CELL AND MOLECULAR BIOLOGY: UNIT 3 REVIEWER
MITOCHONDRIA
Comes from the Greek words mito, thread; chondrion, granule are
thread like or granular structures of eukaryotic cells.
The 'power plants' which by oxidation release the energy contained in the
fuel molecules or nutrients and make other forms of chemical energy.
The main function of mitochondria is oxidative phosphorylation, which
is an exergonic reaction, meaning that it releases energy.
HISTORY
Kölliker (1880) Was the first who observed the mitochondria in insects
muscle cells. He called them as 'sarcosomes'.
Flemming (1882) Named the mitochondria as 'fila'.
Altmann (1894) Observed them and named them Altmann's granules or
bioblasts.
Benda (1897-98) She applied the term 'mitochondria'.
Hogeboom and his coworkers (1948) - They recognized mitochondria
as the sites of respiration.
Lehninger and Kennedy (1948) reported that the mitochondria catalyze
all the reactions of the citric acid cycle, fatty acid oxidation and coupled
phosphorylation.
MORPHOLOGY OF MITOCHONDRIA
Morphologically mitochondria may be in the form of filaments or small
granules. These may assume rod-like shape called chondriosomes which
may enlarge or aggregate to form massive spheroid bodies called
chondriospheres.
Granule
Inner Membrane
Outer Chamber
F1 Particle
DNA
Matrix Cristae
Ribosome
1. Position - Mitochondria lie freely in cytoplasm, possessing power of
independent movement and may take the form of filaments. In some cells
they can move freely, carrying ATP where needed, but in others they are
located permanently near the region of the cell where more energy is needed.
2. Number - The number of mitochondria varies a good deal from cell to cell
and from species to species. A few algae and some protozoan have only
single mitochondria. Their number is related to the activity, age and type of
the cell. Growing, dividing and actively synthesizing cells contain more
mitochondria than the other cells.
3. Size - The average size of mitochondria is 0.5-1.0µ in diameter and about
2-8 µ in length. In exocrine cells of mammalian pancreas they are about 10 µ
long and in oocytes of amphibian Rana pipiens are 20-40µ long. Yeast cells
have the smallest mitochondria.
ULTRA STRUCTURE OF MITOCHONDRIA
1. Membranes - Both the inner and the outer mitochondrial membranes
resemble the plasma membrane in molecular structure. Each of them is 60-
70Å, trilamellar and composed of two layers of phospholipid molecules
sandwiched between two layers of protein molecules. Both the outer and the
inner membranes contain specific pumps or channels, for the transport of
molecules through them.
(i) Outer Membrane - The outer membrane is smooth permeable to most
small molecules, having trans-membrane channels formed by the protein
'porin'. It consists of about 50% lipid, including a large amount of cholesterol.
It contains some enzymes but is poor in protein.
(ii) Inner Membrane - The inner membrane is selectively permeable and
regulates the movement of materials into and out of the mitochondrion. It is
rich in enzymes and carrier proteins permease.
2. Matrix - The space between the cristae called the inner chamber is filled
with a gel like material termed the mitochondrial matrix. It contains proteins,
lipids, some ribosomes, RNA, one or two DNA molecules and certain fibrils,
crystals and dense granules.
3. Cristae - The inner mitochondrial membrane bears plate like infoldings
called the cristae. They extend inwards to varying degrees, and may fuse with
those from the opposite side, dividing the mitochondrion into compartments.
They are arranged in a characteristic manner in different cells.
4. Oxysomes - The inner mitochondrial membrane bears minute regularly
spaced particles known as the inner membrane subunits or elementary
particles (EP) or oxysomes.
The formation of new mitochondria has been explained with the
following hypothesis.
1. De Novo Synthesis - According to this hypothesis mitochondria arises de
novo from precursors in the cytoplasm.
2. Origin from membrane - This hypothesis proposes that the mitochondria
arises from the invaginations of plasma membrane, endoplasmic reticulum,
Golgi apparatus or nuclear envelop. The membrane invaginates and extends
into the cytoplasm as a tubular structure.
3. Develop from Micro bodies - It is held that they mitochondria are
developed by the accumulation of micro bodies in the cytoplasm. A micro
body consists of a single outer membrane and a dense matrix with a few
cristae which eventually develops into fully formed mitochondria.
4. Prokaryotic Origin - It is believed that mitochondria are originated from
bacteria. It is supported by many evidences.
(i) First is the localization of enzymes of respiratory chain, which in case of
bacteria, are localized in plasma membrane which can be compared with the
inner membrane of the mitochondrion.
(ii) In some bacteria, plasma membrane forms membranous projections
(called mesosomes) like cristae of mitochondria. These mesosomes possess
respiratory chain enzymes.
(iii) The mitochondrial DNA is circular as it is in bacteria. Replication process
of mitochondria is similar to bacteria.
(iv) Ribosomes in mitochondria are smaller and similar in size to that of
bacterial ribosomes.
(v) Chloramphenicol inhibits the synthesis of protein in mitochondria as well
as in bacteria. Furthermore, in the process of protein synthesis, mitochondria
depend partially on mitochondrial matrix and DNA and partially on nucleus
and cytoplasm of the eukaryotic cells.
5. Replication - It is held that mitochondria are self-replicating organelles.
New mitochondria arise by some type of splitting process from pre-existing
mitochondria.
FUNCTIONS OF MITOCHONDRIA
Mitochondria perform the following functions:
1. Cell respiration takes place in mitochondria and so they are known as the
'power house' of the cell.
2. Mitochondria provide intermediates for the synthesis of important
biomolecules such as chlorophyll, cytochromes, steroids etc.
3. Some amino acids are also formed in the mitochondria.
4. Mitochondria actively accumulate calcium ions as calcium phosphate
precipitate.
RESPIRATORY CHAIN COMPLEX OR ELECTRON TRANSPORT SYSTEM
Respiratory chain complex or electron transport system consists of a series of
complex proteins, which take part in the respiratory chain. There are five
complexes formed of lipoproteins and two mobile electron carriers —
coenzyme Q (CoQ) or ubiquinone (UQ) and cytochrome C.
Complexes are the sites where hydrogen ions released during Krebs’s cycle
are oxidized and their energy is trapped in ATP.
1. Complex I (NADH-CoQ reductase). It consists of the following
components.
(a) NADH dehydrogenase - It consists of flavoprotein with FMN as prosthetic
group. The protein is a single polypeptide chain with molecular weight 70,000.
(b)Non-heme iron (NHI) - It is the largest complex with molecular weight 8,
50,000 and includes a flavoprotein containing FMN. This is the first step in the
electron transport chain.
2. Complex II (Succinate-CoQ reductase). It has the following components.
(a) Succinic dehydrogenase with the molecular weight 70,000 it has
covalently bound FAD as prosthetic group and two Fe-S centers, i.e., Fe-SS1
and Fe-SS2.
(b) Fe-SS 3 protein of molecular weight 27, 000
(c) Cytochrome b with absorbance 557.5 nm
Coenzyme Q (CoQ) or Ubiquinone (UQ) - It is mobile carrier between
complex I and III, and II and III. Complex II precedes the electron transport
chain and is coupled to succinate by way of FAD (flavinadenine dinucleotide).
3. Complex III (CoQH2-Cyt.C-reductase). This complex contains:
(a)Cytochrome b of molecular weight 30,000
(b)Cytochrome e of molecular weight 50,000
(c) Cytochrome c1 having two polypeptides of molecular weight 29,000 and
15,000.
(d)NH1 protein with Fe-S centre and molecular weight 26,000
(e)Core proteins
(f)Antimycin-binding protein.
Cytochrome c- It is mobile carrier between complexes III and IV with
molecular weight 13,000.
4. Complex IV (Cytochrome C-Oxidase). It contain cytochrome a (Cyt. a)
not inhibited by CO, cytochrome a3 (Cyt. a3) inhibited by CO and two atoms
of copper (Cu and Cu). The final oxidation of hydrogen occurs in it, resulting
in water (H2O) formation.
5. Complex V (ATPase complex). It contains head piece, stalk and base
piece.
The respiratory chain takes in succinic acid (succinate) and NADH from
Krebs’s cycle enzymes. These together with oxygen, respiratory chain
produce many molecules of ATP and finally CO2 and water. As the electrons
carried by NADH and succinic acid travel down the chain they give up their
energy, which is used up for the conversion of ADP to ATP.
