 mm

A non-symmetrical strut will fail about its
weakest direction, ie min r or width b.
Assume a rectangular section and from
the middle of Table 6.5 assume a trial
slenderness value of le/b = 26 to find
the minimum width b required.

bmin = 3250 / 26 = 125 mm

2 Calculate permissible stress, pc.

Timber is SC1 (Worst case)

Annex A Basic grade stress for compression

2
parallel to the grain (σc//) = 2.1 N/mm
2
Annex A Emin = 3600 N/mm

Table 6-3 Duration of loading factor, K3 = 1.25 K3 = 1.25

(medium term)
Allowable grade stress(σc//) = 1.25 x 2.1 =
2
2.625 N/mm

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

9-2
Serial Reference Calculations Output

Table 6-5 Modification factor, K12 = 0.53 K12 = 0.53

(Based on le = 26; EMin = 3600/2.625 = 1371)
b σc//

Annex ( σc// = Allowable stress in compression

parallel to grain, from Annex A, x Duration
of loading factor, K3).
2 2
pc = 2.1 x 1.25 x 0.53 = 1.39 N/mm . pc = 1.39 N/mm

3 Calculate area of timber, AMin.

3 3 4 2
AMin = W x 10 = 25 x 10 = 1.8 x 10 mm AMin = 1.8 x
4 2
pc 1.39 10 mm

4 Select a suitable section.

bMin must be ≥ 125 mm and AMin must

4 2
be ≥ 1.8 x 10 mm
4 2 4
Annex B Try 125 mm x 150 mm A = 1.87 x 10 mm A = 1.87 x 10
2
mm

5 Calculate the actual and permissible

stresses.
2 2
Actual stress, p, = 25 = 1.34 N/mm p = 1.34 N/mm
4
1.87 x 10
2
The actual stress is 1.34 N/mm which is
less than the permissible stress of
2
1.39 N/mm so a 125 mm x 150 mm strut
of SC1 timber will be satisfactory.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 9-3

 Serial Reference Calculations Output
0910. Spare.
to It should be noted that the permissible stress
0924. remains as calculated in Serial 2 above
only because the section selected had the
same least width as the trial value selected
in Serial 1 above using an arbitrary
slenderness ratio. If a section with a least
width of other than 125 mm were chosen,
the slenderness ratio would change and a
new value for K12 calculated.

0910. Spare.
to
0924.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

9-4
 SECTION 9.2 STEEL STRUTS AND COLUMNS
0925. General. Axially loaded columns and struts may be designed and made
using a variety of sections. When angles are used as struts, in roof trusses
or lattice girders, it should be noted that:

a. Due to angles being bolted, usually, by only one leg the load applied is
necessarily eccentric (see Figure 9/1).

Fig 9/1. Single angle used as a strut.

b. For angles connected by one bolt only at each end the permissible axial
stress, obtained from Table 6-7, should be multiplied by 0.8

0926. Design procedure. The design procedure for axially loaded steel columns
and struts is shown below. Due consideration must be given to:

a. The end fixity of the strut: how is it anchored?

b. The slenderness ratio of the strut: how thin is it?

0927. Preliminaries.

a. Calculate loading, W kN.

b. Determine the end fixity and hence the effective length, le. (Figure 6/1).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 9-5

 c. If the strut is a single angle determine the end connection:

(1) If each end is connected by a minimum of two bolts in line,

le = 0.7L.

(2) Where there is one bolt, le = L.

0928. Determine the permissible stress, pc.

a. Calculate the slenderness ratio le/ry where r is the least radius of gyration
(see Tables C1 to C6). If the size of the section is not yet known use a
slenderness ratio (le/ry) of 100 to get a trial value for ryMin. Note that the
slenderness ratio should never exceed 180.

b. Determine the grade of steel to be used. Almost invariably Grade 43 (mild

steel) should be assumed.

c. Determine the permissible stress, pc, based on the initial assumption that
le/ry = 100. (Table 6-7)

0929. Calculate the minimum area of steel required.

3
W x 10 2
AMin = mm
pc

0930. Select a suitable section. Having selected a suitable section, check it out
using the actual properties instead of those that were estimated initially:

a. Select a section such that:

(1) A > AMin (It can sometimes be slightly less (see Paragraph 0932,
Serial 4)).

(2) ry > ryMin.

b. Calculate the actual stress, p, in the section chosen.

p = W
A

c. Calculate the permissible stress, pc, for the actual section based on the
value of its least radius of gyration (see Table 6-7).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

9-6
 d. Compare the actual and permissible stresses. If the actual stress is greater
than the permissible stress, another section will have to be selected which
has either a greater area or a larger least radius of gyration.

0931. Confirm that the end connections agree with the design assumptions (see
paragraphs 0925 and 0927c).

0932. Design example. A steel column is required to support a load of 1000 kN.
The height of the column is four metres. It is fixed rigidly at the base in
position and rotational direction by being concreted in. It is fixed at the top in
position but not in rotational direction.

Serial Reference Calculations Output

1 Preliminaries.

Load, W = 1000 kN. W = 1000 kN

Figure 6/1 Effective length, le = 0.85L = 0.85 x 4

= 3.4 m le = 3.4 m

2 Determine the permissible stress, pc.

Calculate an initial value for the slenderness

ratio. Take le/rmin = 100 to obtain a value for the
least radius of gyration, ryMin.

le = 3400 mm so ryMin = 3400 = 34 mm ryMin = 34 mm

100

Steel Grade 43 (mild steel).

2
Table 6-7 Permissible stress = 79 N/mm for le/rmin = 100 px = 792
N/mm

3 Calculate the minimum area of steel required.

3 2

AMin = 1000 x 10 = 1.26 x 10 mm = 126 cm AMin = 126 cm

4 2 2

79

4 Select a suitable section and check against

actual properties.

Table C-2 Try a universal column (UC) 203 mm x

203 mm x 86 kg. This is the smallest UC where
ry > rmin and the area is of an appropriate
magnitude.

ry = 53.2 mm > 34 mm. ry = 53.2 mm

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 9-7

Serial Reference Calculations Output
2 2
A = 11010 mm < 12600 mm but do not let
this inhibit the initial selection as long as it is
within 10 to 15 percent particularly when, as
in this case, ry >> rMin.

Calculate the actual stress, p.

3 2 2
p = W = 1000 x 10 = 91 N/mm p = 91 N/mm
A 11010

Calculate the permissible stress:

Actual slenderness ratio (λ)

(λ) = le/ry = 3400 = 64 le = 64

53.2 ry

2
Table 6-7 Permissible stress, pc = 122 N/mm pc =
2
122N/mm

This is greater than the actual stress of

2
91 N/mm so the section chosen can be
used.

The column selected is good enough for

the task. If there is time, the exercise can
be repeated with slightly smaller or lighter
sections. It can be shown that a UC
203 mm x 203 mm x 71 kg is also
satisfactory and is lighter and smaller than
the one first selected.

In many cases, the choice of section will

be limited so the critical factor will be the
permissible stress and the actual stress
may have to be reduced by, for instance,
increasing the number of columns or
reducing the load.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

9-8
 CHAPTER 10 DESIGN OF BEAMS

SECTION 10.1 TIMBER BEAMS

1001. Design procedure. The design procedure for timber beams is shown
below. Due consideration must be given to:

a. The end of fixity of the beam.

b. The slenderness of the beam.

c. The length of firm bearing for the beam.

1002. Design sequence and parameters. The paragraphs that follow give the
order in which the beam should be designed, references to the tables in
this pamphlet used for each step and reminders of the data needed and
the formulae used.
3
1003. Self weight (W total or w/unit length). Use an initial density of 600 kg/m
3
(6.0 kN/m ) unless details of the timber are already known when the
density can be taken from Table 10-1. Densities can vary and it may be
possible to check the density of the selected timber by weighing and
measuring a sample. Approximate self weights of common sections are:

a. 300 mm x 300 mm = 0.54 kN/m.

b. 300 mm x 150 mm = 0.27 kN/m.

c. 200 mm x 200 mm = 0.24 kN/m.

d. 200 mm x 100 mm = 0.12 kN/m.

e. 100 mm x 100 mm = 0.06 kN/m.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-1

 TABLE 10-1 APPROXIMATE DENSITIES OF COMMON TIMBERS
BY STRENGTH CLASS AND DESCRIPTION

Strength Density
3
Ser Class Description kg/m

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 SC1-2 Western Red Cedar 380

2 SC1 European Spruce 380
3 SC1 Western Whitewoods 540
4 SC2-4 Douglas Fir 560-590
5 SC3-4 Parana Pine 560
6 SC3-5 Pitch Pine 720
7 SC3-4 Redwood 540
8 SC3-4 Whitewood 510
9 SC3-4 Hemlock Fir 530
10 SC3-4 Spruce 450
11 SC3-4 Larch 560
12 SC3-4 Scots Pine 540

1004. Maximum allowable depth to breadth ratios. These are given in Table
6-4. If the method of fixing the beam has yet to be decided use d/b = 2
initially.

1005. Design shear forces (Q) and bending moments (M). For point and
variable loads the formulae in Table 5-2 and Table 5-3 should be used. For
simply supported beams with uniformly distributed loads the formulae are
given below:

a. Design shear force, Q = wL (kN) where w = force/unit length (kN/m)

2 and L = unsupported length (m)
2
b. Design bending moment, M = wL (kNm).
8

1006. Determine the permissible stress in bending, pbc.

a. Determine the strength class from suppliers' data, Annex A or Table 10-1.
2
b. Determine the basic grade bending stress, p N/mm , from Annex A
Column (c).

c. Determine the Duration of Loading Factor, K3, from Table 6-3.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-2
 2
d. Determine the permissible stress, pbc = p x K3 N/mm .

1007. Section Moduli, Zxx.

a. Calculate the minimum section modulus required:

Zxx (Min) = MMax

pbc

b. Select a suitable section such that Zxx > Zxx (Min) remembering the maximum
allowable depth to breadth ratios. Annex B gives the value of Zxx for a
range of sections. For simple sections, Zxx can be calculated quite easily
from the actual measurements of the section:
2
(1) Rectangular: Zxx = bd
6
3
(2) Round: Z = πd
32

c. Multiple Beams. It should be noted that Zxx(Min) can be achieved by multiple

beams where the sum of the individual Zxx must be greater than Zxx(Min).
Alternatively select a section and the number of beams required is
calculated by:

No of Beams = Zxx(Min)
Actual Zxx

1008. Calculate the actual bending stress, fbc.

a. fbc = MMax
Zxx

b. Compare fbc with pbc from Paragraph 1006. fbc must be less than or equal
to pbc. It is advisable that if fbc is found to be close in value to pbc another
section is selected as some of the figures used are not always reliable or
may be estimates.

1009. Check deflection, δ.

a. Use Tables 5-2 and 5-3 for variable loading conditions. For simply
supported beams:

(1) Uniformly distributed load where w = kN/m

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-3

 4
δMax (at centre) = 5 wl
x
384 EΙΙ

(2) Central point load where P = kN

3
δ at centre = Pl
48EΙΙ
2
Note: Be careful of units. E is often in N/mm
4 4
Ι can be either mm or cm
L can be m or mm

Tip: Convert all units to N and mm

For UDL 10 kN/m = 10 N/mm
For Point 10 kN = 10,000 N
4 4
For Ι 10 cm = 100,000 mm

These deflections can be added arithmetically when there is, for instance,
a point load on a beam which has its own uniformly distributed self weight.

b. E can be taken from Annex A and Ι from Annex B. For simple sections Ι
may be determined by measurement and calculation:
3
(1) Rectangular: Ιxx = bd
12
4
(2) Round: Ι = πd
64

c. Deflection limits. If the deflection is out of limits a larger or deeper section

must be selected maintaining the required depth to breadth ratio.
Permissible deflections are:

(1) Floors: dMax = 0.003 x length

(2) Formwork: dMax = Length or 3.0 mm

270

It should be noted that deflection is an aesthetic design consideration and the

above limits can be exceeded for operational circumstances.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-4
1010. Check bearing, fb.

a. Actual bearing stress:

2
fb = Loading on bearing N/mm
Bearing area

b. Permissible bearing stress (compression across the grain):

2
pb = p x K3 N/mm (Paragraph 1006)

c. Compare fb and pb.

(1) If fb ≤ pb the design is satisfactory.

(2) If fb > pb consider lengthening the bearing area or redesigning.

1011. Check horizontal shear, fq.

a. Calculate the actual shear stress:

2
= 1.5 x Q N/m Q from Paragraph 1005
bd

b. Calculate the permissible shear stress:

pq = K3 x shear stress Shear stress - Annex B

K3 - Table 6-3

c. Compare fq and Pq:

(1) If fq ≤ pq the design is satisfactory.

(2) If fq > pq the beam will have to be redesigned.

1012. Design example. Determine the number and size of beams to carry a field
shower unit made from a standard 50 gal oil drum supported on an existing
brick structure with walls 150 mm thick and 5 m apart. The drum is 22.5 kg
empty and 1 gal = 4.546 litres. Assume SC3 timber and short term loading.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-5

Serial Reference Calculations Output

1 Establish total loading.

1 litre of water = 1 kg

Live load: The full drum = 22.5 + Total load P

(50 x 4.546) = 249.8 kg = 2.5 kN = 2.5 kN

Dead load: The beam design is not known

so ignore self wt or guess a value

Table 6-4 There is no information about beam end Max d/b = 2

supports so assume d/b ratio = 2.

2 Calculate the TOTAL maximum bending based

on live load alone.

Assume drum as a point load at midspan

(this is a conservative assumption)

Table 5-2 Max Bending M = PL/4 = 2.5 x 5/4 = 3.125 kNm Total Mmax
= 3.125 kN
ZxxMin = Mmax/Pbc.

3 Determine permissible stress in bending.

2 2
Annex A For SC3 Bending Stress = 4.5 N/mm Pb = 4.5 N/mm
K3 = 1.5 (short term duration)
2
K3 = 1.5
Pbc = 4.5 x 1.5 = 6.75 N/mm Pbc = 6.75
2
N/mm
3 3 3 3
ZxxMin = 3.125 x 10 x 10 /6.75 = 480 x 10 mm ZxxMin
3
= 480
3
x
10 mm

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-6
Serial Reference Calculations Output

Table B-1 Find sections with d/b = 2 that are greater or

add up to greater than ZxxMin

Possible options:

Size Zxx No Beams Total Zxx

150 x 150 563 1 563

100 x 200 667 1 667
100 x 150 375 2 750 Zxx3= 375
3
x
100 x 100 167 3 501 10 mm
75 x 150 281 2 562
75 x 100 125 4 500
50 x 100 83.3 6 499

Select appropriate beams based on availability

and design consideration, ie 2 beams are the
minimum required to provide stability for the
drum. Remember self weight has not been
included so exceed ZxxMin by at least 20% and
note that deflection is likely to govern the final
beam selection.

Try two beams of 100 x 150.

4 Calculate the DESIGN loading for one beam

to find the design bending and shear. Live Load P

Live Load = 2.5 kN/2 = 1.25 kN = 1.25 kN

3
Para 1003 Dead Load - assume density = 6 kN/m x Dead Load
(0.1 x 0.15) = 0.09 kN/m w = 0.09 kN/m

Max bending moment at centre Mmax

2 2
= PL/4 + wL /8 = 1.25 x 5 + 0.09 x 5
4 8
= 1.56 + 0.28 = 1.84 kNm Mmax
= 1.84 kNm

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-7

 Serial Reference Calculations Output
Max shear force at the supports Qmax
= P/2 + wL/2 = 1.25 + 0.09 x 5
1013. Spare. 2 2
to = 0.625 + 0.225 = 0.85 kN. Qmax = 0.85 kN
1025.
5 Calculate actual bending stress ƒbc.
3 3 3
fbc = Mmax/Zxx 1.84 x 10 x 10 /375 x 10 =
2 2
4.9 N/mm < 6.75 N/mm
2
fbc (4.9) < Pbc (6.75) so design OK in bending. fbc = 4.9 N/mm

6 Calculate actual deflection.

(Remember UDL and point load deflections can be
added together).

Table 5-2 Deflection (d) = point + UDL

3 4
d = PL + 5 w L
48 EΙ 384EΙΙ
2 2
Annex A E = 7040 N/mm E = 7040 N/mm
6 4 3
Annex B Ι = 28.1 x 10 mm or Ι = bd /12 Ι =6 28.14x
10 mm
3 3 4
d = 1.25 x 10 x 5000 + 5 x 0.09 x 5000
6 6
48 x 7040 x 28.1 x 10 384 x 7040 x 28.1 x 10

= 16.45 + 3.7 = 20.2 mm d = 20.2 mm

Para 1009 Permissible deflection = 0.003L for floors

= 0.003 x 5000 = 15 mm

Actual d (20.2) > Permissible d (15) therefore it

FAILS in deflection

A larger section should now be selected and the

design repeated. However, the drum is being
assumed as a point load when it is actually a UDL
over part of the span which is a conservative
assumption, together with deflection being an 20.2 > 15 mm
aesthetic requirement and the increase of 5 mm FAIL but OK to
deflection over 5000 mm of span is not of concern. continue

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-8
 Serial Reference Calculations Output

7 Check bearing stress.

Actual bearing stress fb = load at support

(Q)/area of bearing.

Beam width = 100 mm

Brick wall width = 150 mm
3 2
fb = (0.85 x 10 )/(100 x 150) = 0.06 N/mm . fb = 0.06
2
N/mm

Permissible bearing stress:

2
Annex A Pcς = 1.0 N/mm

Table 6-3 K3 = 1.5 2 2

Pcς = 1.5 N/mm > 0.06 N/mm Pcς = 1.5
2
so bearing OK. N/mm

8 Check shear stress.

Actual shear stress fq = 1.5 Q/bd

b = 100 d = 150
3
fq = (1.5 x 0.852 x 10 )/(100 x 150)
= 0.09 N/mm .

Permissible shear stress:

2
Annex A pq = 0.6 N/mm

Table 6-3 K3 = 1.5

2 2
pq = 0.9 N/mm > 0.09 N/mm pq = 0.9
2
so shear OK. N/mm

Use two beams 100 x 150 mm of SC3 resting

on 150 mm of brick wall. Ensure the beams
are evenly distributed under the drum.
Deflection is 20.2 mm which is greater than
the design 15 mm but acceptable for short
term operations.

1013. Spare.
to
1025.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-9

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
10-10
 SECTION 10.2 STEEL BEAMS

1026. Design procedure. The design procedure for steel beams is as shown below.
Due consideration must be given to:

a. The end fixity of the beam.

b. The slenderness ratio of the beam.

c. The length of firm bearing for the beam.

1027. Establish the design loading.

a. The applied load W kN or w kN/m.

b. Self weight which may be estimated at this stage. The Tables in Annex C give
the weights of standard sections. A first estimate could be 1 kN/m unless a
better guess can be made as to the final size of the section.

1028. Calculate maximum shear force, Q, and maximum bending moment, M. The
formulae for various load configurations are given in Tables 5-2 and 5-3.

1029. Estimate the effective length of the compression flange, le.

a. Beams. This depends upon the degree of restraint on the beam. The factors
are given in Figure 6/1.

b. Cantilevers. Cantilevers are considered as a continuous extension of a

simply supported beam.
le = 2L.

(More information is given in BS 5950 but design for most cantilevers should
be passed to professional engineers).

1030. Determine the permissible bending stress, pbc.

a. If the section size is not yet known assume an initial value of pbc:

(1) Grade 37 (mild steel) or steel or unknown

2
origin or quality = 100 N/mm
2
(2) Grade 43 (mild steel) = 130 N/mm
2
(3) Grade 50 (high yield) = 165 N/mm

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-11

 b. Most of the tables in this section are for Grade 43 (mild steel) and designs at
this level should always assume Grade 43. If Grade 50 steel is used, the
structure will be slightly over designed. Take advice before using steel
recovered from older structures; some may be Grade 37.

1031. Find the minimum section modulus, Zxx Min. Find the minimum section modulus,
Zxx Min and select a section using the value of pbc from Paragraph 1030.

a. ZxxMin = M
pbc

b. Select a section from Annex B such that:

Zxx > ZxxMin

1032. Calculate the actual bending stress, fbc.

fbc = M
Zxx

1033. Calculate the permissible bending stress, pbc. Calculate the permissible
bending stress, pbc, for the chosen section:

a. Calculate le /rMin (Slenderness ratio - Max 300) from Paragraph 1029, Figure 6/1
and Annex C.

b. Calculate D/T (Annex C)

c. Determine pbc (Table 6-9)

1034. Compare actual and permissible bending stresses.

fbc must be less than or equal to pbc

1035. Find the minimum mass/metre section. Find the minimum mass/metre section
meeting the requirements so far and check the assumed self weight against the
actual weight. If these are very different it may be necessary to recalculate.

1036. Calculate the average shear stress, fq. The actual average shear stress for a
rolled section is:

fq = QMax
Dt Shear area of universal section

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-12
1037. Compare the actual and permissible shear stress.
2
a. The permissible shear stress for mild steel = 100 N/mm (Paragraph
0625b/Table 6-6).

b. If fq ≤ pq the design is acceptable.

c. If fq > pq select a larger section.

1038. Check for web buckling. To ensure that the web does not buckle under
concentrated loads, the maximum shear force must be less than the web buckling
capacity:

a. The web buckling capacity is given by:

Web buckling capacity = (beam component) + (stiff bearing component x stiff

bearing length)

b. The web end buckling figures needed for this check are given for a variety of
sections in Table C-7 Annex C.

c. If the maximum shear force exceeds the web capacity:

(1) Choose a larger section.

(2) Increase the stiff bearing length.

1039. Check for web bearing. To ensure that the web does not crush under
concentrated loads, the maximum shear force must be less than the web bearing
capacity

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-13

 a. The web bearing capacity is given by:

Web bearing capacity = beam component + (stiff bearing component x stiff

bearing length)

b. The web end bearing figures needed for this check are given for a variety of
sections in Table C-7, Annex C. These must not be confused with the web end
buckling figures given in the same tables.

c. If the maximum shear force exceeds the web bearing capacity:

(1) Choose a larger section.

(2) Increase the stiff bearing length.

1040. Check deflection, d.

a. Allowable deflection. The maximum deflection under the total load applied,
plus self weight, must not exceed 1/360 of the span.

b. Actual deflection. The actual deflection can be calculated from the standard
cases as shown in Tables 5-2 and 5-3.

1041. Design example - Steel beam. Select a universal beam (UB) in Grade 43 steel
to carry a uniformly distributed load (UDL) of 45 kN/m over a span of 5.0 m. The
beam will not be laterally restrained along its length. It will be restrained against
rotation in plan at its supports.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-14
 Ser Reference Calculations Output

1 Design loading.

(1) Live load = 45 kN/m

(2) Dead load - say 80 kg/m (mid UB range)

= 0.8 kN/m

(3) Total UDL, w = 45.8 kN/m. w = 45.8 kN/m

2 Table 5-2 Shear force and bending moment.

(1) Shear force, Q = wL = 45.8 x 5 Q = 114.5 kN

2 2
= 114.5 kN
2 2
(2) Bending moment, M = wL = 45.8 x 5 . M = 143.1
8 8 kN/m

3 Effective length of compression flange.

This is simply supported and partly restrained

so:

Figure 6/1 l = 0.85L = 4.25 m. l = 4.25 m

4 Select a section.

Assumed initial value for permissible bending

stress.
2
Paragraph 1030 Grade 43; pbc = 130 N/mm

Minimum section modulus:

3 3 3
ZxxMin = M = 143.1 x 10 = 1101 cm ZMin = 1101 cm
pbc 130 (Note units to suit tables)

Table C-1 The actual selection, covered in paras 1031

to 1035, is best carried out in tabular form
with a range of sections taken from Table C-1.
pbc fbc
Section Z Actual ry (cm) D/T l/ry Pass
Allowed Actual

457 x 152 x 60 UB 1120 3.23 34.2 132 124 124 X

406 x 178 x 67 UB 1188 4.00 28.6 106 152 121 3

406 x 178 x 60 UB 1058 3.97 31.8 107 151 135 3

406 x 178 x 54 UB 925.3 3.85 37.0 110 147 159 X

Select 406 x 178 x 60 UB.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-15

 Ser Reference Calculations Output

5 Check assumed self weight.

Assumed self weight = 80 kg/m

Actual self weight = 60 kg/m - No need to

recalculate.

6 Calculate average shear stress.

Paragraph 1043 Maximum shear = 114.5 kN

Average shear stress,

3 2
fq = QMax = 114.5 x 10 = 36.1 N/mm2. fq = 36.1 N/mm
Dt 406.4 x 7.8
Table 6-6 Calculate permissible shear stress
2
pq = 100 N/mm

which is much greater than actual shear

stress so the section is satisfactory.

7 Check for web buckling.

Maximum concentrated load = Maximum
shear = 114.5 kN.

Table C-7 Web buckling capacity

= 164 + (0.807 x Stiff bearing length (mm)) kN

This is much greater than the maximum shear.

1042. Spare.
to
1059.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-16
 Ser Reference Calculations Output

8 Check for web bearing.

Maximum concentrated load = Maximum shear

= 114.5 kN

Table C-7 Web bearing capacity

= 59 + (1.48 x Stiff bearing length in mm) kN

A minimum stiff bearing length of:

(114.5 - 59) = 37.5 mm

1.48

is required to prevent web bearing failure.

In practical terms, 300 mm would be a
reasonable bearing length. Also, the strength
of the bearer must be considered.

9 Check deflection.

Permissible deflection under applied live load

must be less than:

Span/360 = 5000/360 = 14 mm
5 2
Table 6-6 E = 2.1 x 10 N/mm
8 4
Table C-1 Ι = 2.15 x 10 mm
4
Table 5-3 Actual deflection = 5 x wL (Watch units)
384 EΙ
4
= 5 x 45.8 x 5000
5 8
384 x 2.1 x 10 x 2.15 x 10

= 8.3 mm < 14 mm d = 8.1 mm

10 Conclusion. Use a 406 x 178 x 60 UB with a minimum

stiff bearing length of 38 mm, so probably select a
5.5 metres to 6.0 metres beam depending upon the
beam supports.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-17

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
10-18
 SECTION 10.3 REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS
AND SLABS
1060. The aim of this section is to present sufficient theory and design data to enable the
troop commander to design simply supported, singly reinforced beams and slabs.
Full design information can be found in ME Vol XIV Part 1, Concrete Practice,
1974, but any design beyond the level given here should not usually be
undertaken at troop level. If other references are used it should be noted that
many will use V for shear in concrete. Q is used here to be consistent with the
other materials covered in the Chapter.

1061. Reinforced concrete theory. The negligible and unreliable tensile strength of
concrete is ignored for design purposes. A quantity of steel reinforcement is
placed in the 'tensile' region of a beam or slab. In the case of a simply supported
member acted upon by gravitational loads, ie dead and imposed loads acting
vertically to the earth, the tensile region is near the bottom face and the
compressive region near the top face. The steel in the tensile region is so
proportioned that it provides a tensile load capacity to balance the compressive
force in the compressive region. This is shown diagrammatically in Figure 10/1. In
the figure, the applied moment M is balanced by the moment of the couple of
forces C and T which are equal and opposite. Thus:

M = C x (Lever Arm)
or M = T x (Lever Arm)

Fig 10/1. Reinforced concrete bending.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-19

1062. Nomenclature. Typical features of a reinforced concrete element are shown in
Figure 10/2. Points to note are:

a. Cover. Concrete cover to reinforcement is provided to protect the steel from

weathering effects and fire and to ensure an effective bond between the
concrete and the steel. Aim to provide 40 mm of cover.

Fig 10/2. Reinforced concrete nomenclature.

b. Links. Steel links are small diameter bars provided, in beams only, to control
shear cracking. In the absence of other information assume the diameter of the
link bars is 10 mm but see Paragraph 1072.

c. Link Hangers. These are used in beams only and help to locate the links
before the concrete is poured. They should be the same diameter as the links.

d. Beam depth. Note that two depths are shown:

(1) Overall depth. The overall depth is the depth used for calculations and
tables in this section.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-20
 (2) Effective depth. The effective depth, which is equal to the overall depth
less cover, link diameter and half the main steel diameter, is commonly
used in civilian design practice. It is not used in this section.

e. Effective span or length.The effective span or length is the unsupported length

of the beam over the gap plus half the length of beam bearing on the supports
at each end.

1063. Materials.

a. Concrete. Various concrete mixes have been given2 in earlier chapters which
give crushing strengths of between 10 and 50 N/mm . Allowances may have to
be made for reduced strength of concrete made in the field without tight
control. All the tables and examples in this section are based on the mix shown
2
in Table 10-2 which may be assumed to give a strength of 15 N/mm after
seven days. The quantities given will produce about 0.25 cubic metres of
concrete.

TABLE 10-2 PRESCRIBED MIX FOR CONCRETE WITH SEVEN DAYS

2
COMPRESSIVE STRENGTH OF 15 N/MM

Ser Constituent Weight in Kg Remarks

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 Cement 100 Ordinary Portland Cement
2 x 50 kg bags

2 Sand 160 Medium builders sand

3 Coarse Aggregate 300 Nominal maximum aggregate

size = 20 mm

4 Water 20 to 60 (ie 20 to 60 litres) (i)

NOTE: i. The range given allows for the presence of water in the aggregates and sand. Use the
lower limit for wet aggregates and the higher limit for dry aggregates. Adjust the amount
of water added until the minimum amount which will produce a dense, impermeable
concrete using the compaction methods available, is found.

b. Reinforcing steel. Two grades of reinforcing steel are used in the UK:
mild steel and high yield steel. Design should always be based on mild
steel. The characteristic (or yield) stress value has been used in the
compilation of safe load tables in this section. Reinforcing steel can be
smooth or ribbed in various ways. The ribbing helps to obtain a better
bond between the steel and concrete, but slightly rusty smooth steel

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-21

 bonds well and all steel in tension is hooked at the ends to ensure a positive
locking in the concrete (see Figure 10/2).

c. Ties and spacers. Wherever reinforcing rods cross over each other or meet
they are tied together with soft iron wire. Spacers are small cubes of cement or
preformed plastic which are used to ensure that the cover is correct, and to
locate the steel before the concrete is poured. These are placed between the
steel and any formwork (see Figure 10/2). Spacers are produced
commercially, but can be made on site. If they are wired in place, care must be
taken to ensure that no tie-wire projects through the finished concrete
otherwise it will rust and allow water into the reinforcement area.

1064. Design parameters.

2
a. All tables are based on sections one metre wide using concrete with 15 N/mm
2
cube strength and mild steel reinforcement with a yield stress of 250 N/mm .

b. Section depth, h. Use overall depth h = le/12, where le is the effective length, as
a general rule (see Figure 10/2).

c. Beam width, b. Use width, b = h/2 initially. b must be a minimum of 300 mm

except for beams of little structural importance such as lintels.

d. Self weight (w per unit volume of unit length of beam or W total). Assume that
3
the density of reinforced concrete is 24 kN/m . For most structural applications
the dead load can be regarded as uniformly distributed.

e. Design shear force, Q = wle kN for UDL, otherwise use Table 5-2
2 (w = weight/metre)
(le = effective length in metres
(see Paragraph 1062e))
2
f. Design bending moment, M = wle kNm for UDL, otherwise use Table 5-2
8
g. The applied load.

1065. Design sequence. The recommended simplified design procedure is as laid out
below.

1066. Estimate section sizes from the effective length, le.

a. Depth h = le/12

b. Beam width b = h/2 initially and not less than 300 mm.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-22
1067. Calculate
3
self-weight. The self weight is calculated assuming concrete at 24
kN/m together with all dead and imposed loads. The relative weight of the steel
may be ignored.

Weight, w = Beam or slab depth x breadth x 24 kN/m run + design and imposed
loads (kN/m run) (w is the total weight/m run).

1068. Calculate the maximum bending moment, M, and the shear force, Q. For
uniformly distributed loads or where a moving or variable load is small compared
with the uniform load, these are calculated as follows:
2
a. MMax = wle kNm If there are significant variable loads the bending
8 moments and shear force will have to be calculated
b. Q = wle kN from Table 5-2.
2

TABLE 10-3 SAFE BENDING MOMENT CAPACITY (kNm) PER METRE

WIDTH: REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND SLABS

Area of Overall Section Depth h (mm)

Ser Steel
2
(mm ) 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

1 500 6 10 Too lightly

2 1000 11 18 25 32 45 reinforced in this
3 1500 25 35 45 66 86 106 region
4 2000 30 44 58 85 112 139 166 192
5 2500 52 69 103 137 171 205 239 272 305
6 3000 80 120 161 202 243 284 324 365
7 4000 150 204 258 313 367 421 476
8 5000 Too heavily 244 312 380 448 516 585
9 6000 reinforced in 280 361 443 524 606 687
10 7000 this region 406 501 596 691 786
11 8000 555 664 773 881
12 9000 605 727 849 972
13 10000 786 922 1058

2
NOTE: Based on concrete with
2
15 N/mm cube strength and mild steel reinforcement with a yield
stress of 250 N/mm with a 1.6 safety factor.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-23

 TABLE 10-4 SAFE SHEAR FORCE CAPACITY (KN) PER METRE
WIDTH: REINFORCED CONCRETE BEAMS AND
SLABS.

Area of Overall Section Depth (mm)

Ser Steel
2
(mm ) 150 200 250 300 400 500 600 700 800 900 1000

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

1 500 19 22 Too lightly

2 1000 24 28 31 34 40 reinforced in this
3 1500 31 36 39 45 52 59 region
4 2000 34 39 43 50 57 65 73 80
5 2500 42 46 53 61 70 78 86 94 102
6 3000 49 57 64 74 83 92 100 108
7 4000 62 71 81 91 100 109 118
8 5000 Too heavily 76 88 98 108 118 128
9 6000 reinforced in 81 93 104 115 125 136
10 7000 this region 98 110 121 132 143
11 8000 115 126 138 150
12 9000 119 132 143 155
13 10000 136 148 160
2
NOTE: Based on concrete with
2
15 N/mm cube strength and mild steel reinforcement with a yield
stress of 250 N/mm with a 1.6 safety factor.

1069. Selection of main steel area, As. An area of main steel should be selected,
using Tables 10-3 and 10-4, such that sufficient moment capacity is provided for
the appropriate overall depth. Note that the table gives the capacities of slab
sections or beams 1000 mm wide. In the case of beams, which are designed on a
metre width basis, the design moments and shear forces in beams must be
scaled, before being used with a table, by a factor of 1000/b where b is the beam
width in mm. If, for a given depth, the largest bending moment given is smaller
than required, the section should be increased. Also note that, for any given
section depth, there is a minimum quantity of steel required regardless of the size
2
of the applied moment, eg, for a 500 mm deep section, a minimum of 1500 mm
of steel is required.

1070. Shear checks. The shear capacity for a given section depth and area of main
steel should be taken from Table 10-4. This should then be compared with the
design shear force (modified, for beams only, by a factor of 1000/b as in
Paragraph 1069 above because the tables are per metre wide section) as follows:

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-24
 a. Beams. For beams without nominal links the shear capacity as tabulated must
be at least equal to the modified design shear force. For beams with nominal
links (see Paragraph 1072) the tabulated shear capacity may be doubled.

b. Slabs. The tabulated shear capacity should be doubled before checking

against the design shear force. There is no requirement for links, but
secondary reinforcement should be provided (see Paragraph 1072).

c. Amendment to main steel area. If the shear check fails, increase the area of
main steel. If this cannot be done the depth of the section will have to be
increased and the calculation re-worked.

1071. Selection of bar size and spacing. A combination of bar size and spacing
should be selected from Table 10-5 to give the required area of main steel. For
slabs, a spacing of 150-300 mm is preferred. In the case of beams, the beam
width should be divided by the proposed bar spacing to give the required number
of bars. This should be rounded up and the resulting clear gap between bars (after
allowance for cover and links) checked to ensure that it is not less than 25 mm or
the bar diameter if that is greater.

TABLE 10-5 CROSS SECTIONAL AREA OF SINGLE BARS AT

DIFFERENT SPACINGS (sq mm per metre width of slab).

Bar Bar spacing (centre to centre) (mm)

Ser Diam
(mm) 50 75 100 125 150 200 250 300
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1 8 1006 671 503 402 335 252 201 168

2 10 1570 1050 785 628 523 393 314 262

3 12 2260 1510 1130 905 754 566 452 377

4 16 4020 2680 2010 1610 1340 1010 804 670

5 20 6280 4190 3140 2510 2090 1570 1260 1050

6 25 9820 6550 4910 3930 3270 2450 1960 1640

7 32 10700 8040 6430 5360 4020 3220 2680

8 40 12600 10100 8380 6280 5030 4190

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-25

1072. Detailing secondary reinforcement.

a. Beams. It is good practice to use links in all beams except those of

minor structural importance. It has been noted that the omission of links
leads to a reduction in the shear capacity of the section (see Paragraph
1070). The amount of steel to be provided depends upon the beam
width, b. The link spacing, for specified beam widths and link diameters,
is tabulated in Table 10-6. Link spacing should not exceed 0.5 x the
overall beam depth, h.

TABLE 10-6 LINK SPACING (mm) FOR GIVEN BEAM WIDTH AND
BAR DIAMETER

Bar Beam Width - b mm

Ser diam
(mm) 200 300 400 500 600 700 800

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i)

1 8 250 175 125 100 175 75 50

2 10 400 250 200 150 125 100 100

3 12 600 400 300 200 200 175 150

4 16 1000 700 500 400 350 300 250

NOTE: Preferred combinations of bar diameter/spacing are shown in bold type.

b. Slabs. Transverse reinforcement, ie reinforcement at right angles to the main

2
steel, should be provided in all slabs. The area of steel, in mm , should be the
greater of:

(1) 2.4 x overall depth, h.

(2) One quarter of the area of main steel.

The spacing of transverse bars should not exceed twice the overall depth, h mm
or 400 mm whichever is the lesser. In many cases it will be possible to use square
steel mesh of the appropriate size for both main and transverse reinforcement.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-26
1073. Design examples. Worked examples for the design of a beam and a slab are given
below. As only limited theory and description have been included in the preceding
paragraphs they can be used to amplify the general procedures already described
and act as a step by step design guide.

1074. Beam. Design a beam to support a blockwork wall which imposes a load of 7.0 kN/m
on the beam. The effective span is 4.0 m.

Serial Reference Calculations Output

1 Paragraph 1066 Select section size.

(1) Depth h = 4000 = 330, say 400 mm h = 400 mm

12

(2) Width b = 400 = 200 mm b = 300 mm

2 (Note: b should not normally be
less than 300 mm so use 300 mm)

2 Paragraph 1067 Loads.

(1) Beam self weight = 0.4 x 0.3 x 24 = 2.88 kN/m

3
( m x m x kN/m ) Say 3.0 kN/m
(2) Total load w = 7 + 3 = 10 kN/m w = 10 kN/m

(Self weight + imposed)

3 Table 5-2 Bending moment and shear force.

(1) Design bending moment.

2 2
M = wL = 10 x 4 = 20 kNm M = 20 kNm
8 8

(2) Design shear force.

Q = wL = 10 x 4 = 20 kN Q = 20 kNm
2 2

4 Paragraph 1069 Modify bending moment and shear force.

The modification factor is 1000 so:

300

(1) M becomes 20 x 3.33 = 67 kNm M = 67 kNm

(2) Q becomes 20 x 3.33 = 67 kN Q = 67 kN

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-27

Serial Reference Calculations Output

5 Select main steel for bending.

Table 10-3 Inspection of Table 10-3

2
indicates that slightly
more than2 1500 mm of steel is required so use
1600 mm

Paragraph 1070 Check shear capacity.

Table 10-4 Assume that there are nominal links.
Paragraph 1071 Shear capacity = 2 x 45 = 90 kN > 67 kN,
so OK for shear

6 Select main bars.

Try 16 mm bars at 125 mm centres.

No of bars = 300 = 2.4, say 3

125

Check the gap between the bars:

300 - 2(40 + 19) - (3 x 16) = 76 mm

2
This is greater than the bar diameter of 25 mm
so select three 16 mm bars for the main steel.
Paragraph 1072 Links.
The spacing should be not greater than:
0.5 x h = 0.5 x 400 = 200mm
From Table 10-6 select 8.0 mm diameter links
at 175 mm centres.

2.8 mm link hangers

8 mm links at 175 mm centres
3 x 16 mm diameter main steel

Fig 10/3. Reinforced concrete beam design.

10-28 Issue 1.1: Nov 03

1075. Slab. Design a slab to support 0.5 metres depth of soil cover over an effective span of
2
2.4 metres and one metre wide. Allow 5 kN/m for accidental imposed loading and
3
assume soil weighs 18 kN/m .

Serial Reference Calculations Output

1 Paragraph 1068 Select a section depth.

h = 2400 = 200 mm h = 200 m

12

2 Paragraph 1067 Self weight.

(1) Slab self weight =

0.2 x 1.0 x 24 = 4.8, say 5.0 kN/m span.

3
(m) x (m) x (kN/m )

(2) Total load =

w = 5.0 + (18 x 0.5 x 1) + 5.0 = 19 kN/m span w = 19 kN/m

(imposed) + (soil) + (slab)
3 Table 5-2 Design bending moment and shear force.

(1) Bending moment:

2 2
M = wl = 19 x 2.4 = 13.68, say 14 kN/m M = 14 kN/m
8 8

(2) Shear force:

Q = wl = 19 x 2.4 = 22.8, say 23 kN Q = 23 kN

2 2

4 Paragraph 1069 Select main steel for bending.

2
Table 10-3 (1) From Table 10-3, As = 1000 mm
(200 mm slab, M must be < 18 kN/m).
(2) Check shear capacity. Since this is a
slab, use double the tabulated capacity given
in Table 10-4 against a 200 mm deep slab
2
with 1000 mm main steel.
2 x 28 = 56 kN which is greater than 23 kN
so shear is OK.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 10-29

 Serial Reference Calculations Output

5 Table 10-5 Select main bars. From Table 10-5 select 16 mm

bars at 200 mm
2
centres to meet the requirement
for 1000 mm of steel per metre width. 12 mm
bars at 100 mm, 10 mm bars at 75 mm and
8 mm bars at 50 mm spacings could also be
used.
6 Paragraph 1072 Secondary reinforcement.

(1) Take the greater of:

2
(a) 2.4 x h = 2.4 x 200 = 480 mm
2
(b) As/4 = 1000/4 = 250 mm
2
Table 10-5 (2) Select 480 mm and note that the spacing
must not exceed twice the slab depth or 400 mm.
From Table 10-5, select 12 mm diameter bars at
200 mm centres (or 10 mm at 150 mm spacing
or 8 mm at 100 mm spacing).

Cover = Secondary reinforcement Primary steel

40 mm 12 mm diameter at 16 mm diameter at
200 mm centres 200 mm centres

Fig 10/4. Concrete slab design.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

10-30
 CHAPTER 11 SCAFFOLDING

SECTION 11.1 INTRODUCTION

1101. Scaffolding componets and construction techniques are described in ME
Vol II, Pam 1 and safety aspects are covered in ME Vol XVIII. This chapter
covers the design of free standing, load bearing scaffolding and an
example of horizontally loaded scaffolding (a cover from view screen).
Access scaffolding, the sort used for building work, is not covered. The
standard designs taught in most of the construction trade courses should
be used. Some examples of load bearing scaffolding follow although the
last three uses are not covered in this pamphlet:

a. Water towers.

b. Observation posts.

c. Cover from view screens (horizontally loaded).

d. Bridge piers.

e. Falsework for construction purposes.

f. Shoring and strengthening buildings.

1102. The chapter covers conventional tube and coupler scaffolding. There are
many proprietary systems some of which, such as MERO and SGB
Cuplok, are held as engineer stores. If these systems are to be used for
anything other than published standard designs the manufacturer's
literature must be studied and used. ME Vol II, Pam 9 - Water Supply
covers CUPLOK in enough detail to enable variations on the standard
issue water tower to be used. Some details are given of the properties of
corrugated steel cladding which can be used with scaffolding for cover
from view screens and simple structures, and of adjustable steel props
(Acrow Props) which are useful for strengthening ceilings and supporting
formwork for concrete slab roofs.

1103. Many scaffolding structures are erected in both civil and military situations
where no design calculations appear to have been carried out. This can
lead the unwary into thinking that scaffold structures can be put up without
any design work. However, most of the structures erected as a routine
have well proven designs which are used regularly in virtually identical
situations. Only slight modifications to loading and structure geometry can
render even these designs unsafe. It is dangerous to adapt standard
designs without a design check.

11-1
1104. The forces in a scaffold may be calculated by standard methods of
structural analysis. Exact solutions are seldom warranted since suitable
approximations provide quick solutions in most cases and the design
methods are conservative. It is inadvisable to reduce the margins of safety
in the design parameters as scaffolding structures are notorious for their
susceptibility to human error in construction.

1105. Structures such as cover from view screens, which are horizontal load
bearing structures, may be designed using the same procedures. It is
particularly important that these are designed carefully. They look simple
but the large area of cladding and lightweight construction makes them
very susceptible to wind damage and the strutting, if not properly braced,
can buckle quite easily.

1106. The examples in this chapter assume steel scaffolding which is best for
load bearing structures because it is stiffer than aluminium. However,
aluminium scaffolding is widely available from civil and military sources.
While it is ideal for access scaffolding because of its lightness, it can be
used for load bearing structures, particularly in the short term, so its
properties are given to enable proper design. Designs for structures in
steel and aluminium are not interchangeable, nor may aluminium and steel
parts be used together.

1107. Tubular scaffolding basic components. The most important components

of a load bearing scaffold are illustrated in Figure 11/1. Only the
components listed are discussed in the text.

1108. Design of load bearing scaffolding. The detailed procedure for the
design of a load bearing tube and coupler scaffold, with a worked example,
is given in Section 11.4. Before proceeding with the detailed design an
initial check of the outline design and proposed geometry should be made
using the guide to good practice in Section 11.2

1109. Design of horizontally loaded scaffolding. The design of horizontally

loaded scaffolding is covered in Sections 11.5 and 11.6.

1110. Spare.
to
1119.

11-2
 Timber bearers, steel beams,
etc.apply load to the systems.
Ledgers (Horizontal) Adjustable Forkhead, Used to
centre bearers over a standard
and prevent eccentric loading.
Adjustment is provided for
levelling.

Bracing (Diagonal)

Standard
(Vertical)
Joint Pin. If bending
or tensile stresses
are expected this
must be replaced by
asleeve coupler.

Right Angle Coupler.

(or Double Coupler)

Foundation. This
Swival Coupler. must be capable of
supporting the
required vertical load
Adjustable Baseplate. without excessive
settlement. A 225mm
x 75mm timber
sleeper is usually
adequate but concrete
may be required.

Fig 11/1. Components of load bearing scaffold.

11-3
11-4
 SECTION 11.2 A BRIEF GUIDE TO GOOD
PRACTICE
1120. Introduction. This section gives rules of thumb, which are taken from the
detailed design procedure and normal practice. Any proposed scaffold may
be checked quickly against these rules. If a scaffold satisfies all the rules
and has sensible geometry, it should prove satisfactory when the detailed
design checks are carried out. A scaffold which does not satisfy all the
rules is suspect although it may prove safe when checked in detail.
However, to avoid wasting design effort, it is advisable to try to modify the
scaffold geometry before proceeding to the detailed check.

1121. Common scaffolding tubing. If any of the following conditions cannot be

met seek professional advice:

a. Steel. Steel should comply with BS 1139. It should be 48.3 mm in

outside diameter with a 4.0 mm wall thickness. There should be no
bends, kinks or significant rusting.

b. Aluminium alloy (HV30 - WP). Aluminium alloy should be 48.3 mm in

outside diameter with a 4.47 mm wall thickness. There should be no
bends, kinks or significant corrosion.

c. Only steel tubing should be used for structures subject to heavy or

cyclic loading. Aluminium is subject to metal fatigue which is brought on
by cyclic loading; in a structure needed for only a short time metal
fatigue can be ignored although the tubes should be inspected before
being used again.

d. Steel and aluminium tubing must not both be used in the same
structure.

1122. Standards.

a. Loads should never exceed 30 kN per standard. This is the limiting load
for forkheads and baseplates. The permissible load also depends upon
the effective length of the standards and becomes less than 30 kN if the
distances between ledgers is much more than 1.5 metres (see
Paragraph 1136). The calculation of the effective lengths of standards
adjacent to the top and bottom projectors is particularly critical. The
rules are given in the detailed design procedures (Item 6g of Table
11/5).

b. The distance between rows of baseplates should not exceed 2.4

metres.

11-5
 c. The maximum acceptable deviation from the vertical is 25 mm in 6
metres for vertically loaded structures with a maximum of 15 mm over
two metres. The use of sloping scaffold poles in axial compression,
such as the angled supports for cover from view screens, is a special
case; particular care has to be taken with the bracing because the force
applied may not be truly axial.

1123. Ledgers.

a. The maximum vertical distance (lift height) between ledgers is two

metres. However, it is better to plan on about 1.5 metres (see
Paragraph 1122).

b. Ledgers should tie structural nodes from two directions.

c. Extensions of the standards above the top ledger and below the bottom
ledger should not exceed 300 mm, unless braced in two directions.

1124. Bracing.

a. Scaffold should be triangulated to full height in both side and end

elevation.

b. Long diagonals should be used in preference to short zig zags.

c. Bracing should be connected close to structural nodes with either right

angle or swivel couplers, and never more than 150 mm apart.

d. Scaffold should have vertical diagonal bracing on the outer frames and
on intermediate frames at a maximum spacing of 4.8 metres in both
side and end elevations.

e. Plan bracing is required at the bottom and top ledger levels, at every
alternate lift and where ledgers or standards have had to be left out.

1125. Foundations. A baseplate spiked to a 225 mm x 75 mm sleeper is

normally adequate. The timber must, in turn, be on firm level ground.

1126. Stability.

a. The height to width ratio of a free standing scaffolding should not

exceed 3:1. A free standing scaffolding may be modified using guys or
ground anchors if a greater height to width ratio is essential.

11-6
 b. A factor of safety against overturning is required using the most adverse
loading conditions. This usually occurs when there is no imposed load
and the wind load is applied. The factor of safety should be at least 1.4
although a factor of safety of 1.2 is allowable for temporary structures.

1127. Spare.
to
1134.

11-7
11-8
 SECTION 11.3 DESIGN DATA
1135. The physical properties of and specifications for normal steel and
aluminium scaffolding tubes are given in Tables 11-1 and 11-2
respectively. Other sizes may be encountered in which case details must
be found from the appropriate specification or properties calculated from
basic principles. The nominal properties of the materials used for normal
scaffolding are given in Table 11-3; they will only be required for design
calculations in exceptional circumstances.

TABLE 11-1 TUBULAR SCAFFOLDING - STEEL TUBES

PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION

Ser Detail Dimensions Tolerance

Weight, etc

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 Outside diameter 48.3 mm +/- 0.5 mm

2 Wall thickness 4.0 mm + 0.8 mm

- 0.4 mm

3 Nominal mass 4.37 kg/m

4 Mean mass (150 m or more) +/- 4.0 %

of nominal
mass

5 Max reduction permissible in the 7.5%

mass of any individual tube
2
6 Cross sectional area 5.5 cm

7 Length if specified exact +/- 6.0 mm

8 Radius of gyration (r) 1.57 cm

3
9 Section modulus (Z) 5.70 cm
4
10 Moment of inertia (I) 13.8 cm
(About diameter)

11 Straightness - Max deviation 1/600 of

from a straight line length

11-9
 TABLE 11-2 TUBULAR SCAFFOLDING - ALUMINIUM ALLOY TUBES
(BS 1139: 1964)
PHYSICAL PROPERTIES AND SPECIFICATION

Ser Detail Dimensions Tolerance

Weight, etc

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 Outside diameter 48.3 mm +/- 0.5 mm

2 Wall thickness 4.47 mm +/- 0.54 mm

3 Nominal mass 1.67 kg/m

4 Mean mass (150 m or more) +/- 5.0 %

of nominal
mass

5 Max reduction permissible in the 7.5%

mass of any individual tube
2
6 Cross sectional area 6.17 cm

7 Length if specified exact +/- 6.0 mm

8 Radius of gyration (r) 1.56 cm

3
9 Section modulus (Z) 6.23 cm
3
10 Moment of inertia (I) 15.07 cm
(About diameter)

11 Straightness - Max deviation 1/600 of

from a straight line length

11-10
 TABLE 11-3 NOMINAL PROPERTIES OF STEEL AND ALUMINIUM
ALLOY TUBES USED IN SCAFFOLDING

Ser Detail Steel Aluminium

(a) (b) (c) (d)

2
1 Minimum yield stress(N/mm ) 210

2 Allowable compression strength See Figure 11/2 163

2
3 Allowable tensile stress (N/mm ) 127 99

2
4 Allowable bending stress (N/mm ) 139 108

2 5 4
5 Modulus of elasticity (N/mm ) 2.1 x 10 7.0 x 10

2 4 4
6 Shear modulus (N/mm ) 8.1 x 10 2.6 x 10

7 Poissons ratio 0.30 0.33

1136. Allowable loads for 48.3 mm OD x 4.0 mm wall thickness steel

scaffolding tubes.

a. Axial and eccentric loads are shown in Figure 11/2 and Figure 11/3
respectively.

b. Load/span graphs for tubes subjected to bending are shown in Figure

11/4 and Figure 11/5.

11-11
 NOTES:

(i) Loads must be concentric

(ii) The structure must be adequately braced to prevent sidesway.

Fig 11/2. Allowable concentric load/effective length for steel standards.

11-12
 NOTE: Eccentricity assumed to be 64 mm.

Fig 11/3. Allowable eccentric axial loads/effective length for struts in steel.

11-13
 NOTES:

(i) Tubes are assumed to be simply supported.

(ii) If the tube is supported by only two couplers, total W is limited by coupler slip to 12.5 kN.

(iii) For a cantilever with a uniformly distributed load W, take 0.25 of the load given.

Fig 11/4. Allowable load/span graph for tube in bending

- Uniformly distributed load.

11-14
 NOTES:

(i) Tubes are assumed to be simply supported.

(ii) If the tube is supported by only two couplers, W is limited by coupler slip to 12.5 kN.
(iii) For a cantilever with a point load W applied to the free end, take 0.25 of the load given.

Fig 11/5. Allowable load/span graph for tube in bending - Central point load.

11-15
1137. Scaffolding couplers and fittings. Details of couplers and safe working
loads are given in Table 11-4. It can be seen that the limiting condition,
unless special precautions are taken, will usually be:

a. Vertical axial loads. 30 kN with baseplates and forkheads limiting.

b. Forces transmitted across couplers parallel to a tube. 6.25 kN after

which the coupler will begin to slip along the tube. (Half this value if the
tube has been greased or painted.)

TABLE 11-4 SAFE WORKING LOADS FOR COUPLERS AND

INDIVIDUAL FITTINGS (STEEL).

Ser Type of coupler Type of load Safe working

load - kN
(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 Adjustable forkhead Axial load 30

2 Right angle couplers Slip along a tube 6.25

3 Swivel coupler Slip along a tube 6.25

4 Joint pins (Expanding Shear strength 21

spigot couplers) Axial compression As for standard
Axial tension Nil

5 Putlog coupler Slip along the tube 0.625

6 Sleeve coupler Axial tension (slip) 3.1

7 Adjustable base plate Axial load 30

1138. Galvanised corrugated cladding sheets. The details given below are for
the most common cladding systems. A typical sheeting layout is shown in
Figure 11/6.

a. Dimensions (for 24 gauge sheets):

(1) Pitch of corrugations 76.2 mm

(2) Depth of corrugations 19.0 mm

11-16
 (3) Width of sheet 812 mm

(4) Length of sheet 1.83, 2.44, 3.05, 3.66 m

(5) Number of corrugations per sheet 10

(6) Coverage

(a) 1 corrugation side lap 762 mm

1
(b) 1 /2 corrugation side lap 724 mm

(c) 2 corrugation side lap 686 mm

Fig 11/6. Typical sheeting layout.

1139. Variations for other gauges to BS 3083.

a. Gauge/BS 3083 26 24 22
4
b. Moment of inertia (cm ) per m width 2.73 3.41 4.32
3
c. Section modulus (cm ) per m width 2.85 3.60 4.46
2
d. Allowable stress in bending (N/mm ) 93 96.67 100.33

e. Weight per square metre of cladding (kg) 6.0 7.5 9.5

1140. Adjustable steel props. These are in common use. There are several
types but they are usually referred to as 'Acrow Props', the trade name of
the props usually met with. They are useful for reinforcing ceilings,
supporting formwork and shoring. A prop comprises tubular sections with
top and bottom plates approximately 150 mm square. The transfer of load
between the two parts is by an adjustable collar and pin. Listed below are
the height ranges of props according to their standard size number:

11-17
 Prop Size Range of Prop Height
No Min Max
(mm) (mm)

(a) (b) (c)

0 1070 1820
1 1750 3120
2 1980 3350
3 2590 3960
4 3200 4870

1141. Figure 11/7a gives the safe working load for props where concentric loads
can be guaranteed by ensuring that the load is central and that the prop is
no more than 1.5 degrees out-of-plumb. Fig 11/7b gives the safe working
load for props where concentric loads can NOT be guaranteed and the
prop is no more than 1.5 degrees out-of-plumb.
40

30
Load (kN)

20

10

0
1.07 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5 2.75 3.0 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5 4.75 4.88
Length of prop (m)
Nos. 0,1,2 and 3 size props.

No. 4 size props.

a. Concentric loading and prop not more than 1.5 degrees out-of-plumb.

30
Load (kN)

20

10

0
1.07 1.25 1.5 1.75 2.0 2.25 2.5 2.75 3.0 3.25 3.5 3.75 4.0 4.25 4.5 4.75 4.88
Length of prop (m)

b. Maximum 25 mm eccentric loading and prop not more than 1.5 degrees out-of-
plumb.

Fig 11/7. Safe working loads for props.

11-18
1142. Anchorages. There are many types of anchorage. Unless the task calls
for special anchors it is recommended that one of the several anchor
systems described in ME Vol II, Pam 1, be used. Troops will be used to
them and they are either carried as unit stores or can be made up in the
field.

1143. Spare.
to
1154.

11-19
 TABLE 11.5 DETAILED DESIGN PROCEDURE

Ser Ref Comment/design procedure Output

(a) (b) (c) (d)

1 MATERIALS

Section a. Common Scaffolding Tubes. The most common

11.3 scaffolding tube size available is:

Steel (Grade 13 to BS 1139)

(Grade 40 to BS 4360)
48.3 mm OD
4 mm Wall thickness (8 SWG)

b. Other Scaffolding Tubes. For technical data

on other tubes see Manufacturers technical data
sheets.

c. Proprietary Scaffolding Systems. If a

proprietary scaffold system is to be used, the
manufacturers instructions must be followed.
This table may act as an aide memoire to design,
but it is not intended to cover the design of
structures incorporating proprietary systems. NO
RELIABLE DESIGN CAN BE CARRIED OUT
WITHOUT CONSULTING THE MANUFACTURERS
INSTRUCTIONS.

Table d. Couplers. Design data, safe loads, and other

11-4 details for steel couplers are given in Table 11-4.

2 LOADING - GENERAL

One of the most difficult stages in any structural

design is to prepare an analysis of the worst
loading cases. It is not always possible to find
reliable loading data in current military
publications. This is particularly true for wind
loading.

3 LOADING - VERTICAL

a. Dead Loads.

ME Vol (1) Details in ME Vol III Pt 1, Basic Bridging.

III Pt 1

11-20
(a) (b) (c) (d)

b. Imposed Loads. It is not possible to provide

details applicable to all types of structure, but
the check list below should ensure most eventual-
ities are covered. Consider loads due to:

(1) Proposed usage.

(2) Construction.

(3) Impact (for impact of2concrete on slab

formwork assume 2 kN/m )
(4) Inertia.

(5) Centrifugal effects.

(6) Temperature changes.

(7) Pre-stressing.

(8) Relative settlement.

(9) Snow loads. For flat roofs in UK assume:

2
1.5 kN/m (Snow + Access)
2
0.75 kN/m (Snow + Access for maintenance
and repair only).

4 LOADING - HORIZONTAL

a. Wind loads.

(1) For some guidance see Chapter 4 .

(2) See Examples for calculation of wind

loading applied to scaffold, Chap 4 - Para
0416 onwards. Note that full wind loading
is applied to all frames. For normal
scaffold dimensions a shield factor is not
applicable.

b. Imposed loads. The following check list should

cover most eventualities. Consider loads due to:

(1) Proposed usage.

(2) Construction.

(3) Impact.

(4) Inertia.

11-21
 (a) (b) (c) (d)

(5) Centrifugal effects) 0.5 g should cover

) these forces
(6) Vehicle surge ) adequately.

(7) Temperature changes.

(8) Pre-stressing.

(9) Shrinkage of concrete.

5 SELECTION OF SCAFFOLD GEOMETRY

a. The general layout of the scaffold is often

dictated by the structural system to be supported.
Examples of such restriction are:

(1) Strength of bearers in bending.

(2) Strength of bearers in crushing at

forkheads.

(3) Acceptable deflection of bearers. For

formwork this is the lesser of:

Span
or 3 mm
270

b. Provided the above considerations are not

limiting, the following limitations usually fix the
basic layout:

Table (1) The maximum load on a standard is

11-4 usually limited by the safe load of the
adjustable baseplates to 30 kN.

(2) The maximum acceptable distance

between rows of baseplates is 2.4 m.

Section (3) The maximum acceptable distance

11.2 between ledgers is 2 m.

c. In general a cubic layout of:

1.6 m between rows of baseplates

1.6 m between ledgers

is about right for a first trial design. Practical

limitations and site geometry always control
the finer details of any practical scaffolding
arrangement.

11-22
(a) (b) (c) (d)

6 DESIGN OF STANDARDS

a. Loading General. Loads should always be

applied directly to the top of the standards. (An
eccentricity of only 15 mm can lead to failure in
a fully loaded standard.)

b. Verticality. The safety of a structure depends

on the verticality of the standards. Building errors
should never exceed 50 mm in 6 m (0.0083 radians).
It is dangerous to allow structures to be used
where the accuracy of construction does not
comply with this rule.
25mm

6000mm

c. Wind Loading. The horizontal forces, due to

the effect of wind loading, will increase the maximum
loading on the standards.

d. Load Concentration. It may be necessary to

multiply axial loads due to Serials 4 and 5 by a
factor to allow for continuity of bearers. The factor
should be 1.25 if the bearer is continuous over 3
supports or 1.10 if continuous over 4 supports.

e. Live loading on falsework. For falsework

consider the effects of heaped concrete on
formwork and workmen placing the concrete. A
2
value of 1.5 kN/m should be added to the load
supported by the standard under consideration to
allow for these effects.

11-23
 (a) (b) (c) (d)

f. Check Safe Load on Forkhead.

(1) Check load on forkhead does not exceed

30 kN unless trade literature indicates
otherwise.

(2) Check that timber bearers do not fail in

crushing. (Allowable timber stress for
2
Softwood. Strength Class SC3 is 1.65 N.mm -
short term loading.)

g. Find maximum effective length of standard

between ledgers.

(1) The effective length is calculated using the

distance between structural nodes which are
fixed by ledgers from BOTH directions.
Effective lengths of less than 1.1 l should not
be used.

b le = b + 2a

b le = b + 2c

(2) The diagram above shows the effective

lengths (le) which should be used for the lifts
adjacent to the top and bottom projection. The
projection plus the length adjacent to it, should
be considered as having one effective length
as shown.

(3) The greatest value of effective length

controls the allowable standard loading.

Figure (4) The allowable load which the standard

11/2 is able to support is obtained from Figure 11/2.

11-24
(a) (b) (c) (d)

h. Check Safe Load on Baseplate.

(1) Check load on baseplate does not exceed

30 kN unless trade literature indicates otherwise.

Section (2) Check timber (if used) does not fail in

10.1 crushing under baseplate

j. Check Foundation in Design.

(1) Normally a 225 x 75 timber sleeper is

sufficient. For long term use, timber should
be bedded on concrete, NOT sand.

(2) Check bearing stress on soil.

7 BRACING DESIGN

a. General.

(1) It is an extremely complex theoretical

problem to calculate the forces in the bracing.
However, the rules which follow should provide
a safe solution.

(2) Because the ledgers flex between braced

frames, at a certain distance from a braced frame
the scaffold frames are effectively unbraced.
This causes the actual safe working load of the
standards to be reduced to about one quarter
of the load calculated in Serial 6g. To avoid this
problem, brace at least every other scaffolding
frame.

b. Good Practice.

(1) Bracing should be connected as near as

possible to the structural nodes.

(2) Bracing should be connected at every node

it passes. Connection can be with either:

(a) Swivel couplers connected to standards.

(b) Right Angle couplers connected to ledgers.

(3) Structure should be triangulated to full height

in both side and end elevation.
11-25
 (a) (b) (c) (d)

Side Elevation End Elevation

(4) Long diagonals are preferable to short

zig zags because fewer couplers are required
and the labour of erection is reduced.

Good Poor

c. Assumptions. Assume all the shear force

applied to a scaffold frame is taken on the bracing.
Coupler slip is
usually the cause
of bracing failure.

Shear Force
(Q)
θ

T
(Tension in
diagonal)

T Cos θ = Q

d. Forces in bracing. These are assessed using

the BS 5975: 1982.

Table (1) Design bracing to take all identifiable

11-6 horizontal forces (Serial 4) + 1% of the
vertical load.

11-26
(a) (b) (c) (d)

(2) In no case should the above allowance for

1
horizontal load be less than 2 /2% of the vertical
load.

(Note. The above rules recognise that the vertical

loading has considerable influence on the bracing,
even if the forces involved cannot be determined by
simple structural analysis).

e. Failure of bracing.

(1) In general, the bracing fails at a load of

6.25 kN when the couplers slip:

Q
= T > Coupler slip load (6.25 kN)
COS O

(Sometimes it is convenient to increase this slip load

by doubling up the couplers).

(2) If there is a long distance between couplers

connecting the bracing, the bracing may fail
in compression. (See Serial 6g). The effective
length (le) is the distance between couplers
connecting bracing to structural nodes.

8 STABILITY

a. In general the height to width ratio should not

exceed 3 to 1 unless special precautions are taken.
ie Guys, ground anchors etc.

b. A factor of safety against overturning of at

least 1.4 is required under the most adverse loading
condition. This usually occurs when there is not
imposed load and the wind load is applied.

11-27
11-28
 SECTION 11.4 LOAD BEARING SCAFFOLDING
DESIGN EXAMPLE
1154. Design example - Loadbearing scaffold. Check the design of standards
and bracing for the structure shown below when the vertical loading
applied to the scaffold due to dead and imposed loads is:

a. 150 kN (137 kN Dead load + 13 kN Imposed load).

b. 270 kN (255 kN Dead load + 15 kN Imposed load).

OP

2300
(Square on plan)

150
3500

1680
Wind Speed
3660
38 m/s

1680
150
1600 1600
A A

End Elevation
1600
1600

Plan

Notes:
(i) Only the outside frames are braced.
(ii) As the central standard is not located under the OP walls it is
assumed to be unloaded. This is not necessarily true but it gives
the worst case.
(iii) Scaffolding tube is Grade 13, 48.3 mm OD, wall thickness 4.0 mm
to BS 1139.
(iv) Couplers to BS 1139.
(v) All dimensions in mm.

11-29
1155. Check structure against 'A brief guide to good practice'. (see Section
11.2)

a. Dead and imposed load = 150 kN

(1) Load per standard = 150/8 = 18.8 kN

(2) Structure complies with all other rules.

b. Dead and imposed load = 270 kN

(1) Load per standard = 270/8 = 33.8 kN. As 33.8 kN > 30 kN

adjustable baseplates will be overloaded. OP will only be safe if
special precautions are taken at forkheads and baseplates.

(2) The structure complies with all other rules for both loadings.

1156. Wind forces on structure. (See Chapter 4).

Basic wind speed V = 38 m/s (Chatham)

Ground floor S1 =1
Statistical factor S3 = 0.77 (2 yr design life)
Building factor S2
OP - height 6 metres = 0.95
Tower - height 4 metres = 0.83

a. Force on OP.

Design wind speed Vs = V x S1 x S2 x S3

= 38 x 1 x 0.95 x 0.77
= 27.8 m/s

Dynamic wind pressure = q = 0.613 Vs2

= 0.47 kN/m2

Force on OP F = Cf x q x A (Cf = 1.0)

= 1 x 0.4 x 2.3 x 3.5
= 3.81 kN

11-30
 b. Force on scaffold.

Design wind speed Vs = 38 x 1 x 0.83 x 0.77

= 24.3 m/s

Dynamic wind pressure = q = 0.613 Vs2

= 0.36 kN/m2

Force on scaffold F = q x A (Cf = 1.2)

(3 frames), effective area
= 3 (6 x 3.66 x 0.0483) x 1.2*
= 3.82 m2
Force on scaffold = 1.2 x 0.36 x 3.82
= 1.65 kN

Note:
* The effective area of the standards and ledgers alone is increased by
20 per cent to allow for couplers, bracing and ends of tubes.

c. Shear forces due to wind loading.

Shear force in scaffold.

Top = 3.81 kN
Base = (3.81 + 1.65) kN = 5.46 kN

3.81kN
3660

5.46kN
Shear force diagram for scaffold

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-31

Q
Ø
 1157. Loads on standards.

a. Dead and imposed loads only.

LOADING LOAD/STANDARD

150 kN 150/8 = 18.8 kN

270 kN 270/8 = 33.8 kN

b. Wind load only.

3.81kN
4810

1.65kN
1830

A 3200 B
P P

Assuming the scaffold would tend to rotate about the centreline under the
influence of the wind loading:

Taking moments about A

P = (3.81 x 4.81) + (1.65 x 1.83)

3.81kN3.2
W

= 6.67 kN

Hence increase in axial load on external standards

4810

Q
= 6.67 kN
1.65kN
3
1830

= 2.22 kN.

A 3200 B
P P Issue 1.1: Nov 03
11-32
 c. Load concentration factor. A load concentration factor of 1.25 should be
applied to centre standards of outside frames.

d. Summary of loading on standards.

LOAD CONCENTRATION

LOAD ON STANDARD
& IMPOSED

MAXIMUM DESIGN
& IMPOSED

CONCENTRATION

WIND LOAD
LOADING

FACTOR
LOAD

DEAD
DEAD

(kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN) (kN)

150 18.8 1.25 23.5 2.2 25.7

270 33.8 1.25 42.3 2.2 44.5

1158. Design of standards.

a. Standards loaded concentrically - Yes.

b. Vertically - Assumed within accepted limits.

c. Check safe load on forkheads/baseplates:

LOADING STANDARD MAX SAFE

(kN) LOAD (kN) LOAD

150 25.7 < 30 kN (OK)

270 44.5 > 30 kN (NOT OK)

d. Allowable standard loading.

(1) Distance between ledgers = 1680 < 2000 (OK).

(2) Maximum effective length

Above top ledger = 150 mm

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-33

 Between ledgers = 1680 mm
(Maximun 1980 mm)

Effective length = 1680 mm + (2 x 150)

= 1980 mm

(3) Check standards tied by two ledgers at every node. Yes.

(4) Adequate bracing. Yes.

(5) Allowable load = 30 kN.

LOADING STANDARD ALLOWABLE

LOADING STANDARD LOADING
(kN) (kN) (kN)

150 25.7 30 (OK)

270 44.5 30 (NOT OK)LOADING

e. Foundation design.

The foundation design will not be checked here. 225 x 75 timber sleeper
foundation will be adequate for average soil conditions.

1159. Design of bracing.

a. Braced at every other bay. OK.

b. Triangulated to full height. OK.

c. Long diagonals.

d. Assume if bracing is connected close to every node it passes.

e. Forces in bracing. 'BS 5975: 1982' states that the bracing should carry
the greater of the two horizontal loading conditions shown:

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-34
 3.81kN

3660
1
Vertical All 1% 2 /2% Total
loading Identifiable Vertical Vertical Design
(kN) Horizontal load load load
forces (kN) (kN) (Q)
5.46kN (kN)
Shear force diagram for scaffold
150 5.46 1.50 - 6.96
270 5.46 2.70 - 8.16

150 - - 3.75 3.75

270 - - 6.75 6.75

(6.96 > 3.75) Horizontal forces + 1% vertical loads

(8.16 > 6.75) give maximum loading conditions.

Q
Ø

Cos Ø = 1.6 = 1.6 = 0.69

2 2
√ 1.6 + 1.68 2.32

Maximum forces taken by bracing

Vertical T= Q Force, T,
Loading 0.69 taken by
(kN) bracing

150 6.96/0.69 10.1 kN

270 8.16/0.69 11.8kN

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-35

 f. Failure of bracing. The total force taken by the bracing T, is carried by
the two diagonal braces on the outside faces of the tower, one in
tension the other in compression.

Vertical Force taken by single bracing tube

Loading 2
(kN)

150 10.1 = 5.1 kN

2
270 11.8 = 5.9 kN
2

Safe coupler slip load is 6.25 kN so no slip occurs for either loading
condition.

g. Bracing in compression.

Effective length of brace = 2.5 m

Allowable load in brace = 9.0 kN (see Figure 11/3).

Maximum load in brace 5.9 kN < 9 kN

Hence bracing will not fail in compression.

Note. Bracing must be attached close to central node of the frame (even
if bracing is safe in compression without fixing at this point). If the
central ledger is not prevented from movement by bracing, the effective
length of the standards becomes 2 x 1680 = 3360 mm.

1160. Stability.

a. Height = 5960 = 1.86 > 3 (OK)

Width 3200 1 1

b. Factor of safety against overturning when imposed load has been

removed:

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-36
 3.81kN
W

4810
Q 1.65kN

1830

A 3200 B
P P

Taking moments about B at point of overturning.

Factor of Safety = Restoring moment

Tipping moment

= W x 1.6
(3.81 x 4.81) + (1.65 x 1.83)

= W x 1.6
21.35

Dead Load Factor of Safety

(W) W x 1.6
(kN) 21.35

137 of this type, with heavy dead loads

Note. Structures 10.3 > 1.4
are, in general, not
prone to overturning. However, a stability check is essential for lightly
255
loaded commentators 19.1 etc.
platforms, loud speaker towers, > 1.4

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-37

1161. Summary of design check.

a. Vertical loading 150 kN.

(1) Baseplate loading 25.7 < 30kN

(2) Standard loading 25.7 < 30.5 kN

(For buckling).

(3) Maximum force 5.0 < 6.25 kN

in bracing (Coupler slip)

(4) Factor of safety for stability 10.3 > 1.4

HENCE DESIGN IS SAFE PROVIDED BRACING IS ATTACHED AT THE

CENTRAL FRAME NODE. Failure to do this increases the effective
standard length to 3360 mm, reducing the allowable standard load to
about 10kN. 25.7 kN is the actual standard loading.

b. Vertical loading 270 kN.

(1) Baseplate loading 44.5 > 30kN

(2) Standard loading 44.5 > 30.5 kN

(For buckling)

(3) Maximum force in 5.9 < 6.25 kN

bracing (Coupler slip)

(4) Factor of safety for stability 19.0 > 1.4

HENCE THE DESIGN IS UNSAFE FOR BASEPLATES AND

STANDARDS

(5) If baseplates are available which have a safe working load greater
than 44.5 kN then the design can be made safe using four ledgers
and reducing the effective standard length to 1100 mm. The
allowable standard load is then increased to 44.5 kN (the required
loading). (See Figure 11/2).

Note: Only minor changes in geometry and loading will cause couplers
to fail. Hence, for this structure, an increase in bracing might be
considered. Suitable methods are:

(a) Brace central frame.

(b) Double up couplers on bracing.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03
11-38
 (c) Double brace outer frames.

(6) Adjustable baseplates to BS 1139 will be overloaded. The

scaffold should be redesigned using more standards under the
OP walls in order to reduce the standard loading to below 30 kN.

(7) The initial check against 'A brief guide to good practice' did, in
fact, indicate the shortcomings of the proposed scaffold. The
scaffold geometry would normally be adjusted after the initial
check. A full check would not normally be carried out if the
scaffold was likely to prove unsatisfactory.

1162. Spare.
to
1164.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-39

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
11-40
 SECTION 11.5 HORIZONTALLY LOADED
STRUCTURES
1165. Basic components. The basic components of a horizontally loaded
structure are shown in Figure 11/8.

Fig 11/8. The basic components of a horizontally loaded structure.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-41

1166. A brief guide to good practice.

a. Common scaffolding tubing.

(1) Steel (Grade 13), 48.3 mm OD, 4.0 mm wall thickness.

(2) Aluminium alloy (HV 30-WP) 48.3 mm OD, 4.47 mm wall

thickness.

b. Selection of tubing. Steel tubing is to be preferred.

c. Mixing of steel and aluminium tubing. Tube types should not be mixed
in the same structure.

d. Sheeting.

(1) 22 or 24 gauge cladding using hook bolts as shown in Figure

11/6. (End lap = 150 mm and Side lap = 2 corrugations).

(2) Arrange end laps over sheeting rails.

(3) Maximum unsupported span is about 1.6 metres.

e. Sheeting rails.

(1) Must be attached to main frames by right angle couplers.

(2) Sheeting rails should be connected by sleeve couplers. Joint pins

must not be used.

(3) Maximum span is about 2.5 metres.

f. Vertical tubes.

(1) Sheeting rails should only be attached at or close to structural

nodes. Vertical tubes should not be subjected to bending.

(2) Tensile and compressive forces must be effectively transferred to

the foundations.

g. Raking tubes.

(1) As the tubes are generally eccentrically loaded by coupler offset,

the maximum distance between effectively restrained structural
nodes is about three metres.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-42
 (2) If connected to driven tubes as anchorages, they must be as
close as possible to the foundation.

(3) Tensile and compressive forces must be effectively transferred to

the foundations.

h. Foundations.

(1) Foundations may be formed from driven tubes, screw anchors or

concrete.

(2) If concrete is used, at least 300 mm of the tubing should be

embedded to ensure that forces are safely transferred from the
tubing to the foundations.

(3) Uplift forces are large and seldom less than 53 kN. If concrete
foundations are used a volume of about 0.5m will normally be
required for each foundation block.

i. Longitudinal bracing. Brace end bays and thereafter every fifth bay.

j. Summary. The guide is summarized in Figure 11/9.

Fig 11/9. Guide to good practice.

1167. Spare.
to
1170.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-43

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
11-44
 SECTION 11.6 DETAILED DESIGN PROCEDURE -
HORIZONTALLY LOADED
STRUCTURE
1171. Design procedure. The detailed design procedure for a horizontally
loaded structure, a cover from view screen, is given in Paragraph 1176
onwards with a worked example in Paragraph 1188 onwards.

1172. Materials.

a. Common scaffolding tubes. The common scaffolding tube sizes

available are:

(1) Steel (Grade 13 to BS 1775)

(Grade 40 to BS 4360)
48.3 mm OD
4 mm wall thickness (8 SWG)
(Full details and specification given in Sect 11.3.)

(2) Aluminium alloy (HV 30-WP to BS 1474)

(HV20-WP to BS 1474)
48.3 mm OD
4.74 mm wall thickness (7 SWG)
(Full details and specification given in Section 11.3).

b. Other scaffolding tubes. For technical data on other tubes see

manufacturers technical data sheets.

c. Straightness of tubes. Tubing may not deviate from the straight by

more than 1/600 of its length.

d. Tube lengths. A typical distribution of the scaffold tube stocks held by a

scaffolding company is listed below:

ft m
21 6.40 )
20 6.10 ) 40% of stock

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-45

 18 5.49 )
16 4.88 )
14 4.27 )
12 3.66 )
10 3.05 ) 35% of stock
9 2.74 )
8 2.44 )
7 2.13 )
6 1.83 )
25% of stock
5 1.52 )

e. Corrosion of tubes. Corrosion depends on the period of exposure and

the prevailing atmosphere. Corrosion takes place most quickly in
coastal and industrial areas. Generally, more corrosion occurs on the
outside than the inside of a tube, with the heaviest corrosion occurring
at the tube ends.

f. Proprietary scaffolding systems. Systems are available for horizontally

loaded structures.

If a proprietary scaffolding system is to be used NO RELIABLE DESIGN

CAN BE CARRIED OUT WITHOUT CONSULTING THE
MANUFACTURERS INSTRUCTIONS.

g. Couplers.

(1) At the time of construction tubes should be grease free and

unpainted. If tubing is painted before erection only half the safe
slip load, given in Section 11.3, should be used in design.

(2) Design data, for couplers in steel or aluminium alloy to BS 1139 is

given in Section 11.3. Full details of safe working loads and
safety factors are given for the most important couplers. Couplers
should be tightened using a swing-over spanner to between 68
Nm and 95 Nm depending on the make of coupler.

(3) Modern fittings are usually well protected from corrosion. They
are unlikely to need discarding due to corrosion alone. Over-
tightening can cause damage, but excessive throwing or
'bombing' causes the most damage. Bombing can induce hair
line fractures which lead to the failure of fittings.

h. Cladding. See Section 11.3 for design data and fixing details. 24
gauge sheeting is often used although SGB recommend 22 gauge
sheeting.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-46
1173. Selection of correct scaffolding tube.

a. Deflection. Steel has a modulus of elasticity three times that of

aluminium alloy. Many parts of screen structures are subjected to
bending stresses. There is little difference in strength between steel
and aluminium alloy tubes if they are used as beams. However, the
deflections for aluminium alloy tubes will be:

EI (Steel) = 21 x 14 = 2.76 x the deflections for steel tubes

EI (Alloy) 7.1 x 15

Large deflections can cause problems due to vibration and noise. In

general steel tubing should be preferred to aluminium alloy. Steel
tubing is certainly stronger in compression for the high slenderness
ratios common in screen structures.

b. Mixing tube types. Steel and alumium alloy tubing should not be
incorporated into the same structure. The differences in tube deflection
under load can adversely affect the distribution of forces within a
structure.

c. Fatigue. Aluminium alloy tubing is more prone to fatigue failure than

steel tubing. However, this is unlikely to be significant in the field.

1174. Vertical loading.

a. Dead loads. The mass of tubing, couplers, sheeting, hook bolts, etc is
given in Section 11.3.

b. Imposed loads. Structures of this type are seldom subjected to vertical

loading. In some circumstances snow and ice loading may be relevant.

c. Wind loads. Vertically sheeted structures are unlikely to be subjected to

significant uplift forces from the wind but overturning forces can be
significant.

1175. Horizontal loading.

a. Wind loads. For wind blowing perpendicular to sheeting (see ME Vol III
Part 1 and Chapter 4).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-47

 b. Other horizontal loading. Wind loads will almost certainly constitute the
dominant horizontal force. Impact loads may have to be considered but
are unlikely to control the design of a structure. Occasionally snow drift
loading may occur, but the forces on the cladding are unlikely to exceed
the wind load forces.

1176. Selection of scaffold geometry.

a. The following general principles should be adhered to:

(1) The bending moments in the members of the main support

frames should be reduced to a minimum. Raking tubes should,
therefore, meet the vertical tubes at, or close to, the nodes where
loads are applied by the sheeting rails. Alternatively, vertical truss
frames should be formed. Sheeting rails should be attached to
the nodes of these frames.

(2) The frame geometry which requires the preparation of the

minimum number of anchorages should be selected.

(3) The minimum practicable depth of screen is usually to be

preferred because it prevents undue obstruction of the space
behind the screen.

b. Practical considerations which may restrict the design are:

(1) The maximum tube lengths which are available. (It is undesirable
to splice tubes within the frames).

(2) The length and gauge of the cladding sheets which are available.

c. Having decided the general form of the structure, the design details will
follow automatically if the designer proceeds in the sequence listed in
this section. There are no arbitrary rules laid down in British Standards
and Codes of Practice which control the dimensions of screen
structures.

1177. Sheeting details.

a. Normally select sheeting from Paragraphs 1138 and 1139.

b. Hook bolts are normally used and should be located as detailed in

Figure 11/8.

c. Note that sheeting rails are located behind the overlap.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-48
1178. Sheeting design.

a. The sheeting strength controls the sheeting rail spacing.

b. Maximum sheeting span is controlled by either:

limiting bending stress = BMmax

Z
or limiting deflection = Span
100

c. For simplicity it is normal to assume sheeting is simply supported.

Hence:
2
BMmax = wL
8
4
Deflection = 5wL
384EI
d. For cantilever ends:
2
BMmax = wL
2

and
4
Deflection = wL
8EI
2
a maximum bending moment of wL is sometimes assumed to account for
10

continuity of the sheeting and this will increase the allowable span by

√10 = 1.12 or √10/√8 = 1.2

√ 8

(Where w = the wind load per unit length)

1179. Sheeting rail design.

a. As the sheet strength controls the sheeting rail spacing, so the sheeting
rail strength controls the frame spacing.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-49

 b. Maximum sheeting rail span is controlled by the allowable bending
stress = BMmax
Z

(A deflection limit is not normally specified).

c. For simplicity it is normal to assume the sheeting rails are simply

supported:
2
BMmax = wL
8
Where w = the wind load force applied per unit length of sheeting rail
2
and l = the span between main frames). A maximum moment of wL
10
is sometimes assumed to account for the continuity of the sheeting rails
and will increase the allowable span by 1.12.

d. Sheeting rails must be connected to the main frames with right angle
couplers. Putlog, rafter, finial, etc, couplers should not be used.

e. Because sheeting rails are subjected to bending stresses, they should

be connected by sleeve couplers. Joint pins (expanding spigots) must
not be subjected to bending.

1180. Vertical tubes.

a. Because tubing is weak in bending sheeting rail loads should only be

applied to structural nodes. (ie where raking tubes meet the vertical
tubes). Coupler offset introduces eccentric loads in the vertical tubes
due to forces in the raking tubes. If sheeting rails are not connected to
structural nodes, the vertical tubes are subjected to combined bending
(about two axes) and axial stresses; failure of the tubing is likely.

b. Provided sheeting rails are attached at the nodes, the effective length of
the vertical tubes between the sheeting rails is, in general, shorter than
the effective length of the raking struts. Hence failure of the vertical
tubes under axial load is unlikely to limit a screen design.

c. Vertical tubes are subjected to both tensile and compressive stresses.

Splices in these tubes will weaken the structure and should, therefore,
be avoided. If a splice is made, a sleeve coupler should be used
(expanding spigot couplers are not designed to resist tensile forces).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-50
 d. Tensile forces should be effectively transferred to the foundations. If a
concrete foundation is used a 300 mm embedment length should be
adequate.

1181. Raking tubes.

a. The load applied by the sheet rail is transferred to the raking tubes
through either swivel or right angle couplers. It may be necessary to
use more than one coupler to ensure that this load can be transferred
without exceeding the allowable coupler slip load.

b. Raking tubes are eccentrically loaded due to coupler offset. Hence the
allowable axial load should be obtained from Figure 11/3. A coupler
offset of 64 mm has been assumed in preparing the design curves.
Note that 25 percent overstress is allowed when stresses are due to
wind loading.

c. The effective length of raking tubes should be taken as the distance

between nodes effectively restrained in two directions, as shown in
Figure 11/10.

(a) Effective Length = 2b

(b) Effective Length still equalls 2b
because the horizontal ledger is not
braced to prevent lateral movement.

(c) Effective Length = b

Fig 11/10. Effective length of raking tubes.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-51

 d. The foundation of the raking tubes requires careful detailing. The
following points should be noted.

(1) Attach raking tube close to the ground to avoid introducing

bending movements in foundation tubes:

High bending moment

causes tube failure

High bending moment

causes tube failure

POOR BETTER (little bending)

POOR BETTER (little bending)

(2) More than one coupler may be required to transfer the load to the
foundation without slip.

1182. Foundations.

a. The foundations of a screen structure must resist very large forces:

0
30

0
30
Average bond stress for
1:2:4 concrete is 827kN/m2
A 300mm embedment length
is Average
generallybond stress for
adequate
1:2:4 concrete is 827kN/m2
A 300mm embedment length
is generally adequate

GOOD (no bending)

GOOD (no bending)

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-52
 b. The uplift force on the foundation can be analysed as follows:
w

W
∴ W = wh
2

2a

Where w = Wind load/unit height

W = Break out force for foundation.

The weight of the scaffolding and sheeting generally has little influence on
the overturning stability of a screen and it can usually be ignored.

At failure - taking moments about O

2
wh = Wa
2

c. The overall factor of safety against overturning should be 1.4.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-53

 d. Possible foundation arrangements are shown below:

SCREW ANCHOR DRIVEN TUBE

Concrete density
(Unreinforced)
= 23.4kN/m3

Assume concrete
is grade 20

e. The approximate bearing capacity of soil can be obtained from ME Vol

IV. A conservative value for the allowable bearing stress which can be
2.
used for initial design work is 160 kN/m .

1183. Longitudinal bracing.

a. Longitudinal bracing is required:

(1) To resist wind forces applied along the screen.

(2) To prevent lateral buckling when the raking tubes are loaded.
(See Paragraph 1185c).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-54
 b. The friction drag acting on the cladding is given by:

F' = Cf q 2hd

where, F' = frictional drag

Cf = 0.02 for surfaces with corrugations across the wind

direction.

q = dynamic pressure

h = height of screen

d = length of screen

c. The percentage of the load in the raking tubes which may be taken by
the longitudinal bracing is three percent.

d. A 'rule of thumb' which should normally provide adequate longitudinal

bracing is: brace the end bays and thereafter brace every fifth bay.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-55

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
11-56
 SECTION 11.7 HORIZONTALLY LOADED
STRUCTURE - DESIGN EXAMPLE

1184. Design example - cover from view screen. Design a 6 m high (approx)
2
cover from view screen to withstand a wind load of 1.2 kN/m . The
2
cladding is to withstand a local wind load of 1.34 kN/m .

1185. Brief guide to good practice. The question asks for a design from first
principles. The 'brief guide' can aid the designer in the selection of a
suitable structural form, but basically it is an aid to checking, rather than
designing, a structure.

1186. Assumptions.

a. Only common steel scaffolding tube and fittings are available.

b. Galvanised corrugated cladding sheets are available as detailed in para

1138.

c. The maximum length of tube available is 6.4 metres.

1187. Structural form. The principles are illustrated in Figure 11/9 and should
be followed.

1188. Height of screen. If a sheeting overlap of 150 mm is to be used as

detailed in Figures 11/6 and 11/9, then there are two reasonable
combinations of sheeting length which can be specified from the materials
available.

a. 2 x 3.05 - 0.15 = 5.95 metres.

b. 2.44 + 3.66 - 0.15 = 5.95 metres.

Whichever combination is chosen the screen height = 5.95 metres.

As a ledger must be located under the sheeting overlap, the final selection
of the sheeting system to be adopted depends on the ledger spacing.

1189. Spacing of sheeting rails.

a. Spacing depends on:

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-57

 2
(1) Allowable bending stress, f, (see Paragraph 1139) = 96.67 N/mm
2
x 1.25 = 121 N/mm .

(25 percent overstress allowed because loading is due to wind).

(2) Acceptable deflection = Span

100

b. If span between sheeting rails is to be limited by the allowable bending

stress.

2
BMmax = ___
wL (Assumed simply supported)
8

and Bending stress = fZ

2
wL = fZ for the limiting case.
___
8

Hence limiting span 1

/2
L= (
fxZx8
w )
3 3
Where Z = 3.6 x 10 mm (see Paragraph 1139)
2
w = 1.34 kN/m

Substituting wind loading and sheeting properties gives

3
(1.25 x 96.67) x (3.6 x 10 ) x 8 = 1612 mm
L=√ 1.34

c. Similarly considering the deflection limit:

4
Limiting case gives ___
L = 5wL
______ (see Table 5-2)
100 384 EI

( )
1
(384EI) /3
Hence limiting span L = (500 w)
5 2
Where E = 2.1 x 10 N/mm (see Table 5-4).
4 4
I = 3.41 x 10 mm (see Paragraph 1139).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-58
 ( )
5 4 1
384 x 2.1 x 10 x 3.41 x 10 /3
Substituting L = 500 x 1.34 = 1601mm

d. Similar calculations for the cantilevered ends of the sheeting give:

( )
1
fZ x 2 /2
for Stress limit, L= w = 806 mm
1

for Deflection limit, L= ( )

8EI
100w
/3 = 752 mm

e. Summary of sheeting rail spacing limits:

Maximum span for Maximum span for Limiting spans

Support allowable bending allowable deflection to be used
condition stress in sheeting of sheeting in design

Simply
1612 1601 1600
supported

Cantilever 806 752 750

1190. Selection of a suitable sheeting rail layout.

a. Height of screen = 5.9 metres

b. Sheeting system = 3.6 metres + 2.44

c. Sheeting overlap = 200 mm

d. Sheeting system selected requires fewer ledgers than the 3.05 + 3.05
sheeting option.

1191. Spacing of frames.

Limiting sheeting rail span:

1

( )
fZ x 8 /2
L= W

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-59

 Where
2
f = 139N/mm (see Table 11-3) x 1.25 (Overstress allowance for wind)

w= 1.2 x 1.6 N/mm (loading on each rail).

3 3
Z = 5.8 x 10 mm (see Table 11-1).

( )
3
139 x 1.25 x 5.8 x 10 x 8 1/2 = 2049 mm
L= 1.2 x 1.6

Hence let frame spacing = 2.05 metres

1192. Forces applied to frames by sheeting rails. Sheeting rails are assumed
to be loaded by the forces applied to the sheeting between the dotted lines.
this is the simplest design assumption to use. More accurate procedures
are available if required.

1193. Frame geometry. An arrangement of raking tubes will be selected. A

vertical truss arrangement could be equally satisfactory.

a. Maximum effective length of top raking tube. Assume:

(1) Foundation embedment = 300 mm

2
(If safe average bond stress for concrete = 827 kN/m
then force in tube may not exceed
-3
G x 48.3 x 10 x 0.3 x 827 = 38 kN)

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-60
 0.75
1.2 x 2.05 0.75 + 1.60
( ) = 3.81kN
2
1.6
0.2m

1.2 x 2.05 0.75 + 1.6+1.6

( ) = 3.94kN
2
1.6

1.2 x 2.05 0.75 + 1.6+1.6

( ) = 3.94kN
2
1.6

1.2 x 2.05 0.35 + 1.60

( ) = 2.83kN
2
0.35

(2) Allow 200 mm to attach couplers including check couplers at

upper node.

Hence maximum available length of tube = 6.40- 0.3 - 0.2 = 5.9

metres

b. Maximum distance from screen to foundation, dmax, is controlled by

the available lengths of tube.
2 2 1
Here, dmax = (5.9 - 5.15 ) /2 = 2.88m

Top sheeting rail

5.9
5.15

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 d max

11-61
 d max

c. Minimum distance from screen to foundation, dmin, is controlled by

coupler slip.

(1) For a single coupler: 3.81kN

6.23kN Sinθ = 3.81
θ = 37.702°
θ Coupler slip load (P)

d min = 5.15 Tan 37.702°

= 3.98m

P
5.15m

As 3.981 m > 2.88 m (d max) there d min is no acceptable location for the
foundation if only single couplers are used at the top node.

(2) For a coupler prevented from movement by a further check

coupler (located to prevent slip whatever the direction of the
wind):

2 x 6.23 Sin θ = 3.81 kN

θ = 17.805°

dmin = 5.15 x Tan θ = 1.65 metres (< 2.88)

d. The foundation must be located between 1.65 metres and 2.88 metres
from the screen. Similar calculations to those above indicate that a
single coupler will be adequate to connect the second raking tube, when
d = 2.9 metres

hence locate foundation at dmax = 2.9 metres

e. The final details of the frame geometry are controlled by the maximum
acceptable effective lengths of the raking tubes:

(1) Effective length = distance between effectively restrained nodes.

(2) The maximum allowable effective length can be taken from Figure
11/3. Note that coupler offset applies an eccentric load to the
tube. (Some coupler types may have an eccentricity of greater
than the 64 mm assumed in the construction of this graph).

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-62
 3.81kN

θ1
3.94kN

h = 5.15
θ2

l1

l2
3.94kN

h = 3.35
A l3 θ3

h = 1.95
A
2.83kN

2.9

Considering forces in frame.

2
w =1.2kN/m
Force in Vertical force Maximum
Raking raking applied to allowable
Tube tube Standard effective
length
l= θ= =P =P
2 2 1 -1
(h + 2.9 ) /2 Tan 2.9 Sin θ Tan θ (Fig 11/3)
(m) h (kN) (kN) (m)
5.9
Top 5.910 29.38° 7.765 6.766 3.00+<5.910

Centre 4.584 39.25° 6.228 4.823 3.75+<4.584

Bottom 3.495 56.08° 4.748 2.649 3.92*>3.495

Note: (i) + Bracing

0 is required
2.9
(ii) * __
le (Max) = ______
3.92 = 250 (maximum value aceptable to BS 449).
W
ry 0.0157
(iii) Note that a bracing tube (dotted) is required to reduce the effective length
of the raking tubes.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-63

 h=
3.94kN

h = 3.35
(4) NoteA that the vertical θ3 applied to the standard by the top
l3 load

h = 1.95
raking tube is 6.766 > 6.23 kN (the allowable slip load of a single
coupler). Hence check couplers Aare required
2.83kN to prevent slip on
the vertical tube.

(5) Considering the embedment length in foundation a check coupler

is required to prevent vertical slip of top raking tube:
2.9
7.765 < 38 kN ∴ satisfactory

1194. Foundation design.

a. The uplift force on the foundation is:

w =1.2kN/m2

5.9

0 2.9
W

Taking Moments about 0 for a single frame:

2 2 2
1.2 kN/m x 2.05 m x 5.9 m = W x 2.9 m
2

∴ W = 14.76kN

The above calculation ignores the self weight of the screen but a check
shows:

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-64
 Tubing weight/frame = 1.002 kN 1.002
Sheeting rails = 0.443 kN 0.443
Coupler rails = 0.209 kN 0.209
Sheeting rails = 0.947 kN 0.947
Hook bolts rails = 0.020 kN 0.020
_____
2.621 kN/frame

Hence self weight will have little influence on stability.

b. If the foundation is to resist the break out force solely with weight of
3
concrete, the quantity of concrete required is 14.76 kN = 0.631 m
23.4kN/m3

(Note that 14.76 < 38kN, the force which may be safely resisted by a
tube embedment length of 300 mm).

c. Soil/concrete friction is assumed to improve the factor of safety against

overturning from 1.0 to 1.4.

1195. Longitudinal bracing.

2.05m
Section AA is at the mid
point of the 1st lift. Forces
above this section are Ø1
Ø2
resisted by the bracing.
6m

Forces below this section are

2.9

transferred directly to the

ground.

4.8m
Ø2
6m
2.9

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-65

 a. To resist longitudinal wind forces:
2
(1) Dynamic pressure, q = Windforce = 1.2 = 1.0kN/m
Force coefficient 1.2

(Where force coefficient is 1.2 for side aspect of frame (see Table
4-4).

(2) Friction drag on cladding/frame above section AA

2
= 0.02 x 1.0 kN/m x 2 x 4.93 x 2.05m/Frame = 0.404 kN. (see
para 1187).

(3) Force per frame (ignoring tube ends and couplers) above section
AA - by measurement on diagram above is
1.2 kN/m2 x (4.5 + 3.0 + 1.5 + 1.7 + 4.2) mx 0.048 = 0.858 kN

(4) Total longitudinal force/frame to be resisted by bracing is 0.40 +

0.858 = 1.262 kN.

(5) Angle of bracing.

-1
Ø1 = Tan 4.8 = 66.873 degrees
2.05
-1
Ø2 = Tan 2.96 = 55.995 degrees
2.05

(6) Longitudinal force which may be resisted before the couplers slip
= 6.23 kN (Cos Ø1 + Cos Ø2)

= 6.23 kN (0.393 + 0.559) = 5.931 kN

(7) Assuming bracing resists all longitudinal forces applied above

section AA, bracing must be located
5.931
_____ = 4.7 Say every 5th bay
1.262

b. Check spacing of bracing on raking tubes if designed for 3 percent of

axial load in top three raking struts.

Load in struts/frame = 7.77 + 6.23 = 14.00 kN/frame

3 percent frame = 0.03 x 14.00 = 0.42 kN/frame

Issue 1.1: Nov 03

11-66
 Hence allowable spacing for bracing

= 6.23 Cos Ø2
0.233

= 6.23 x 0.559 = 8.29 bays

0.233

as 8.29 > 5 this condition is not limiting.

1196. Final Design.

b. Foundations
(1) Concrete grade 20
0.75 (2) Volume/block 0.63m3
3 check
couplers
a. Sheeting
1.6

(1) Gauge 24
(2) Layout
and fixing
(3) Top Sheet 2.44m
(4) Bottom Sheet 3.66m
1.6

(5) Overlap 200mm

A
1.6

A
2.05 2.05
0.35

c. Sheeting Rails
Sleeve couplers only used in connecting
2.9
d. Bracing in end bays and thereafter in every 5th bay

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 11-67

 Issue 1.1: Nov 03
11-68
 TABLE A-1 GRADE STRESSES AND YOUNG'S MODULUS FOR TIMBER
BY STRENGTH CLASS IN WET EXPOSURE CONDITION

Compression Shear Young's Modulus

Bending Tension Approx
Ser Strength parallel parallel Parallel Perp Parallel Density
Mean Minimum
Class to grain to grain to grain to grain to grain
2 2 2 2 2 2 2 2 3
N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm N/mm kg/m

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1 SC1 2.2 1.8 2.1 0.7 0.41 5440 3600 540

2 SC2 3.3 2.0 3.3 1.0 0.59 6400 4000 540

3 SC3 4.2 2.6 4.1 1.0 0.60 7040 4640 540

4 SC4 6.0 3.6 4.7 1.1 0.64 7920 5280 590

5 SC5 8.0 4.8 5.2 1.4 0.90 8560 5680 590/760

6 SC6 10.0 6.0 7.5 1.7 1.35 11280 9440 840

7 SC7 12.0 7.2 8.7 2.0 1.58 12960 10880 960

8 SC8 14.0 8.4 9.9 2.3 1.80 14960 12480 1080

9 SC9 16.4 9.8 11.7 2.8 2.03 17280 14400 1200

ANNEX A
A-1
A-2
 TABLE B-1 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOFTWOODS

Section modulus Second moment of Radius of gyration

'Z' area 'I' 'r'
*Basic size Area Basic size
About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y
3 2 3 3 3 3 6 4 6 4
mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm mm mm mm

36 x 75 2.70 33.8 16.2 1.27 0.292 21.7 10.4 36 x 75

36 x 100 3.60 60.0 21.6 3.00 0.389 28.9 10.4 36 x 100
36 x 125 4.50 93.8 27.0 5.86 0.486 36.1 10.4 36 x 125
36 x 150 5.40 135 32.4 10.1 0.583 43.3 10.4 36 x 150
38 x 75 2.85 35.6 18.1 1.34 0.343 21.7 11.0 38 x 75
38 x 100 3.80 63.3 24.1 3.17 0.457 28.9 11.0 38 x 100
38 x 125 4.75 99.0 30.1 6.18 0.572 36.1 11.0 38 x 125
38 x 150 5.70 143 36.1 10.7 0.686 43.3 11.0 38 x 150
38 x 175 6.65 194 42.1 17.0 0.800 50.5 11.0 38 x 175
38 x 200 7.60 253 48.1 25.3 0.915 57.7 11.0 38 x 200
38 x 225 8.55 321 54.2 36.1 1.03 65.0 11.0 38 x 225
44 x 75 3.30 41.3 24.2 1.55 0.532 21.7 12.7 44 x 75
44 x 100 4.40 73.3 32.3 3.67 0.710 28.9 12.7 44 x 100
44 x 125 5.50 115 40.3 7.16 0.887 36.1 12.7 44 x 125
44 x 150 6.60 165 48.4 12.4 1.06 43.3 12.7 44 x 150
44 x 175 7.70 225 56.5 19.7 1.24 50.5 12.7 44 x 175
44 x 200 8.80 293 64.5 29.3 1.42 57.7 12.7 44 x 200
44 x 225 9.90 371 72.6 41.8 1.60 65.0 12.7 44 x 225

ANNEX B
44 x 250 11.0 458 80.7 57.3 1.77 72.2 12.7 44 x 250
44 x 300 13.2 660 96.8 99.0 2.13 86.6 12.7 44 x 300
B-1

*Basic size measured at 20 per cent moisture content.

B-2
TABLE B-1 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOFTWOODS (Contd)

Section modulus Second moment of Radius of gyration

'Z' area 'I' 'r'
*Basic size Area Basic size
About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y
3 2 3 3 3 3 6 4 6 4
mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm mm mm mm

47 x 75 3.53 44.1 27.6 1.65 0.649 21.7 13.6 47 x 75

47 x 100 4.70 78.3 36.8 3.92 0.865 28.9 13.6 47 x 100
47 x 125 5.88 122 46.0 7.65 1.08 36.1 13.6 47 x 125
47 x 150 7.05 176 55.2 13.2 1.30 43.3 13.6 47 x 150
47 x 175 8.23 240 64.4 21.0 1.51 50.5 13.6 47 x 175
47 x 200 9.40 313 73.6 31.3 1.73 57.7 13.6 47 x 200
47 x 225 10.6 397 82.8 44.6 1.95 65.0 13.6 47 x 225
47 x 250 11.8 490 92.0 61.2 2.16 72.2 13.6 47 x 250
47 x 300 14.1 705 110 106 2.60 86.6 13.6 47 x 300
50 x 75 3.75 46.9 31.3 1.76 0.781 21.7 14.4 50 x 75
50 x 100 5.00 83.3 41.7 4.17 1.04 28.9 14.4 50 x 100
50 x 125 6.25 130 52.1 8.14 1.30 36.1 14.4 50 x 125
50 x 150 7.50 188 62.5 14.1 1.56 43.3 14.4 50 x 150
50 x 175 8.75 255 72.9 22.3 1.82 50.5 14.4 50 x 175
50 x 200 10.0 333 83.3 33.3 2.08 57.7 14.4 50 x 200
50 x 225 11.3 422 93.8 47.5 2.34 65.0 14.4 50 x 225
50 x 250 12.5 521 104 65.1 2.60 72.2 14.4 50 x 250
50 x 300 15.0 750 125 113 3.13 86.6 14.4 50 x 300
63 x 100 6.30 105 66.2 5.25 2.08 28.9 18.2 63 x 100
63 x 125 7.88 164 82.7 10.3 2.60 36.1 18.2 63 x 125
*Basic size measured at 20 per cent moisture content.
 TABLE B-1 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOFTWOODS (Contd)

Section modulus Second moment of Radius of gyration

'Z' area 'I' 'r'
*Basic size Area Basic size
About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y
3 2 3 3 3 3 6 4 6 4
mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm mm mm mm

63 x 150 7.88 164 82.7 10.3 2.60 36.1 18.2 63 x 125

63 x 150 9.45 236 99.2 17.7 3.13 43.3 18.2 63 x 150
63 x 175 11.0 322 116 28.1 3.65 50.5 18.2 63 x 175
63 x 200 12.6 420 132 42.0 4.17 57.7 18.2 63 x 200
63 x 225 14.2 532 149 59.8 4.69 65.0 18.2 63 x 225

75 x 100 7.50 125 93.8 6.25 3.52 28.9 21.7 75 x 100

75 x 125 9.38 195 117 12.2 4.39 36.1 21.7 75 x 125
75 x 150 11.3 281 141 21.1 5.27 43.3 21.7 75 x 150
75 x 175 13.1 383 164 33.5 6.15 50.5 21.7 75 x 175
75 x 200 15.0 500 188 50.0 7.03 57.7 21.7 75 x 200
75 x 225 16.9 633 211 71.2 7.91 65.0 21.7 75 x 225
75 x 250 18.8 781 234 97.7 8.79 72.2 21.7 75 x 250
75 x 300 22.5 1130 281 169 10.5 86.6 21.7 75 x 300

100 x 100 10.0 167 167 8.33 8.33 28.9 28.9 100 x 100
100 x 150 15.0 375 250 28.1 12.5 43.3 28.9 100 x 150
100 x 200 20.0 667 333 66.7 16.7 57.7 28.9 100 x 200
100 x 250 25.0 1040 417 130 20.8 72.2 28.9 100 x 250
100 x 300 30.0 1500 500 225 25.0 86.6 28.9 100 x 300
B-3

*Basic size measured at 20 per cent moisture content.

B-4
TABLE B-1 GEOMETRICAL PROPERTIES OF SOFTWOODS (Contd)

Section modulus Second moment of Radius of gyration

'Z' area 'I' 'r'
*Basic size Area Basic size
About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y About x-x About y-y
3 2 3 3 3 3 6 4 6 4
mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm 10 mm mm mm mm

150 x 150 22.5 563 563 42.2 42.2 43.3 43.3 150 x 150
150 x 200 30.0 1000 750 100 56.3 57.7 43.3 150 x 200
150 x 300 45.0 2250 1130 338 84.4 86.6 43.3 150 x 300

200 x 200 40.0 1330 1330 133 133 57.7 57.7 200 x 250

250 x 250 62.5 2600 2600 326 326 72.2 72.2 250 x 250

300 x 300 90.0 4500 4500 675 675 86.6 86.6 300 x 300

*Basic size measured at 20 per cent moisture content.

 ANNEX C
DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF STEEL
SECTIONS
Throughout the tables in this Annex:

a. Moment of Inertia is sometimes used to denote Second Moment of

Area.

b. When ordering in the UK use serial sizes and the weight (Columns b &
c).

c. To estimate the properties of a section of unknown origin find an

equivalent in the tables using depth, width, thickness and weight adding
a reasonable safety factor in calculations.

d. To order materials when overseas calculate the design using the tables
and note the dimensions and weights of the selected sections. If there
are no direct equivalents, take slightly heavier or larger sections and
allow for their weight in calculations. A large steel stockist may be able
to use the Moment of Inertia, Radius of Gyration, Elastic Modulus and
D/T of the selected sections to supply the local equivalents.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 C-1

TABLE C-1 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
UNIVERSAL BEAMS

Ser Serial Mass Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Area

Size per of of radius between of
metre section section Web Flange fillets section
D B t T r d
2
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1 914 x 419 388 920.5 420.5 21.5 36.6 24.1 791.4 493.9
343 911.4 418.5 19.4 32.0 24.1 791.4 436.9

2 914 x 305 289 926.6 307.8 19.6 32.0 19.1 819.1 368.5
253 918.5 305.5 17.3 27.9 19.1 819.1 322.5
224 910.3 304.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 819.1 284.9
201 903.0 303.4 15.2 20.2 19.1 819.1 256.1

3 838 x 292 226 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 17.8 756.5 288.4
194 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 756.5 246.9
176 834.9 291.6 14.0 18.8 17.8 756.5 223.8

4 762 x 267 197 769.6 268.0 15.6 25.4 16.5 681.0 250.5
173 762.0 266.7 14.3 21.8 16.5 681.0 220.2
147 753.9 265.3 12.9 17.5 16.5 681.0 187.8

5 686 x 254 170 692.9 255.8 14.5 23.7 15.2 610.5 216.3
152 687.6 254.5 13.2 21.0 15.2 610.5 193.6
140 683.5 253.7 12.4 19.0 15.2 610.5 178.4
125 677.9 253.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 610.5 159.4

6 914 x 419 388 920.5 420.5 21.5 36.6 24.1 799.1 494
343 911.4 418.5 19.4 32.0 24.1 799.1 437

7 914 x 305 289 926.6 307.8 19.6 32.0 19.1 824.5 369
253 918.5 305.5 17.3 27.9 19.1 824.5 323
224 910.3 304.1 15.9 23.9 19.1 824.5 285
201 903 303.4 15.2 20.2 19.1 824.5 256

8 838 x 292 226 850.9 293.8 16.1 26.8 17.8 761.7 289
194 840.7 292.4 14.7 21.7 17.8 761.7 247
176 834.9 291.6 14.0 18.8 17.8 761.7 224
Serials 1 to 5 relate to Universal Beams with tapered flanges.
Issue 1.1: Nov 03
C-2
 Second Moment of Area (I) Radius of Elastic Modulus
gyration (r) (Z) Ratio
Axis x-x
Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis D
Gross Net y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y T
4 4 4 3 3
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
(k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s)

1 717325 642716 42481 38.1 9.27 15600 2020 25.2

523866 559325 36251 37.8 9.11 13700 1730 28.5

2 503781 437862 14793 37.0 6.34 10900 961 29.0

435796 379081 12512 36.8 6.23 9490 819 32.9
375111 327298 10425 36.3 6.05 8240 586 36.1
324715 284809 8632 35.8 5.81 7190 569 44.7

3 339130 315154 10661 34.3 6.08 7970 726 31.8

278833 259610 8384 33.6 5.83 6830 574 36.7
245412 228889 7111 33.1 5.64 5880 487 44.4

4 239464 221138 7899 30.9 5.54 6220 575 30.3

204747 189347 6376 30.5 5.38 5370 478 38.3
168536 156195 5002 30.0 5.16 4470 377 43.1

5 169843 156120 6225 28.0 5.36 4900 487 29.2

150015 137962 6391 27.8 5.28 4380 424 32.7
135972 125170 4789 27.6 5.18 3980 377 36.0
117700 108590 3992 27.2 5.00 3470 315 41.9

6 719000 644000 45400 38.1 9.58 15600 2160 25.2

625000 561000 39300 37.8 9.46 13700 1870 28.5

7 505000 439000 15600 37.0 6.51 10900 1010 29.0

437000 380000 13300 36.8 6.42 9510 872 32.9
376000 328000 11200 36.3 6.27 8260 738 38.1
326000 286000 9430 35.6 6.06 7210 621 44.7

8 340000 316000 11400 34.3 6.27 7990 773 31.8

279000 260000 9070 33.6 6.06 6650 620 38.7
246000 229000 7790 33.1 5.90 5890 534 44.4

In calculating the net second moment of area, each flange of 300 mm or greater
width is reduced by two holes, and each flange less than 300 mm wide by one hole.
C-3
TABLE C-1 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
UNIVERSAL BEAMS (Contd)

Ser Serial Mass Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Area

Size per of of radius between of
metre section section Web Flange fillets section
D B t T r d
2
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

9 762 x 267 197 769.6 268.0 15.6 25.4 16.5 685.8 251
173 762.0 266.7 14.3 21.6 16.5 685.8 220
147 753.9 265.3 12.9 17.5 16.5 685.8 188
10 686 x 254 170 692.9 255.8 14.5 23.7 15.2 615.1 217
152 687.6 254.5 13.2 21.0 15.2 615.1 194
140 683.5 253.7 12.4 19.0 15.2 615.1 179
125 677.9 253.0 11.7 16.2 15.2 615.1 160
11 610 x 305 238 633.0 311.5 18.6 31.4 16.5 537.2 304
179 617.5 307.0 14.1 23.6 16.5 537.2 228
149 609.6 304.8 11.9 19.7 16.5 537.2 190
12 610 x 229 140 617.0 230.1 13.1 22.1 12.7 547.3 178
125 611.9 229.0 11.9 19.6 12.7 547.3 160
113 607.3 228.2 11.2 17.3 12.7 547.3 144
101 602.2 227.6 10.6 14.8 12.7 547.3 129
13 533 x 210 122 544.6 211.9 12.8 21.3 12.7 476.5 156
109 539.5 210.7 11.6 18.8 12.7 476.5 139
101 536.7 210.1 10.9 17.4 12.7 476.5 129
92 533.1 209.3 10.2 15.6 12.7 476.5 118
82 528.3 208.7 9.6 13.2 12.7 476.5 104
14 457 x 191 98 467.4 192.8 11.4 19.6 10.2 407.9 125
89 463.6 192.0 10.6 17.7 10.2 407.9 114
82 460.2 191.3 9.9 16.0 10.2 407.9 105
74 457.2 190.5 9.1 14.5 10.2 407.9 95.0
67 453.6 189.9 8.5 12.7 10.2 407.9 85.4
15 457 x 152 82 465.1 153.5 10.7 18.9 10.2 407.0 104
74 461.3 152.7 9.9 17.0 10.2 407.0 95.0
67 457.2 151.9 9.1 15.0 10.2 407.0 85.4
60 4454.7 152.9 8.0 13.3 10.2 407.0 75.9
52 449.8 152.4 7.6 10.9 10.2 407.0 66.5

C-4
 Radius of Elastic Modulus
Second Moment of Area (I) Ratio
gyration (r) (Z)
Ser Axis x-x Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis D
Gross Net y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y T
4 4 4 3 3
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

(k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s)

9 240000 222000 8170 30.9 5.71 6230 610 30.3

205000 190000 6850 30.5 5.57 5390 513 35.3
169000 157000 5470 30.0 5.39 4480 412 43.0
10 170000 156000 6620 28.0 5.53 4910 518 29.3
150000 138000 5780 27.8 5.46 4370 454 32.7
136000 125000 5180 27.6 5.38 3990 408 36.0
118000 109000 4380 27.2 5.24 3480 346 41.9
11 208000 178000 158000 26.1 7.22 6560 1020 20.2
152000 130000 11400 25.8 7.08 4910 743 26.1
125000 107000 9300 25.6 6.99 4090 610 31.0
12 11200 102000 4510 25.0 5.03 3630 392 27.9
98600 89600 3930 24.9 4.96 3220 344 31.2
87400 79600 3440 24.6 4.88 2880 301 35.1
75700 69100 2910 24.2 4.75 2510 256 40.7
13 76200 68600 3390 22.1 4.67 2800 320 25.5
66700 60100 2940 21.9 4.60 2470 279 28.7
61700 55600 2690 21.8 4.56 2300 257 30.8
55400 49900 2390 21.7 4.51 2080 229 34.1
47500 42900 2010 21.3 4.38 1800 192 40.0
14 45700 40600 2340 19.1 4.33 1960 243 23.8
41000 36500 2090 19.0 4.28 1770 217 23.9
37100 33000 1870 18.8 4.23 1610 196 28.8
33400 29700 1670 18.7 4.19 1460 175 31.6
29400 26200 1450 18.5 4.12 1300 153 35.7
15 36200 32100 1140 18.6 3.31 1560 149 24.6
32400 28700 1010 18.5 3.26 1410 133 27.1
28600 25400 878 18.3 3.21 1250 116 30.5
25500 22500 794 18.3 3.23 1120 104 34.2
21300 19000 645 17.9 3.11 949 84.6 41.3

In calculating the net second moment of area, each flange of 300 mm or greater
width is reduced by two holes, and each flange less than 300 mm wide by one hole.

Issue 1.1: Nov 03 C-5

TABLE C-1 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
UNIVERSAL BEAMS (Contd)

Ser Serial Mass Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Area

Size per of of radius between of
metre section section Web Flange fillets section
D B t T r d
2
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
16 406 x 178 74 412.8 179.7 9.7 16.0 10.2 360.5 95.0
67 409.4 178.8 8.8 14.3 10.2 360.5 85.5
60 406.4 177.8 7.8 12.8 10.2 360.5 76.0
54 402.6 177.6 `7.6 10.9 10.2 360.5 68.4
17 406 x 140 46 402.3 142.4 6.9 11.2 10.2 359.7 59.0
39 397.3 141.8 6.3 8.6 10.2 359.7 49.4
18 356 x 171 67 364.0 173.2 9.1 15.7 10.2 312.3 85.4
57 358.6 172.1 8.0 13.0 10.2 312.3 72.2
51 355.6 171.5 7.3 11.5 10.2 312.3 64.6
45 352.0 171.0 6.9 9.7 10.2 312.3 57.0
19 356 x 127 39 352.8 126.0 6.5 10.7 10.2 311.2 49.4
33 348.5 125.4 5.9 8.5 10.2 311.2 41.8
20 305 x 165 54 310.9 166.8 7.7 13.7 8.9 265.7 68.4
46 307.1 165.7 6.7 11.8 8.9 265.7 58.9
40 303.8 165.1 6.1 10.2 8.9 265.7 51.5

21 305 x 127 48 310.4 125.2 8.9 14.0 8.9 264.6 60.8

42 306.6 124.3 8.0 12.1 8.9 264.6 53.2
37 303.8 123.5 7.2 10.7 8.9 264.6 47.5
22 305 x 100 33 312.7 102.4 6.6 10.8 7.6 275.9 41.8
28 308.9 101.9 6.1 8.9 7.6 275.9 36.3
25 304.8 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 275.9 31.4
23 255 x 145 43 259.6 147.3 7.3 12.7 7.6 218.9 55.1
37 256.0 146.4 6.4 10.9 7.6 218.9 47.5
31 251.5 146.1 6.1 8.6 7.6 218.9 40.0
24 255 x 100 28 260.4 102.1 6.4 10.0 7.6 225.1 36.2
25 257.0 101.9 6.1 8.4 7.6 225.1 32.2
22 254.0 101.6 5.8 6.8 7.6 225.1 28.4

25 205 x 135 30 206.8 133.8 6.3 9.6 7.6 172.3 38.0

25 203.2 133.4 5.8 7.8 7.6 172.3 32.2

Issue 1.1: Oct 03

C-6
 Radius of Elastic Modulus
Second Moment of Area (I) (Z)
gyration (r) Ratio
Axis x-x
Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis D
Gross Net y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y T
4 4 4 3 3
cm cm cm cm cm cm cm
(k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s)

16 27300 24000 1540 17.0 4.03 1320 172 25.9

24300 24100 1360 16.9 4.00 1190 153 28.6
21500 18900 1200 16.8 3.97 1060 135 31.8
18600 16500 1020 16.5 3.85 925 114 37.0
17 15600 13800 539 16.3 3.02 778 75.7 36.0
12500 11000 411 15.9 2.89 627 58.0 46.0
18 19500 17000 1360 15.1 3.99 1070 157 23.2
16100 14100 1110 14.9 3.92 896 129 27.5
14200 12400 968 14.8 3.87 796 113 30.9
12100 10800 812 14.6 3.78 687 95.0 36.2
19 10100 9210 357 14.3 2.69 572 56.6 33.1
8200 7510 280 14.0 2.59 471 44.7 41.0
20 11700 10100 1060 13.1 3.94 753 127 22.7
9950 8610 897 13.0 3.90 648 108 26.0
8520 7380 763 12.9 3.85 561 92.4 29.9
21 9500 8640 460 12.5 2.75 612 73.5 22.2
8140 7410 388 12.4 2.70 531 62.5 25.4
7160 6520 337 12.3 2.67 472 54.6 28.4
22 6490 5800 193 12.5 2.15 415 37.8 29.0
5420 4860 157 12.2 2.08 351 30.8 34.8
4390 3960 120 11.8 1.96 288 23.6 44.5
23 6560 5710 677 10.9 3.51 505 92.0 20.4
5560 4830 571 10.8 3.47 434 78.1 23.4
4440 3880 449 10.5 3.35 353 61.5 29.1
24 4010 3570 178 10.5 2.22 208 34.9 26.0
3410 3050 148 10.3 2.14 265 29.0 30.8
2870 2580 120 10.0 2.05 226 23.6 37.2
25 2890 2480 384 8.72 3.18 279 57.4 21.5
2360 2030 310 8.54 3.10 232 46.4 26.0

In calculating the net second moment of area, each flange of 300 mm or greater width is
reduced by two holes, and each flange less than 300 mm wide by one hole.
C-7
TABLE C-2 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
UNIVERSAL COLUMNS

Ser Serial Mass Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Area

Size per of of radius between of
metre section section Web Flange fillets section
D B t T r d
2
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)
1 356 x 406 634 474.7 424.1 47.6 77.0 15.2 290.2 808
551 455.7 418.5 42.0 67.5 15.2 290.2 702
467 436.6 412.4 35.9 58.0 15.2 290.2 595
393 419.1 407.0 30.6 49.2 15.2 290.2 501
340 406.4 403.0 26.5 42.9 15.2 290.2 433
287 393.7 399.0 22.6 36.5 15.2 290.2 366
235 381.0 395.0 18.5 30.2 15.2 290.2 300
2 356 x 368 202 374.7 374.4 16.8 27.0 15.2 290.2 258
177 368.3 372.1 14.5 23.8 15.2 290.2 226
153 362.0 370.2 12.6 20.7 15.2 290.2 195
129 355.6 368.3 10.7 17.5 15.2 290.2 165
3 305 x 305 283 365.3 321.8 26.9 44.1 15.2 246.6 360
240 352.6 317.9 23.0 37.7 15.2 246.6 306
198 339.9 314.1 19.2 31.4 15.2 246.6 252
158 327.2 310.6 15.7 25.0 15.2 246.6 201
137 320.5 308.7 13.8 21.7 15.2 246.6 175
118 314.5 306.8 11.9 18.7 15.2 246.6 150
97 307.8 304.8 9.9 15.4 15.2 246.6 123
4 254 x 254 167 289.1 264.5 19.2 31.7 12.7 200.3 212
132 276.4 261.0 15.6 25.3 12.7 200.3 169
107 266.7 258.3 13.0 20.5 12.7 200.3 137
89 260.4 255.9 10.5 17.3 12.7 200.3 114
73 254.0 254.0 8.6 14.2 12.7 200.3 92.9
5 203 x 203 86 222.3 208.8 13.0 20.5 10.2 160.9 110
71 215.9 206.2 10.3 17.3 10.2 160.9 91.1
60 209.6 205.2 9.3 14.2 10.2 160.9 75.8
52 206.2 203.9 8.0 12.5 10.2 160.9 66.4
46 203.2 203.2 7.3 11.0 10.2 160.9 58.8
6 152 x 152 37 161.8 154.4 8.1 11.5 7.6 123.5 47.4
30 157.5 152.9 6.6 9.4 7.6 123.5 38.2
23 152.4 152.4 6.1 6.8 7.6 123.5 29.8

C-8
 Radius of Elastic Modulus
Second Moment of Area (I) gyration (r) (Z) Ratio

Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis D

x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y T
4 4 3 3
cm cm cm cm cm cm

(k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)

1 275000 98200 18.5 11.0 11600 4630 6.2

227000 82700 18.0 10.9 9960 3950 6.7
183000 67900 17.5 10.7 8390 3290 7.5
147000 55400 17.1 10.5 7000 2720 8.5
122000 46800 16.8 10.4 6030 2320 9.5
100000 38700 16.5 10.3 5080 1940 10.8
79100 31000 16.2 10.2 4150 1570 12.5
2 66300 23600 16.0 9.57 3540 1260 13.9
57200 20500 15.9 9.52 3100 1100 15.5
48500 17500 15.8 9.46 2680 944 17.5
40200 14600 15.6 9.39 2260 790 20.3
3 78800 24500 14.8 8.25 4310 1530 8.3
64200 20200 14.5 8.14 3640 1270 9.3
50800 16200 14.2 8.02 2990 1030 10.8
38700 12500 13.9 7.89 2370 806 13.1
32800 10700 13.7 7.82 2050 691 14.7
27600 9010 13.6 7.75 1760 587 16.8
22200 7270 13.4 7.68 1440 477 20.0
4 29900 9800 11.9 6.79 2070 741 9.1
22600 7520 11.6 6.67 1630 576 10.9
17500 5900 11.3 6.57 1310 457 13.0
14300 4850 11.2 6.52 1100 379 15.0
11400 3870 11.1 6.46 894 305 17.9
5 9460 3120 9.27 5.32 851 299 10.8
7650 2540 9.16 5.28 708 246 12.4
6090 2040 8.96 5.19 581 199 14.8
5260 1770 8.90 5.16 510 174 16.5
4560 1540 8.81 5.11 449 151 18.5
6 2220 709 6.84 3.87 274 91.8 14.0
1740 558 6.75 3.82 221 73.1 16.8
1260 403 6.51 3.68 166 52.9 22.3

C-9
TABLE C-3 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
JOISTS

Ser Nominal Mass Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Area

Size per of of radius between of
metre section section Web Flange fillets section
D B t T r d
2
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1 254 x 203 81.85 254.0 203.2 10.2 19.9 19.6 166.7 104
254 x 114 37.20 254.0 114.3 7.6 12.8 12.4 199.2 47.4

2 203 x 152 52.09 203.2 152.4 8.9 16.5 15.5 133.3 66.4
203 x 102 25.33 203.2 101.6 5.8 10.4 9.4 161.1 32.3

3 178 x 102 21.54 177.8 101.6 5.3 9.0 9.4 138.3 27.4

4 152 x 127 37.20 152.4 127.0 10.4 13.2 13.5 94.4 47.5
152 x 89 17.09 152.4 88.9 4.9 8.3 7.9 117.8 21.8
152 x 76 17.86 152.4 76.2 5.8 9.6 9.4 112.0 22.8

5 127 x 114 29.76 127.0 114.3 10.2 11.5 9.9 79.4 37.3
26.79 127.0 114.3 7.4 11.4 9.9 79.5 34.1
127 x 76 16.37 127.0 76.2 5.6 9.6 9.4 86.6 21.0
13.36 127.0 76.2 4.5 7.6 7.9 94.2 17.0

6 114 x 114 26.79 114.3 114.3 9.5 10.7 14.2 60.9 34.4

7 102 x 102 23.07 101.6 101.6 9.5 10.3 11.1 55.2 29.4
102 x 64 9.65 101.6 63.5 4.1 6.6 6.9 73.2 12.3
102 x 44 7.44 101.6 44.5 4.3 6.1 6.9 74.7 9.48

8 89 X 89 19.35 88.9 88.9 9.5 9.9 11.1 44.2 24.9

9 76 X 76 14.67 76.2 80.0 8.9 8.4 9.4 38.1 19.1

12.65 76.2 76.2 5.1 8.4 9.4 38.0 16.3

C-10
 Radius of Elastic Modulus
Second Moment of Area (I) gyration (r) (Z) Ratio

Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis D

x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y T
4 4 3 3
cm cm cm cm cm cm

(k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)

1 12000 2280 10.7 4.67 946 224 12.8

5090 270 10.4 2.39 401 47.2 19.8

2 4790 813 8.49 3.50 471 107 12.3

2290 163 8.43 2.25 226 32.0 19.6

3 1520 139 7.44 2.25 171 27.4 19.7

4 1820 379 6.19 2.82 239 59.6 11.5

881 86.0 6.36 1.99 116 19.3 18.4
874 60.8 6.19 1.63 115 16.0 15.9

5 979 242 5.12 2.55 154 42.3 11.0

945 235 5.26 2.63 149 41.2 11.2
569 60.5 5.21 1.70 89.7 15.9 13.3
476 50.2 5.29 1.72 74.9 13.2 16.7

6 735 223 4.62 2.55 129 39.1 10.7

7 486 154 4.07 2.29 95.7 30.4 9.9

218 25.3 4.21 1.43 42.8 7.97 15.4
153 7.74 4.01 0.904 30.0 3.48 16.7

8 307 101 3.51 2.02 69.0 22.8 9.0

9 172 60.8 3.00 1.78 45.1 15.2 9.1

158 52.0 3.12 1.79 41.6 13.7 9.1

C-11
TABLE C-4 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF CHANNELS

Ser Nominal Mass Depth Width Thickness Root Depth Area

Size per of of radius between of
metre section section Web Flange fillets section
D B t T r d
2
mm kg mm mm mm mm mm mm cm
(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1 432 x 102 65.54 431.8 101.6 12.2 16.8 15.2 362.4 83.5

2 381 x 102 55.10 381.0 101.6 10.4 16.3 15.2 312.4 70.2

3 305 x 102 46.18 304.8 101.6 10.2 14.8 15.2 239.2 58.8
305 x 89 41.69 304.8 88.9 10.2 13.7 13.7 245.4 53.1

4 254 x 89 35.74 254.0 88.9 9.1 13.6 13.7 194.7 45.5

254 x 76 28.29 254.0 76.2 8.1 10.9 12.2 203.8 36.0

5 229 x 89 32.76 228.6 88.9 8.6 13.3 213.7 169.8 41.7

229 x 76 26.06 228.6 76.2 7.6 11.2 12.2 178.0 33.2

6 203 x 89 29.78 203.2 88.9 8.1 12.9 13.7 145.2 37.9

203 x 76 23.82 203.2 76.2 7.1 11.2 12.2 152.5 30.3

7 178 x 89 26.81 177.8 88.9 7.6 12.3 13.7 121.0 34.2

178 x 76 20.84 177.8 76.2 6.6 10.3 12.2 128.8 26.5

8 152 x 89 23.84 152.4 88.9 7.1 11.6 13.7 97.0 30.4

152 x 76 17.88 152.4 76.2 6.4 9.0 12.2 105.9 22.8

9 127 x 64 14.9 127.0 63.5 6.4 9.2 10.7 84.0 19.0

10 102 x 51 10.42 101.6 50.8 6.1 7.6 9.1 65.7 13.3

11 76 x 38 6.70 76.2 38.1 5.1 6.8 7.6 45.8 8.53

C-12
 Radius of Elastic Modulus
Second Moment of Area (I) gyration (r) (Z) Ratio

Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis D

x-x y-y x-x y-y x-x y-y T
4 4 3 3
cm cm cm cm cm cm

(k) (l) (m) (n) (o) (p) (q) (r)

1 21400 629 16.0 2.74 991 80.1 25.6

2 14900 580 14.6 2.87 782 75.9 23.3

3 8210 499 11.8 2.91 529 66.6 20.5

7060 325 11.5 2.48 463 48.5 22.3

4 4450 302 9.88 2.58 350 46.7 18.7

3370 163 9.67 2.12 265 28.2 23.2

5 3390 285 9.01 2.61 296 44.8 17.2

2610 159 8.87 2.19 228 28.2 20.5

6 2490 264 8.10 2.64 245 42.3 15.8

1950 151 8.02 2.23 192 27.6 18.2

7 1750 241 7.16 2.66 197 39.3 14.5

1340 134 7.10 2.25 150 24.7 17.3

8 1170 215 6.20 2.66 153 35.7 13.2

852 114 6.11 2.24 112 21.0 16.9

9 483 67.2 5.04 1.88 76.0 15.3 13.8

10 208 9.1 3.96 1.48 40.9 8.160 13.3

11 74.1 10.7 2.95 1.12 19.5 4.070 11.2

C-13
TABLE C-5 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF EQUAL ANGLES

Designation Radius Second Moment of area (I)

Mass Area Distance of
Ser Thick- per of centre of Axis Axis Axis
Size Root Toe
ness metre Section gravity x-x,y-y u-u v-v

t r1 r2 cx and cy
2 4 4 4
mm mm kg mm mm cm cm cm cm cm

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

1 250 x 250 35 128 20.0 4.8 163 7.49 9250 14600 3860
32 118 20.0 4.8 150 7.38 8600 13600 3560
28 104 20.0 4.8 133 7.23 7690 12200 3170
25 93.6 20.0 4.8 119 7.12 6970 11100 2860

2 200 x 200 24 71.1 18.0 4.8 90.6 5.84 3330 5280 1380
20 59.9 18.0 4.8 76.3 5.68 2850 4530 1170
18 54.2 18.0 4.8 69.1 5.60 2600 4130 1070
16 48.5 18.0 4.8 61.8 5.52 2340 3720 960

3 150 x 150 18 40.1 16.0 4.8 51.0 4.37 1050 1660 435
15 33.8 16.0 4.8 43.0 4.25 898 1430 370
12 27.3 16.0 4.8 34.8 4.12 737 1170 303
10 23.0 16.0 4.8 29.3 4.03 624 991 258

4 120 x 120 15 26.6 13.0 4.8 33.9 3.51 445 705 185
12 21.6 13.0 4.8 27.5 3.40 368 584 152
10 18.2 13.0 4.8 23.2 3.31 313 497 129
8 14.7 13.0 4.8 18.7 3.23 255 405 105

5 100 x 100 15 21.9 12.0 4.8 27.9 3.02 249 393 104
12 17.8 12.0 4.8 22.7 2.90 207 328 85.7
8 12.2 12.0 4.8 15.5 2.74 145 230 59.9

6 90 x 90 12 15.9 11.0 4.8 20.3 2.66 148 234 61.7

10 13.4 11.0 4.8 17.1 2.58 127 201 52.6
8 10.9 11.0 4.8 13.9 2.50 104 166 43.1
7 9.61 11.0 4.8 12.2 2.45 92.5 147 38.3
6 8.30 11.0 4.8 10.6 2.41 80.3 127 33.3

7 80 x 80 10 11.9 10.0 4.8 15.1 2.34 87.5 139 36.4

8 9.63 10.0 4.8 12.3 2.26 72.2 115 29.9
6 7.34 10.0 4.8 9.35 2.17 55.8 88.5 23.1

C-14
 Radius of gyration (r)

Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis

x-x, y-y u-u v-v x-x, y-y

3
mm mm mm cm

(l) (m) (n) (o) (p)

1 7.53 9.47 4.86 529

7.57 9.53 4.87 488
7.61 9.59 4.89 433
7.65 9.64 4.90 390

2 6.06 7.64 3.90 235

6.11 7.70 3.92 199
6.13 7.73 3.93 181
6.16 7.76 3.94 162

3 4.54 5.71 2.92 98.7

4.57 5.76 2.93 83.5
4.60 5.80 2.95 67.7
4.62 5.82 2.97 56.9

4 3.62 4.56 2.33 52.4

3.65 4.60 2.35 42.7
3.67 4.63 2.36 36.0
3.69 4.65 2.37 29.1

5 2.98 3.75 1.93 35.6

3.02 3.80 1.94 29.1
3.06 3.85 1.96 19.9

6 2.70 3.40 1.74 23.3

2.72 3.43 1.75 19.8
2.74 3.45 1.76 16.1
2.75 3.46 1.77 14.1
2.76 3.47 1.78 12.2

7 2.41 3.03 1.55 15.4

2.43 3.06 1.56 12.6
2.44 3.08 1.57 9.57

C-15
TABLE C-5 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
EQUAL ANGLES (Contd)

Designation Radius Second Moment of area (I)

Mass Area Distance of
Ser Thick- per of centre of Axis Axis Axis
Size Root Toe
ness metre Section gravity x-x,y-y u-u v-v

A A t r1 r2 cx and cy
2 4 4 4
mm mm kg mm mm cm cm cm cm cm

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k)

8 70 x 70 10 10.3 9.0 2.4 13.1 2.09 57.2 90.5 24.0

8 8.36 9.0 2.4 10.6 2.01 47.5 75.3 19.7
6 6.38 9.0 2.4 8.13 1.93 36.9 58.5 15.3

9 60 x 60 10 8.69 8.0 2.4 11.1 1.85 34.9 55.1 14.8

8 7.09 8.0 2.4 9.03 1.77 29.2 46.1 12.2
6 5.42 8.0 2.4 6.91 1.69 22.8 36.1 9.44
5 4.57 8.0 2.4 5.82 1.64 19.4 30.7 8.03

10 50 x 50 8 5.82 7.0 2.4 7.41 1.52 16.3 25.7 6.87

6 4.47 7.0 2.4 5.69 1.45 12.8 20.3 5.34
5 3.77 7.0 2.4 4.80 1.40 11.0 17.4 4.55
4 3.06 7.0 2.4 3.89 1.36 8.97 14.2 3.73
3 2.33 7.0 2.4 2.96 1.31 6.86 10.8 2.88

11 45 x 45 6 4.00 7.0 2.4 5.09 1.32 9.16 14.5 3.83

5 3.38 7.0 2.4 4.30 1.28 7.84 12.4 3.26
4 2.74 7.0 2.4 3.49 1.23 6.43 10.2 2.68
3 2.09 7.0 2.4 2.66 1.18 4.93 7.78 2.07

12 40 x 40 6 3.52 6.0 2.4 4.48 1.20 6.31 9.98 2.65

5 2.97 6.0 2.4 3.79 1.16 5.43 8.59 2.26
4 2.42 6.0 2.4 3.08 1.12 4.47 7.09 1.86
3 1.84 6.0 2.4 2.35 1.07 3.45 5.45 1.44

13 30 x 30 5 2.18 5.0 2.4 2.78 0.918 2.16 3.41 0.917

4 1.78 5.0 2.4 2.27 0.878 1.80 2.85 0.754
3 1.36 5.0 2.4 1.74 0.835 1.40 2.22 0.585

14 25 x 25 5 1.77 3.5 2.4 2.26 0.799 1.21 1.90 0.524

4 1.45 3.5 2.4 1.85 0.762 1.02 1.61 0.430
3 1.11 3.5 2.4 1.42 0.723 0.803 1.27 0.334

C-16
 Radius of gyration (r)

Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis

x-x, y-y u-u v-v x-x, y-y

3
mm mm mm cm

(l) (m) (n) (o) (p)

8 2.09 2.63 1.35 11.7

2.11 2.66 1.36 9.52
2.13 2.68 1.37 7.27

9 1.78 2.23 1.16 8.41

1.80 2.26 1.16 6.89
1.82 2.29 1.17 5.29
1.82 2.30 1.17 4.45

10 1.48 1.86 0.963 4.68

1.50 1.89 0.968 3.61
1.51 1.90 0.973 3.05
1.52 1.91 0.979 2.46
1.52 1.91 0.986 1.86

11 1.34 1.69 0.867 2.88

1.35 1.70 0.871 2.43
1.36 1.71 0.876 1.97
1.36 1.71 0.882 1.49

12 1.19 1.49 0.770 2.26

1.20 1.51 0.773 1.91
1.21 1.52 0.777 1.55
1.21 1.52 0.783 1.18

13 0.883 1.11 0.575 1.04

0.892 1.12 0.577 0.850
0.899 1.13 0.581 0.649

14 0.731 0.915 0.481 0.711

0.741 0.931 0.482 0.586
0.751 0.945 0.484 0.452

C-17
TABLE C-6 DIMENSIONS AND PROPERTIES OF
UNEQUAL ANGLES

Designation Radius Second Moment of area (I)

Mass Area Distance of
Ser Thick- per of centre of Axis Axis Axis Axis
Size ness metre Root Toe Section gravity x-x y-y u-u v-v

A A t r1 r2 cx cy
2 4 4 4 4
mm mm kg mm mm cm cm cm cm cm cm cm

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j) (k) (l) (m)

1 200 x 150 18 47.1 15.0 4.8 60.0 6.33 3.85 2380 1150 2900 618
15 39.6 15.0 4.8 50.5 6.21 3.73 2020 979 2480 526
12 32.0 15.0 4.8 40.8 6.08 3.61 1650 803 2030 430

2 200 x 100 15 33.7 15.0 4.8 43.0 7.16 2.22 1760 299 1860 194
12 27.3 15.0 4.8 34.8 7.03 2.10 1440 247 1530 159
10 23.0 15.0 4.8 29.2 6.93 2.01 1220 210 1290 135

3 150 x 90 15 26.6 12.0 4.8 33.9 5.21 2.23 761 205 841 126
12 21.6 12.0 4.8 27.5 5.08 2.12 627 171 694 104
10 18.2 12.0 4.8 23.2 5.00 2.04 533 146 591 88.3

4 150 x 75 15 24.8 11.0 4.8 31.6 5.53 1.81 713 120 754 78.8
12 20.2 11.0 4.8 25.7 5.41 1.69 589 99.9 624 64.9
10 17.0 11.0 4.8 21.6 5.32 1.61 501 85.8 532 55.3

5 125 x 75 12 17.8 11.0 4.8 22.7 4.31 1.84 354 95.5 391 58.5
10 15.0 11.0 4.8 19.1 4.23 1.76 302 82.1 334 49.9
8 12.2 11.0 4.8 15.5 4.14 1.68 247 67.6 274 40.9

6 100 x 75 12 15.4 10.0 4.8 19.7 3.27 2.03 189 90.2 230 49.5
10 13.0 10.0 4.8 16.6 3.19 1.95 162 77.6 197 42.2
8 10.6 10.0 4.8 13.5 3.10 1.87 133 64.1 162 34.6

7 100 x 65 10 12.3 10.0 4.8 15.6 3.36 1.63 154 51.0 175 30.1
8 9.94 10.0 4.8 12.7 3.27 1.55 127 42.2 144 24.8
7 8.77 10.0 4.8 11.2 3.23 1.51 113 37.6 128 22.0

8 80 x 60 8 8.34 8.0 4.8 10.6 2.55 1.56 66.3 31.8 80.8 17.3
7 7.36 8.0 4.8 9.38 2.51 1.52 59.0 28.4 72.0 15.4
6 6.37 8.0 4.8 8.11 2.47 1.48 51.4 24.8 62.8 13.4

9 75 x 50 8 7.39 7.0 2.4 9.41 2.52 1.29 52.0 18.4 59.6 10.8
6 5.65 7.0 2.4 7.19 2.44 1.21 40.5 14.4 46.6 8.36

10 65 x 50 8 6.75 6.0 2.4 8.60 2.11 1.37 34.8 17.7 43.0 9.57
6 5.16 6.0 2.4 6.58 2.04 1.29 27.2 14.0 33.8 7.43
5 4.35 6.0 2.4 5.54 1.99 1.25 23.2 11.9 28.8 6.32

11 60 x 30 6 3.99 6.0 2.4 5.08 2.20 0.72 18.2 3.0 19.2 1.99
5 3.37 6.0 2.4 4.29 2.15 0.68 15.6 2.6 16.5 1.70

12 40 x 25 4 1.93 4.0 2.4 2.46 1.36 0.62 3.8 1.1 4.3 0.70

C-18
 Radius of Gyration (r) Elastic Modulus (Z)

Angle
Ser Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis Axis x-x
x-x y-y u-u v-v x-x y-y to
Axis u-u

3 3
cm cm cm cm cm cm Tan a
(n) (o) (p) (q) (r) (s) (t) (u)

1 6.29 4.37 6.96 3.21 174 103 0.548

6.33 4.40 7.00 3.23 147 86.9 0.551
6.36 4.44 7.04 3.25 119 70.5 0.552

2 6.40 2.64 6.58 2.12 137 38.4 0.260

6.43 2.67 6.63 2.14 111 31.3 0.262
6.46 2.68 6.65 2.15 93.2 26.3 0.263

3 4.74 2.46 4.98 1.93 77.7 30.4 0.354

4.77 2.49 5.02 1.94 63.3 24.8 0.358
4.80 2.51 5.05 1.95 53.3 21.0 0.360

4 4.75 1.94 4.88 1.58 75.3 21.0 0.254

4.79 1.97 4.93 1.59 61.4 17.2 0.259
4.81 1.99 4.96 1.60 51.8 14.6 0.261

5 3.95 2.05 4.15 1.61 43.2 16.9 0.354

3.97 2.07 4.18 1.61 36.5 14.3 0.357
4.00 2.09 4.21 1.63 29.6 11.6 0.360

6 3.10 2.14 3.42 1.59 28.0 16.5 0.540

3.12 2.16 3.45 1.59 23.8 14.0 0.544
3.14 2.18 3.47 1.60 19.3 11.4 0.547

7 3.14 1.81 3.35 1.39 32.2 10.5 0.410

3.16 1.83 3.37 1.40 18.9 8.54 0.413
3.17 1.83 3.39 1.40 16.6 7.53 0.415

8 2.50 1.73 2.76 1.7 12.2 7.16 0.544

2.51 1.74 2.77 1.28 10.7 6.34 0.546
2.52 1.75 2.78 1.29 9.2 5.49 0.547

9 2.35 1.40 2.52 1.07 10.4 4.95 0.430

2.37 1.42 2.55 1.08 8.0 3.81 0.435

10 2.01 1.44 2.23 1.05 7.9 4.89 0.569

2.03 1.46 2.27 1.06 6.1 3.77 0.575
2.05 1.47 2.28 1.07 5.1 3.19 0.577

11 1.89 0.771 1.95 0.626 4.7 1.32 0.252

1.90 0.779 1.96 0.629 4.0 1.12 0.256

12 1.26 0.688 1.33 0.534 1.40 0.61 0.380

C-19
TABLE C-7 END BEARING AND BUCKLING VALUES FOR UNIVERSAL
BEAMS WITH UNSTIFFENED WEBS IN STEELS GRADE 43
Bearing Buckling
Mass Web Depth
Ser Nominal per Thickness Between Shear
Size metre Fillets Beam Stiff Beam Stiff Value
Factor Bearing Factor Bearing
Factor Factor

t d C1 C2 C1 C2 Pv
mm kg mm mm kN kN/mm kN kN/mm kN

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1. 914 x 419 388 21.5 791 456 4.09 1207 2.62 1979
343 19.4 791 382 3.69 1014 2.22 1768

2. 914 x 305 289 19.6 819 347 3.72 1023 2.21 1816
253 17.3 819 283 3.29 803 1.75 1589
224 15.9 819 239 3.02 666 1.46 1447
201 15.2 819 210 2.89 597 1.32 1373

3. 838 x 292 226 16.1 757 250 3.06 697 1.64 1370
194 14.7 757 204 2.79 569 1.35 1236
176 14.0 757 181 2.66 507 1.21 1169

4. 762 x 267 197 15.6 681 227 2.96 654 1.70 1201
173 14.3 681 190 2.72 547 1.44 1090
147 12.9 681 154 2.45 434 1.15 973

5. 686 x 254 170 14.5 611 196 2.76 563 1.63 1005
152 13.2 611 167 2.51 469 1.36 908
140 12.4 611 149 2.36 411 1.20 848
125 11.7 611 130 2.22 359 1.06 793

6. 914 x 419 388 21.5 799 429 4.09 1201 2.61 1979
343 19.4 799 358 3.69 1007 2.21 1768

7. 914 x 305 289 19.6 824 330 3.72 1018 2.20 1816
253 17.3 824 268 3.29 797 1.74 1589
224 15.9 824 225 3.02 661 1.45 1447
201 15.2 824 197 2.89 592 1.31 1373

8. 838 x 292 226 16.1 762 236 3.06 693 1.63 1370
194 14.7 762 191 2.79 565 1.34 1236
176 14.0 762 169 2.66 502 1.20 1169

9. 762 x 267 197 15.6 686 215 2.96 650 1.69 1201
173 14.3 686 179 2.72 543 1.43 1090
147 12.9 686 144 2.45 430 1.14 973

10. 686 z 254 170 14.5 615 186 2.76 560 1.62 1005
152 13.2 615 157 2.51 466 1.36 908
140 12.4 615 140 2.36 407 1.19 848
125 11.7 615 121 2.22 356 1.05 793

C-20
TABLE C-7 END BEARING AND BUCKLING VALUES FOR UNIVERSAL
BEAMS WITH UNSTIFFENED WEBS IN STEELS GRADE 43
(CONTD)
Bearing Buckling

Mass Web Depth

Ser Nominal per Thickness Between Shear
Size metre Fillets Beam Stiff Beam Stiff Value
Factor Bearing Factor Bearing
Factor Factor

t d C1 C2 C1 C2 Pv
mm kg mm mm kN kN/mm kN kN/mm kN

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

11. 610 x 305 238 18.6 537 293 3.53 785 2.48 1177
179 14.1 537 186 2.68 521 1.69 871
149 11.9 537 142 2.26 384 1.26 725

12. 610 x 229 140 13.1 547 150 2.49 456 1.48 808
125 11.9 547 126 2.26 379 1.24 728
113 11.2 547 111 2.13 332 1.09 680
101 10.6 547 96.9 2.01 293 0.973 638

13. 533 x 210 122 12.8 477 143 2.43 423 1.55 697
109 11.6 477 120 2.20 357 1.32 626
101 10.9 477 108 2.07 318 1.19 585
92 10.2 477 95.0 1.94 278 1.04 544
82 9.6 477 81.8 1.82 244 0.922 507

14. 457 x 191 98 11.4 408 112 2.17 330 1.41 533
89 10.6 408 97.3 2.01 292 1.26 491
82 9.9 408 85.4 1.88 259 1.13 456
74 9.1 408 74.0 1.73 221 0.969 416
67 8.5 408 64.1 1.62 192 0.847 386

15. 457 x 152 82 10.7 407 102 2.03 298 1.28 498
74 9.9 407 88.6 1.88 260 1.13 457
67 9.1 407 75.5 1.73 222 0.971 416
60 8.0 408 61.9 1.52 170 0.746 364
52 7.6 408 52.8 1.44 150 0.665 341

16. 406 x 178 74 9.7 361 83.6 1.84 243 1.18 400
67 8.8 361 71.0 1.67 206 1.01 360
60 7.8 361 59.0 1.48 164 0.807 317
54 7.6 361 52.8 1.44 154 0.766 306

17. 406 x 140 46 6.9 360 48.6 1.31 126 0.626 278
39 6.3 360 39.0 1.20 101 0.507 250

18. 356 x 171 67 9.1 312 77.6 1.73 209 1.15 331
57 8.0 312 61.1 1.52 169 0.944 287
51 7.3 312 52.1 1.39 144 0.808 260
45 6.9 312 45.2 1.31 128 0.728 243

19. 356 x 127 39 6.5 311 44.7 1.24 115 0.649 229
33 5.9 311 36.3 1.12 91.9 0.528 206

20. 305 x 165 54 7.7 266 57.3 1.46 151 0.968 239
46 6.7 266 45.6 1.27 120 0.783 206
40 6.1 266 38.3 1.16 101 0.666 185

C-21
TABLE C-7 END BEARING AND BUCKLING VALUES FOR UNIVERSAL
BEAMS WITH UNSTIFFENED WEBS IN STEELS GRADE 43
(CONTD)
Bearing Buckling
Mass Web Depth
Ser Nominal per Thickness Between Shear
Size metre Fillets Beam Stiff Beam Stiff Value
Factor Bearing Factor Bearing
Factor Factor

t d C1 C2 C1 C2 Pv
mm kg mm mm kN kN/mm kN kN/mm kN

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

21. 305 x 127 48 8.9 265 67.1 1.69 183 1.18 276
42 8.0 265 55.3 1.52 157 1.02 245
37 7.2 265 46.4 1.37 134 0.879 219

22. 305 x 102 33 6.6 276 40.0 1.25 116 0.744 206
28 6.1 276 33.1 1.16 99.5 0.644 188
25 5.8 276 27.5 1.10 889 0.583 177

23. 254 x 146 43 7.3 219 48.8 1.39 125 0.963 190
37 6.4 219 39.0 1.22 103 0.808 164
31 6.1 219 32.5 1.16 95.0 0.754 153

24. 254 x 102 28 6.4 225 37.1 1.22 104 0.798 167
25 6.1 225 32.1 1.16 95.0 0.743 157
22 5.8 225 27.5 1.10 87.0 0.687 147

25. 203 x 133 30 6.3 172 35.7 1.20 87.9 0.850 130
25 5.8 172 29.4 1.10 78.0 0.767 118

C-22
TABLE C-8 END BEARING AND BUCKLING VALUES FOR UNIVERSAL
COLUMNS WITH UNSTIFFENED WEBS IN STEEL GRADE 43
Bearing Buckling
Mass Web Depth
Ser Nominal per Thickness Between Shear
Size metre Fillets Beam Stiff Beam Stiff Value
Factor Bearing Factor Bearing
Factor Factor

t d C1 C2 C1 C2 Pv
mm kg mm mm kN kN/mm kN kN/mm kN

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1. 356 x 406 634 47.6 290 1444 9.04 1656 6.98 2034
551 42.0 290 1143 7.98 1401 6.15 1723
467 35.9 290 865 6.82 1146 5.25 1411
393 30.6 290 649 5.81 935 4.46 1154
340 26.5 290 507 5.03 783 3.85 969
287 22.6 290 385 4.29 644 3.27 890
235 18.5 290 276 3.52 506 2.66 705

2. 356 x 368 202 16.8 290 233 3.19 449 2.40 629
177 14.5 290 186 2.76 377 2.05 534
153 12.6 290 149 2.39 317 1.75 456
129 10.7 290 115 2.03 257 1.45 380

3. 305 x 305 283 26.9 247 525 5.11 717 3.93 884
240 23.0 247 400 4.37 590 3.35 811
198 19.2 247 294 3.65 472 2.78 653
158 15.7 247 208 2.98 369 2.25 514
137 13.8 247 168 2.62 315 1.97 442
118 11.9 247 133 2.26 263 1.67 374
97 9.9 247 99.7 1.88 209 1.36 305

4. 254 x 254 167 19.2 200 281 3.65 404 2.80 555
132 15.6 200 194 2.96 312 2.26 431
107 13.0 200 142 2.47 249 1.87 347
89 10.5 200 104 2.00 194 1.49 273
73 8.6 200 76.1 1.63 152 1.19 218

5. 203 x 203 86 13.0 161 131 2.47 209 1.88 289

71 10.3 161 93.2 1.96 160 1.48 222
60 9.3 161 74.7 1.77 139 1.33 195
52 8.0 161 59.8 1.52 116 1.13 165
46 7.3 161 50.9 1.39 104 1.02 148

6. 152 x 152 37 8.1 123 50.9 1.54 94.2 1.16 131

30 6.6 123 36.9 1.25 73.8 0.937 104
23 6.1 123 28.9 1.16 65.5 0.860 93

C-23
TABLE C-9 END BEARING AND BUCKLING VALUES FOR JOIST
SECTIONS WITH UNSTIFFENED WEBS IN STEEL GRADE 43
Bearing Buckling
Mass Web Depth
Ser Nominal per Thickness Between Shear
Size metre Fillets Beam Stiff Beam Stiff Value
Factor Bearing Factor Bearing
Factor Factor

t d C1 C2 C1 C2 Pv
mm kg mm mm kN kN/mm kN kN/mm kN

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1. 254 X 203 81.85 10.2 167 146 1.94 186 1.46 259

2. 254 X 114 37.20 7.6 199 68.0 1.44 131 1.03 193

3. 203 X 152 52.09 8.9 133 102 1.69 130 1.28 181

4. 203 x 102 25.33 5.8 161 40.2 1.10 79.3 0.780 118

5. 178 x 102 21.54 5.3 138 34.3 1.01 64.2 0.722 94.2

6. 152 x 127 37.20 10.4 94.3 9.89 1.98 116 1.52 158

7. 152 x 89 17.09 4.9 118 28.0 0.931 51.6 0.677 74.7

8. 152 x 76 17.86 5.8 112 38.5 1.10 62.2 0.821 88.4

9. 127 x 114 29.76 10.2 79.4 79.4 1.94 94.7 1.49 130

26.79 7.4 79.5 57.6 1.41 68.4 1.08 94.0

10. 127 x 76 16.37 5.6 86.5 37.2 1.06 51.1 0.805 l71.1

13.36 4.5 94.2 24.3 0.855 40.2 0.632 57.2

11. 114 x 114 26.79 9.5 60.8 83.1 1.81 79.5 1.39 109

12. 102 x 102 23.07 9.5 55.1 72.1 1.81 70.8 1.39 96.5

13. 102 x 64 9.65 4.1 73.2 19.2 0.779 29.7 0.584 41.7

14. 102 x 44 7.44 4.3 74.7 19.0 0.817 31.2 0.614 43.7

15. 89 x 89 19.35 9.5 44.1 69.5 1.81 62.0 1.39 84.5

17. 76 x 76 14.67 8.9 38.0 55.6 1.69 49.8 1.31 67.8

12.65 5.1 37.9 31.9 0.969 28.4 0.746 38.9

C-24
TABLE C-10 END BEARING AND BUCKLING VALUES FOR CHANNELS
WITH UNSTIFFENED WEBS IN STEEL GRADE 43
Bearing Buckling
Mass Web Depth
Ser Nominal per Thickness Between Shear
Size metre Fillets Beam Stiff Beam Stiff Value
Factor Bearing Factor Bearing
Factor Factor

t d C1 C2 C1 C2 Pv
mm kg mm mm kN kN/mm kN kN/mm kN

(a) (b) (c) (d) (e) (f) (g) (h) (i) (j)

1. 432 x 102 65.54 12.2 362.5 139 2.32 348 161 526

2. 381 x 102 55.10 10.4 312.4 117 1.98 261 1.37 396

3. 305 x 102 46.18 10.2 239.3 110 1.94 215 1.41 310

4. 305 x 89 41.69 10.2 245.4 100 1.94 215 1.41 310

5. 254 x 89 35.74 9.1 194.8 89 1.73 162 1.28 231

6. 254 x 76 28.29 8.1 203.7 67 1.54 141 1.11 205

7. 229 x 89 32.76 8.6 169.9 83 1.63 139 1.22 196

8. 229 x 76 26.06 7.6 178.1 63 1.44 120 1.05 173

9. 203 x 89 29.78 8.1 145.3 77 1.54 117 1.15 164

10. 203 x 76 23.82 7.1 152.4 59 1.35 101 1.00 144

11. 178 x 89 26.81 7.6 120.9 71 1.44 97 1.09 135

12. 178 x 76 20.84 6.6 128.8 53 1.25 83 0.93 117

13. 152 x 89 23.84 7.1 97.0 65 1.35 79 1.03 108

14. 152 x 76 17.88 6.4 105.9 49 1.22 70 0.92` 97

15. 127 x 64 14.90 6.4 84.1 45 1.22 59 0.93 81

16. 102 x 51 10.42 6.1 65.8 36 1.16 46 0.90 61

17. 76 x 38 6.70 5.1 45.7 26 0.97 29 0.76 38

C-25
C-26
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