Mechanical Vibration

Analysis, Uncertainties, and Control

T H IRD E DI T I O N

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 MECHANICAL ENGINEERING
A Series of Textbooks and Reference Books

Founding Editor
L. L. Faulkner
Columbus Division, Battelle Memorial Institute
and Department of Mechanical Engineering
The Ohio State University
Columbus, Ohio

1. Spring Designer’s Handbook, Harold Carlson

2. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design, Daniel L. Ryan
3. Lubrication Fundamentals, J. George Wills
4. Solar Engineering for Domestic Buildings, William A. Himmelman
5. Applied Engineering Mechanics: Statics and Dynamics, G. Boothroyd
and C. Poli
6. Centrifugal Pump Clinic, Igor J. Karassik
7. Computer-Aided Kinetics for Machine Design, Daniel L. Ryan
8. Plastics Products Design Handbook, Part A: Materials and Components;
Part B: Processes and Design for Processes, edited by Edward Miller
9. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
10. Vibrations of Shells and Plates, Werner Soedel
11. Flat and Corrugated Diaphragm Design Handbook, Mario Di Giovanni
12. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Alexander Blake
13. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints,
John H. Bickford
14. Optimal Engineering Design: Principles and Applications,
James N. Siddall
15. Spring Manufacturing Handbook, Harold Carlson
16. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications, edited by
Lewis H. Bell
17. Gears and Their Vibration: A Basic Approach to Understanding Gear
Noise, J. Derek Smith
18. Chains for Power Transmission and Material Handling: Design
and Applications Handbook, American Chain Association
19. Corrosion and Corrosion Protection Handbook, edited by
Philip A. Schweitzer
20. Gear Drive Systems: Design and Application, Peter Lynwander
21. Controlling In-Plant Airborne Contaminants: Systems Design
and Calculations, John D. Constance
22. CAD/CAM Systems Planning and Implementation, Charles S. Knox
23. Probabilistic Engineering Design: Principles and Applications,
James N. Siddall
24. Traction Drives: Selection and Application, Frederick W. Heilich III
and Eugene E. Shube

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 25. Finite Element Methods: An Introduction, Ronald L. Huston
and Chris E. Passerello
26. Mechanical Fastening of Plastics: An Engineering Handbook,
Brayton Lincoln, Kenneth J. Gomes, and James F. Braden
27. Lubrication in Practice: Second Edition, edited by W. S. Robertson
28. Principles of Automated Drafting, Daniel L. Ryan
29. Practical Seal Design, edited by Leonard J. Martini
30. Engineering Documentation for CAD/CAM Applications,
Charles S. Knox
31. Design Dimensioning with Computer Graphics Applications,
Jerome C. Lange
32. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified Graphical and Analytical Techniques,
Lyndon O. Barton
33. CAD/CAM Systems: Justification, Implementation, Productivity Measure-
ment, Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford,
and Mark E. Coticchia
34. Steam Plant Calculations Manual, V. Ganapathy
35. Design Assurance for Engineers and Managers, John A. Burgess
36. Heat Transfer Fluids and Systems for Process and Energy Applications,
Jasbir Singh
37. Potential Flows: Computer Graphic Solutions, Robert H. Kirchhoff
38. Computer-Aided Graphics and Design: Second Edition, Daniel L. Ryan
39. Electronically Controlled Proportional Valves: Selection and Application,
Michael J. Tonyan, edited by Tobi Goldoftas
40. Pressure Gauge Handbook, AMETEK, U.S. Gauge Division, edited by
Philip W. Harland
41. Fabric Filtration for Combustion Sources: Fundamentals and Basic Tech-
nology, R. P. Donovan
42. Design of Mechanical Joints, Alexander Blake
43. CAD/CAM Dictionary, Edward J. Preston, George W. Crawford,
and Mark E. Coticchia
44. Machinery Adhesives for Locking, Retaining, and Sealing,
Girard S. Haviland
45. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application,
Jon R. Mancuso
46. Shaft Alignment Handbook, John Piotrowski
47. BASIC Programs for Steam Plant Engineers: Boilers, Combustion,
Fluid Flow, and Heat Transfer, V. Ganapathy
48. Solving Mechanical Design Problems with Computer Graphics,
Jerome C. Lange
49. Plastics Gearing: Selection and Application, Clifford E. Adams
50. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, William C. Orthwein
51. Transducers in Mechanical and Electronic Design, Harry L. Trietley
52. Metallurgical Applications of Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate
Phenomena, edited by Lawrence E. Murr, Karl P. Staudhammer,
and Marc A. Meyers
53. Magnesium Products Design, Robert S. Busk
54. How to Integrate CAD/CAM Systems: Management and Technology,
William D. Engelke
55. Cam Design and Manufacture: Second Edition; with cam design
software for the IBM PC and compatibles, disk included,
Preben W. Jensen

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 56. Solid-State AC Motor Controls: Selection and Application,
Sylvester Campbell
57. Fundamentals of Robotics, David D. Ardayfio
58. Belt Selection and Application for Engineers, edited by
Wallace D. Erickson
59. Developing Three-Dimensional CAD Software with the IBM PC,
C. Stan Wei
60. Organizing Data for CIM Applications, Charles S. Knox, with
contributions by Thomas C. Boos, Ross S. Culverhouse,
and Paul F. Muchnicki
61. Computer-Aided Simulation in Railway Dynamics, by Rao V. Dukkipati
and Joseph R. Amyot
62. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design,
P. K. Mallick
63. Photoelectric Sensors and Controls: Selection and Application,
Scott M. Juds
64. Finite Element Analysis with Personal Computers,
Edward R. Champion, Jr. and J. Michael Ensminger
65. Ultrasonics: Fundamentals, Technology, Applications: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Dale Ensminger
66. Applied Finite Element Modeling: Practical Problem Solving for
Engineers, Jeffrey M. Steele
67. Measurement and Instrumentation in Engineering: Principles and Basic
Laboratory Experiments, Francis S. Tse and Ivan E. Morse
68. Centrifugal Pump Clinic: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Igor J. Karassik
69. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design: Second Edition, Revised
and Expanded, Alexander Blake
70. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints:
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
71. High Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Marsbed H. Hablanian
72. Pressure Sensors: Selection and Application, Duane Tandeske
73. Zinc Handbook: Properties, Processing, and Use in Design,
Frank Porter
74. Thermal Fatigue of Metals, Andrzej Weronski and Tadeusz Hejwowski
75. Classical and Modern Mechanisms for Engineers and Inventors,
Preben W. Jensen
76. Handbook of Electronic Package Design, edited by Michael Pecht
77. Shock-Wave and High-Strain-Rate Phenomena in Materials, edited by
Marc A. Meyers, Lawrence E. Murr, and Karl P. Staudhammer
78. Industrial Refrigeration: Principles, Design and Applications,
P. C. Koelet
79. Applied Combustion, Eugene L. Keating
80. Engine Oils and Automotive Lubrication, edited by Wilfried J. Bartz
81. Mechanism Analysis: Simplified and Graphical Techniques,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lyndon O. Barton
82. Fundamental Fluid Mechanics for the Practicing Engineer,
James W. Murdock
83. Fiber-Reinforced Composites: Materials, Manufacturing, and Design,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, P. K. Mallick
84. Numerical Methods for Engineering Applications,
Edward R. Champion, Jr.

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 85. Turbomachinery: Basic Theory and Applications, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Earl Logan, Jr.
86. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Werner Soedel
87. Steam Plant Calculations Manual: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, V. Ganapathy
88. Industrial Noise Control: Fundamentals and Applications,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Lewis H. Bell
and Douglas H. Bell
89. Finite Elements: Their Design and Performance, Richard H. MacNeal
90. Mechanical Properties of Polymers and Composites: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Lawrence E. Nielsen and Robert F. Landel
91. Mechanical Wear Prediction and Prevention, Raymond G. Bayer
92. Mechanical Power Transmission Components, edited by
David W. South and Jon R. Mancuso
93. Handbook of Turbomachinery, edited by Earl Logan, Jr.
94. Engineering Documentation Control Practices and Procedures,
Ray E. Monahan
95. Refractory Linings Thermomechanical Design and Applications,
Charles A. Schacht
96. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Applications and Techniques
for Use in Design, Manufacturing, and Inspection, James D. Meadows
97. An Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints:
Third Edition, Revised and Expanded, John H. Bickford
98. Shaft Alignment Handbook: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
John Piotrowski
99. Computer-Aided Design of Polymer-Matrix Composite Structures, edited
by Suong Van Hoa
100. Friction Science and Technology, Peter J. Blau
101. Introduction to Plastics and Composites: Mechanical Properties
and Engineering Applications, Edward Miller
102. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design, Alexander Blake
103. Pump Characteristics and Applications, Michael W. Volk
104. Optical Principles and Technology for Engineers, James E. Stewart
105. Optimizing the Shape of Mechanical Elements and Structures,
A. A. Seireg and Jorge Rodriguez
106. Kinematics and Dynamics of Machinery, Vladimír Stejskal
and Michael Valásek
107. Shaft Seals for Dynamic Applications, Les Horve
108. Reliability-Based Mechanical Design, edited by Thomas A. Cruse
109. Mechanical Fastening, Joining, and Assembly, James A. Speck
110. Turbomachinery Fluid Dynamics and Heat Transfer, edited by
Chunill Hah
111. High-Vacuum Technology: A Practical Guide, Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Marsbed H. Hablanian
112. Geometric Dimensioning and Tolerancing: Workbook and Answerbook,
James D. Meadows
113. Handbook of Materials Selection for Engineering Applications,
edited by G. T. Murray
114. Handbook of Thermoplastic Piping System Design, Thomas Sixsmith
and Reinhard Hanselka

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 115. Practical Guide to Finite Elements: A Solid Mechanics Approach, Steven
M. Lepi
116. Applied Computational Fluid Dynamics, edited by Vijay K. Garg
117. Fluid Sealing Technology, Heinz K. Muller and Bernard S. Nau
118. Friction and Lubrication in Mechanical Design, A. A. Seireg
119. Influence Functions and Matrices, Yuri A. Melnikov
120. Mechanical Analysis of Electronic Packaging Systems,
Stephen A. McKeown
121. Couplings and Joints: Design, Selection, and Application,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Jon R. Mancuso
122. Thermodynamics: Processes and Applications, Earl Logan, Jr.
123. Gear Noise and Vibration, J. Derek Smith
124. Practical Fluid Mechanics for Engineering Applications,
John J. Bloomer
125. Handbook of Hydraulic Fluid Technology, edited by George E. Totten
126. Heat Exchanger Design Handbook, T. Kuppan
127. Designing for Product Sound Quality, Richard H. Lyon
128. Probability Applications in Mechanical Design, Franklin E. Fisher
and Joy R. Fisher
129. Nickel Alloys, edited by Ulrich Heubner
130. Rotating Machinery Vibration: Problem Analysis and Troubleshooting,
Maurice L. Adams, Jr.
131. Formulas for Dynamic Analysis, Ronald L. Huston and C. Q. Liu
132. Handbook of Machinery Dynamics, Lynn L. Faulkner and Earl Logan, Jr.
133. Rapid Prototyping Technology: Selection and Application,
Kenneth G. Cooper
134. Reciprocating Machinery Dynamics: Design and Analysis,
Abdulla S. Rangwala
135. Maintenance Excellence: Optimizing Equipment Life-Cycle Decisions,
edited by John D. Campbell and Andrew K. S. Jardine
136. Practical Guide to Industrial Boiler Systems, Ralph L. Vandagriff
137. Lubrication Fundamentals: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
D. M. Pirro and A. A. Wessol
138. Mechanical Life Cycle Handbook: Good Environmental Design
and Manufacturing, edited by Mahendra S. Hundal
139. Micromachining of Engineering Materials, edited by Joseph McGeough
140. Control Strategies for Dynamic Systems: Design and Implementation,
John H. Lumkes, Jr.
141. Practical Guide to Pressure Vessel Manufacturing, Sunil Pullarcot
142. Nondestructive Evaluation: Theory, Techniques, and Applications, edited
by Peter J. Shull
143. Diesel Engine Engineering: Thermodynamics, Dynamics, Design,
and Control, Andrei Makartchouk
144. Handbook of Machine Tool Analysis, Ioan D. Marinescu,
Constantin Ispas, and Dan Boboc
145. Implementing Concurrent Engineering in Small Companies,
Susan Carlson Skalak
146. Practical Guide to the Packaging of Electronics: Thermal and Mechanical
Design and Analysis, Ali Jamnia
147. Bearing Design in Machinery: Engineering Tribology and Lubrication,
Avraham Harnoy

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 148. Mechanical Reliability Improvement: Probability and Statistics
for Experimental Testing, R. E. Little
149. Industrial Boilers and Heat Recovery Steam Generators: Design,
Applications, and Calculations, V. Ganapathy
150. The CAD Guidebook: A Basic Manual for Understanding and Improving
Computer-Aided Design, Stephen J. Schoonmaker
151. Industrial Noise Control and Acoustics, Randall F. Barron
152. Mechanical Properties of Engineered Materials, Wolé Soboyejo
153. Reliability Verification, Testing, and Analysis in Engineering Design,
Gary S. Wasserman
154. Fundamental Mechanics of Fluids: Third Edition, I. G. Currie
155. Intermediate Heat Transfer, Kau-Fui Vincent Wong
156. HVAC Water Chillers and Cooling Towers: Fundamentals, Application,
and Operation, Herbert W. Stanford III
157. Gear Noise and Vibration: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
J. Derek Smith
158. Handbook of Turbomachinery: Second Edition, Revised and Expanded,
edited by Earl Logan, Jr. and Ramendra Roy
159. Piping and Pipeline Engineering: Design, Construction, Maintenance,
Integrity, and Repair, George A. Antaki
160. Turbomachinery: Design and Theory, Rama S. R. Gorla
and Aijaz Ahmed Khan
161. Target Costing: Market-Driven Product Design, M. Bradford Clifton,
Henry M. B. Bird, Robert E. Albano, and Wesley P. Townsend
162. Fluidized Bed Combustion, Simeon N. Oka
163. Theory of Dimensioning: An Introduction to Parameterizing Geometric
Models, Vijay Srinivasan
164. Handbook of Mechanical Alloy Design, edited by George E. Totten,
Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani
165. Structural Analysis of Polymeric Composite Materials, Mark E. Tuttle
166. Modeling and Simulation for Material Selection and Mechanical Design,
edited by George E. Totten, Lin Xie, and Kiyoshi Funatani
167. Handbook of Pneumatic Conveying Engineering, David Mills,
Mark G. Jones, and Vijay K. Agarwal
168. Clutches and Brakes: Design and Selection, Second Edition,
William C. Orthwein
169. Fundamentals of Fluid Film Lubrication: Second Edition,
Bernard J. Hamrock, Steven R. Schmid, and Bo O. Jacobson
170. Handbook of Lead-Free Solder Technology for Microelectronic
Assemblies, edited by Karl J. Puttlitz and Kathleen A. Stalter
171. Vehicle Stability, Dean Karnopp
172. Mechanical Wear Fundamentals and Testing: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Raymond G. Bayer
173. Liquid Pipeline Hydraulics, E. Shashi Menon
174. Solid Fuels Combustion and Gasification, Marcio L. de Souza-Santos
175. Mechanical Tolerance Stackup and Analysis, Bryan R. Fischer
176. Engineering Design for Wear, Raymond G. Bayer
177. Vibrations of Shells and Plates: Third Edition, Revised and Expanded,
Werner Soedel
178. Refractories Handbook, edited by Charles A. Schacht

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 179. Practical Engineering Failure Analysis, Hani M. Tawancy,
Anwar Ul-Hamid, and Nureddin M. Abbas
180. Mechanical Alloying and Milling, C. Suryanarayana
181. Mechanical Vibration: Analysis, Uncertainties, and Control,
Second Edition, Revised and Expanded, Haym Benaroya
182. Design of Automatic Machinery, Stephen J. Derby
183. Practical Fracture Mechanics in Design: Second Edition,
Revised and Expanded, Arun Shukla
184. Practical Guide to Designed Experiments, Paul D. Funkenbusch
185. Gigacycle Fatigue in Mechanical Practive, Claude Bathias
and Paul C. Paris
186. Selection of Engineering Materials and Adhesives, Lawrence W. Fisher
187. Boundary Methods: Elements, Contours, and Nodes, Subrata Mukherjee
and Yu Xie Mukherjee
188. Rotordynamics, Agnieszka (Agnes) Muszńyska
189. Pump Characteristics and Applications: Second Edition,
Michael W. Volk
190. Reliability Engineering: Probability Models and Maintenance Methods,
Joel A. Nachlas
191. Industrial Heating: Principles, Techniques, Materials, Applications,
and Design, Yeshvant V. Deshmukh
192. Micro Electro Mechanical System Design, James J. Allen
193. Probability Models in Engineering and Science, Haym Benaroya
and Seon Han
194. Damage Mechanics, George Z. Voyiadjis and Peter I. Kattan
195. Standard Handbook of Chains: Chains for Power Transmission
and Material Handling, Second Edition, American Chain Association and
John L. Wright, Technical Consultant
196. Standards for Engineering Design and Manufacturing,
Wasim Ahmed Khan and Abdul Raouf S.I.
197. Maintenance, Replacement, and Reliability: Theory and Applications,
Andrew K. S. Jardine and Albert H. C. Tsang
198. Finite Element Method: Applications in Solids, Structures, and Heat
Transfer, Michael R. Gosz
199. Microengineering, MEMS, and Interfacing: A Practical Guide,
Danny Banks
200. Fundamentals of Natural Gas Processing, Arthur J. Kidnay
and William Parrish
201. Optimal Control of Induction Heating Processes, Edgar Rapoport
and Yulia Pleshivtseva
202. Practical Plant Failure Analysis: A Guide to Understanding Machinery
Deterioration and Improving Equipment Reliability,
Neville W. Sachs, P.E.
203. Shaft Alignment Handbook, Third Edition, John Piotrowski
204. Advanced Vibration Analysis , S. Graham Kelly
205. Principles of Composite Materials Mechanics, Second Edition,
Ronald F. Gibson
206. Applied Combustion, Second Edition, Eugene L. Keating
207. Introduction to the Design and Behavior of Bolted Joints,
Fourth Edition: Non-Gasketed Joints, John H. Bickford

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 208. Analytical and Approximate Methods in Transport Phenomena,
Marcio L. de Souza-Santos
209. Design and Optimization of Thermal Systems, Second Edition,
Yogesh Jaluria
210. Friction Science and Technology: From Concepts to Applications,
Second Edition, Peter J. Blau
211. Practical Guide to the Packaging of Electronics, Second Edition: Thermal
and Mechanical Design and Analysis, Ali Jamnia
212. Practical Stress Analysis in Engineering Design, Third Edition,
Ronald L. Huston and Harold Josephs
213. Principles of Biomechanics, Ronald L. Huston
214. Mechanical Vibration Analysis, Uncertainties, and Control, Third Edition,
Haym Benaroya and Mark L. Nagurka

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80563_FM.indd 10 5/12/09 10:55:51 AM
 Mechanical Vibration
Analysis, Uncertainties, and Control
T H I R D E D ITION

Haym Benaroya
Rutgers University

Mark L. Nagurka
Marquette University

Boca Raton London New York

CRC Press is an imprint of the

Taylor & Francis Group, an informa business

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CRC Press
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PREFACE

Introductory Comments
From the natural world to the physical world, cycles are everywhere. We
live our lives according to cycles as the days turn into weeks, the weeks into
months, and the months into years. Cycles repeat at regular intervals and
it is this repetitiveness that underlies the concept of vibration.
Humans are drawn to vibration as a source of comfort –from our earliest
days being rocked to sleep to our later years rocking back and forth in a
rocking chair. But, vibration can also be a source of great discomfort1
with the negative e¤ects of numbness, motion sickness, injury, and even
death. Speaking subjectively, vibration can be good or bad depending on
the circumstance.
When we don’t want a cell phone to ring – an example of acoustic
vibration – we put it in a mode called “vibrate.” We intentionally want it
to vibrate. Yet, when our car vibrates too much we know from the shaking
that something is wrong. It could be out of alignment; it could be the
shock absorbers are shot; it could be the engine mounts are bad; it could
be the engine is mis…ring. A trained mechanic will be able to diagnose the
problem based on the vibration signature. In this case, we intentionally
1 Vibration exposure is more than just a nuisance. It can be a serious health hazard.

Constant exposure to vibration has been known to cause a range of medical problems such
as back pain, carpal tunnel syndrome, and vascular disorders. Vibration related injury
is especially prevalent in occupations that require outdoor work, such as construction,
farming, transportation, shipping, and forestry.
There are two classi…cations for vibration exposure: whole-body vibration and hand
and arm vibration. Whole-body vibration is vibration transmitted to the entire body via
the seat or the feet, or both, often through driving or riding in vehicles (including trucks,
tractors, trains, and o¤-road vehicles) or through standing on vibrating ‡oors (near power
presses in a stamping plant or near vibrating heavy machinery, for example; pumps,
compressors, air handling units and other equipment all contribute to the excitation of
the ‡oors). Hand-and-arm vibration, on the other hand, is limited to the hands and arms
and usually results from the use of power hand tools (reciprocating and impact tools,
jackhammers, grinders, woodchippers, for example) and from vehicle controls.

iii
iv

want to eliminate the vibration, although we know the best we can do is

minimize it.
Vibration is pervasive. In fact, it is challenging to …nd examples that
are not related to vibration. Applications of vibration cross disparate dis-
ciplines, well beyond engineering. The following list is only a subset:

biology (pulse rate, breathing rate, biorhythms, balance, tremors,

just to name a few2 )
physics (waves, sound, quantum mechanics)
chemistry (atomic vibration,3 spectroscopy)
astronomy (planetary orbits,4 sunspot cycles)
geology (seismic tremors, earthquakes, volcanic eruptions)
oceanography (ocean waves, deep sea currents)
meteorology (climate and weather cycles)
zoology (predator-prey models of animal populations, host-
parasite cycles, ecosystem cycles, among many others5 )
psychology (seasonal cycles in behavior, sleep cycles, manic-
depressive cycles)
economics (…nancial cycles, business cycles)
agronomy (agricultural cycles)
history (war and peace cycles, governance style cycles)
religion (holidays, life-cycle events)
philosophy (cycles in Eastern philosophy)
parapsychology (astrological cycles)

The word vibration is a common English word that means motion in

oscillation. In a mechanical system, vibration can be viewed as a give-and-
take (tug-of-war) between forces tending toward a balance. The forces are
…ghting each other, causing motion that see-saws back and forth, all the
2 Almost everything in the body is rhythmic. ECG and EEG signals are rhythmic for

a healthy person. Nerve action-potentials are cyclic. Eye blinking is cyclic, although the
rate is not constant. Some rhythms in the body can be varied; many cannot.
3 At an atomic level vibration means there is temperature.
4 A year is the time for the Earth to rotate about the Sun once. A month is the time

for the Moon to rotate about the Earth once. A day is the time for the Earth to rotate
about its axis once.
5 There are many interesting examples: snakes move by and sense vibration, dogs

detect danger by vibration, hummingbird wings ‡ap at known frequencies.

 v

time trying to achieve equilibrium. This simplistic explanation is developed

in much more technical rigor in this book.
We will learn that vibration occurs in a dynamic system that has at
least two independent energy storage elements. We will develop models for
vibration starting with a mass –which stores kinetic energy –and a spring
– which stores potential energy. It is the interplay between the energies
of dynamic systems that is at the root of vibration, even if we might not
normally think about it this way.
We close these introductory remarks with a fact of life. Vibration is life.6
The absence of vibration is death. The more vibration, the more life.7 The
less vibration, the less life.8 We wish you, the reader, a healthy, meaningful
and happy life, something that can only happen if it is …lled with vibration!

Another Vibration Book?

The decision that the profession needs another textbook on any subject
must be made with great humility. That we have come to such a conclusion
is in no way meant to be a rejection of other books. In fact, other books
o¤er ideas and context that we do not. We have chosen to write this book
in the format, content, and depth of description that we would have liked
when we learned the subject for the …rst time.

Audience
Engineering requires several skills, including two which are most fundamen-
tal: (i) the ability to read9 well and (ii) a knowledge of mathematics.10
We have written the book assuming that the reader has mastered the
…rst skill and has a basic knowledge of dynamics, mechanics of materials,
6 How do you know if a person is alive? You check for a pulse, you check if they

are breathing. Similarly, in the inanimate world, the presence of vibration tells us if
something is working. How do you know if a car is running? You check for engine
vibration or noise from the engine and vehicle.
7 The garment industry makes a signi…cant pro…t based on clothes that ensure unmen-

tionable vibrations of people’s parts as they walk. (We decided to spare the reader much
more obvious examples.)
8 Health is measured by vibrations in normal ranges. Illness is identi…ed by vibrations

out of the normal ranges, typically slowing (falling pulse, temperature dropping) but
sometimes growing (racing pulse).
9 Without the ability to read the engineer is doomed. We encourage you to develop

the habit of reading technical material with passion. Only through reading will you be
able to conquer new material and truly learn it. We believe in reading.
1 0 Without a mastery of mathematics, you will …nd yourself handicapped in becoming

and working as an engineer. (You also will be challenged in dealing with your personal
…nances.)
vi

di¤erential equations, and some knowledge of matrix algebra. A review of

some relevant mathematics is presented in the Appendix.
Following our belief that textbooks written for students should present
material with su¢ cient detail to be followed easily, we have included sig-
ni…cant details in the formulations and in the explanations. The book is
written at the level of the senior engineering student and intended for both
undergraduate and graduate students (in mechanical, civil, aerospace, and
other engineering departments).
Although written primarily for use as a textbook for engineering stu-
dents, it is also a useful reference for practicing engineers. The material is
organized so that considerable ‡exibility is o¤ered in arranging for course
level, content, and for self-study.
A considerable amount of thought, feedback, and e¤ort has gone into
preparing this revision. We have tried to make it straightforward to read
and follow. We do not wish to imply, however, that the reader can delve
into this book as if it were a novel. To derive any bene…t from it, each page
must be studied slowly and carefully.

Coverage
The purpose of this textbook is to present comprehensive coverage of the
fundamental principles of vibration theory, with emphasis on the application
of these principles to practical engineering problems. In dealing with the
subject of vibration, the engineer must also consider the option of vibration
control as well as the e¤ects of uncertainties in the analysis. As such, this
book presents the subject of modeling of uncertainties and vibration control
as an integral part of vibration. Of course, this is a text on vibration, and
for extensive and in-depth studies on randomness and control specialized
texts should be sought.

Revisions
There are many changes and additions to this third edition. They are too
numerous to list, but brie‡y, the written word has been examined many
times to make it more readable and clear. The mathematics has been clar-
i…ed and more details presented where viewed as necessary. Interesting
example problems and homework problems have been added, along with
respective explanatory …gures. All these taken together have made this a
new book, not just a minor change of the previous one. The material on
vibration controls has been modi…ed extensively.
Although a signi…cant portion of the text has been revised and expanded,
no major changes have been made in the arrangement or scope since the
 vii

earlier editions. In rewriting this book our objective has been to present
the subject in a clear and thorough way. We hope that we have succeeded.

Examples and Problems

The book has many examples. They have been carefully chosen and are
presented at strategic points so that the reader will have a clearer under-
standing of the subject matter. Some of the example problems are relatively
simple and their purpose is to illustrate new ideas and subject matter. Some
are more elaborate and designed to address more realistic and complicated
problems.
A wide selection of problems is provided at the end of each chapter,
grouped together by section. They range from simple to challenging. Since
engineers must be familiar with SI and U.S. customary systems of units,
both systems are used in the examples and problems.

Biographies
A novel feature of the book is the inclusion of biographies of famous per-
sonalities. We share these in the hope that the readers will appreciate that
these individuals were human beings –like us –who faced many challenges
throughout their lives. Despite their hardships (most are never known11 )
they were successful in making signi…cant contributions. We view them as
role models and our teachers, even if we only know them by their contribu-
tions and through their biographies.
The intent of the biographical summaries is to add for the readers the
essential human connection to this subject. Sadly in our eyes, students are
rarely given the opportunity to read about the famous personalities who
have made major contributions. (Each biography could have been many
pages longer, and it was di¢ cult to edit them down to reasonable size.)
Biographies are included here as a courtesy of Professors E.F. Robert-
son and J.J. O’Connor, School of Mathematical and Computer Sciences,
1 1 Forexample, Max Planck is known as the father of the quantum theory in physics. He
introduced a quantum hypothesis to achieve agreement between his theoretical equations,
which were based on the second law of thermodynamics, and experimental data. Planck
had a long and successful career in physics, and was awarded the Nobel Prize in Physics
in 1918 “in recognition of services he rendered to the advancement of physics by his
discovery of energy quanta.” But, did you know that Planck’s personal life was clouded
by tragedy? His two daughters died in childbirth, one son died in World War I, and
another son was executed in World War II for his part in an assassination attempt on
Hitler in 1944. (Quantum Chemistry, D.A. McQuarrie, Second Edition, University
Science Books, 2007.)
viii

University of St. Andrews, St. Andrews, Scotland. Their web site is

http://www-history.mcs.st-and.ac.uk/history/BiogIndex.html

We have based the biographies in the book on those from St. Andrews
and from other sources. We urge the reader to learn of the history of their
profession. It is glorious.

Further Comments about the Book

This text is essentially self-contained. The student may start at the begin-
ning and continue to the end with rare need to refer to other works, except
to …nd additional perspectives on the subject. But then, no one text can
cover all aspects of a subject as broad as vibration. If more details are
desired, the reader will …nd additional information in other works that are
cited.
There is no separate list of references in this text. The footnotes serve as
such attribution. They are intended to introduce the student to the relevant
journal literature and to some of the very useful texts. In no way are the
references meant to be all inclusive; they are only a starting point.
Writing this book has been an exceptional privilege and an enormous
learning experience. We have spent a signi…cant part of our professional
careers learning the topics of the book. We remain life-long learners and
hope we are granted the gifts of mental facility, physical stamina, and time
to continue studying this subject –and engineering in general –for the rest
of our lives.

Instructional Options
This book includes material that can be covered at two course levels, one
undergraduate and one graduate. The instructor may choose a variety of
options for the use of this text. It is generally possible to skip sections that
do not …t with the philosophy of the instructor. A …rst course is likely to
omit the more advanced subjects such as random vibration in Chapter 5
and the variational approaches of Chapter 7. A logical sequence of material
has been presented in the chapters so that the instructor can leave out
sections that do not …t into the particular syllabus. These omitted topics
can be studied in a second course, where more advanced topics can provide
a broader perspective on vibration.
In particular, an undergraduate course could cover most of the introduc-
tory and background Chapter 1, the single degree-of-freedom Chapters 2 to
 ix

4, and Chapter 8 on multi degree-of-freedom systems. Chapter 5 on ran-

domness and Chapter 6 on feedback control provide the instructor with
resources that permit a customized syllabus.
The second, usually graduate, course could brie‡y review Chapters 1, 2
to 4, introduce the subjects of randomness and control in Chapters 5 and
6, and spend the most time on the variational techniques of Chapter 7, the
multi degree and continuous systems of Chapters 8 to 11, and on nonlin-
ear vibration and stability of Chapter 12. The choices and emphasis will
depend on the level of preparation of the students and the curricular philos-
ophy of the institution. A two semester sequence can cover all the material
contained in this book.

A Special Note to Students

Like most things of meaning in life, the subject of vibration is not easy.
Our goal in writing this textbook has been to help you learn the subject –
but the book must be read and studied if the material is going to sink in.
Nothing beats working through the examples and solving the problems to
conquer the subject of vibration. Going through challenging material and
struggling to understand it can be frustrating, but they are necessary steps
in learning.
Little would be gained if this book could be read once – like a novel –
and fully absorbed without much thought. It is only through the process
of grappling with fundamental concepts of vibration that you can gain a
level of understanding that will make the subject meaningful. Vibrations
has many practical applications and we have tried to convey that sense
throughout the book. Engineers, after all, work in the real-world, solving
real problems that help real people.
It might seem that vibration is an abstract or theoretical discipline,
especially seeing how much math there is here. Some of you may even be
dismayed by the advanced level of math needed. Recognizing the value
of math as a cornerstone to engineering is an important message that we
hope the reader takes away. As we progress through the book, we will rely
on di¤erential equations to model vibrating systems. Elementary models
built of discrete components (masses, springs, dampers) will be couched in
terms of ordinary di¤erential equations. Later models assuming continuous
components (beams, shafts, rods) will be represented by partial di¤erential
equations.
x

MATLAB Primer and Other Resources

Many of the examples and problems of the book have been solved using
the computational package MATLAB.12 For those interested, a MATLAB
primer is included on the text web site at:

http://www.crcpress.com/e_products/download

This document, written by Dr. Stephen Kuchnicki, provides original pro-

grams that cover vibration applications introduced in the text. These pro-
grams can be used to solve complex problems as well as to test one’s solu-
tions. This URL is generic and you will need to enter one of our names to be
routed to the speci…c site of this text. Once you have this information you
can access the site directly. The web site allows us to o¤er supplementary
resources for the reader.

Closing
Despite our best to attempts to catch all errors, there are bound to be some
in the book. We would appreciate your feedback to let us know about errors
so they can be corrected in subsequent printings. We also welcome general
comments, questions, and suggestions.
We may be reached at

benaroya@rci.rutgers.edu
mark.nagurka@marquette.edu

All messages will be acknowledged.

1 2 MATLAB is a registered trademark of The MathWorks, Inc.

Acknowledgments

This work has the digital …ngerprints of a long list of helpful, insightful, and
generous individuals to whom we owe deep gratitude. We are grateful to all
who helped us along the way, including family, friends, as well as teachers
and students, both past and present. We express our sincere appreciation
to students who prompted us with thought-provoking questions. And, we
are indebted to the authors of many books from which we began to learn
and understand the concepts needed for a career in engineering.

We acknowledge and thank individuals who contributed to this edition:

Dr. Seon Han (Texas Tech University, for proofreading and editing of the
text and …gures, creating many of the …gures, and helping with the TEXing),
Dr. Prateek Grover (Marquette, for suggesting technical changes, meaning-
ful feedback, and editing), Paul Bonness (Rutgers, for creating many of the
beautiful graphics in this edition), Dr. Shuguang Huang, Jourdan Huys and
Ray Schmit (Marquette, for proofreading chapters), Evan Kane (engineer,
for information and photographs of vibration absorbers used on pipelines
in Alaska), and Douglas Taylor (Taylor Devices, Inc., for information and
photographs of large ‡uid dampers installed on buildings and bridges).

We have received a number of helpful suggestions from those who taught

from earlier editions of the text. We are especially grateful to Prof. Dr.
Metin Gürgöze (Istanbul Teknik Üniversitesi, Istanbul, Turkey) for the ma-
jor e¤ort he undertook to provide us with corrections and suggestions for
improvement.

We thank CRC Press for this Third Edition, our editor Jonathan Plant
for his interest and support, as well as Amy Blalock for her production
support and graciousness.

Finally, we are grateful to our wives for their patience and understanding
during the preparation of this text.

xi
xii

Acknowledgments: H. Benaroya
No project of this magnitude can be completed without the explicit and
implicit assistance of others. My father Alfred, one of the best engineers I
know, spent many hours helping to make the …rst edition of this book useful
and readable to engineers, and provided valuable insights and suggestions.
What I am today is, to a large measure, a result of his e¤orts and those of
my mother, Esther. I am very grateful.
Several students graciously undertook the task of reading various ver-
sions of the …rst edition of the manuscript. Andrew Mosedale volunteered
to read the initial chapters and came to me with pages of corrections and
suggestions. Professor Ronald Adrezin and Professor Seon Han spent time
preparing solutions to some intricate example and homework problems, as
well as a group of …gures. Joseph Callahan assisted with a set of intricate
…gures. Dr. Stephen Kuchnicki wrote the m–…les for the MATLAB primer
that accompanies this text. Eric Doshna helped with some homework prob-
lem solutions. Raymond Essig, Michael Pelardis and Donald Zellman, Jr.
all read portions of the manuscript and helped with some of the …gures
and some of the homework problem solutions. They all also prepared some
of the computer generated …gures. Thanks go to my former student, Dr.
Patrick Bar-Avi, for introducing me to the important problem of the mov-
ing continua, and especially to the problem of the ‡ow in an elastic pipe.
My former student Mangala Gadagi is thanked for her serious reading of
the …rst edition and pointing out errors and suggesting clari…cations. I also
appreciate the corrections and suggestions that my former students Jason
Florek, Rene David Gabbai and again Mangala Gadagi provided on the
nonlinear oscillations chapter.
I wish to make special mention of Seon Han. I have known her for many
years and I consider her to be a dear friend and a colleague. She has been
helpful in so many ways, for which I will always be grateful.
This work would not have been possible without the supportive environ-
ment provided by the Department of Mechanical and Aerospace Engineering
and Rutgers University, for which I am sincerely grateful.
My exposure to vibration began as a student with the text Introduc-
tion to Structural Dynamics by J.M. Biggs, McGraw-Hill, 1964, and
with the …rst edition of Dynamics of Structures by R.W. Clough and J.
Penzien, McGraw-Hill, 1975. As a teacher, my learning continued with the
following texts: the second edition of Elements of Vibration Analysis by
L. Meirovitch, McGraw-Hill, 1986, Analytical Methods in Vibrations
by L. Meirovitch, Macmillan, 1967, the fourth edition of Vibration Prob-
lems in Engineering by S. Timoshenko, D.H. Young, and W. Weaver, Jr.,
Wiley, 1974, and Engineering Vibration by D.J. Inman, Prentice-Hall,
 xiii

1994.
All these authors have set a standard for technical thoroughness, style,
notation, and content against which I measure the success of our e¤orts.
In particular, certain notation and approaches have been adopted that best
provides the reader with an understanding and an appreciation of the sub-
ject. Since vibration is considered a classical subject, it is impossible to fully
attribute the work of each author who has had a hand in the development
of the discipline, but this has been done so as much as possible, and we
regret any unintentional slight.
With this Third Edition I welcome as coauthor my lifelong friend Mark
Nagurka. We have known each other for over thirty years and compare notes
on what life has o¤ered us. I am grateful for this friendship and consider
Mark to be the brother I never had.
I thank my family for their love and support through times of all stripes.

Acknowledgments: M. Nagurka
I thank Marquette University – dedicated to education – for providing me
with a warm, open, intellectual work environment and for the opportunity
to grow and contribute. It is a rare privilege to be part of the Marquette
community. I thank Prof. Kyuil (Kyle) Kim (Chair, Department of Me-
chanical Engineering), Prof. G.E. Otto Widera (former Chair, and to whom
I will always be grateful for inviting me to Marquette), Associate Dean
Michael Switzenbaum (College of Engineering), Dean Stan Jaskolski (Col-
lege of Engineering), Ms. Annette Wolak (O¢ ce Associate, Department
of Mechanical Engineering), and all my colleagues in the department and
college.
I have been blessed with a lifetime of friendships and professional collab-
orations that have been a source of immeasurable meaning in my life. The
opportunity to join in this Third Edition was extended by my very special
friend, Haym Benaroya, whom I …rst met at the University of Pennsylvania
in 1978. I could not have asked for a closer friend, and I am indebted and
grateful for this lifelong connection.
I thank family and friends for their love and support and for weathering
the times that I have been absent-minded and absent-bodied. It is with
deep gratitude that I thank you for keeping me a‡oat.
Limited Warranty

This textbook is provided “as is,” without warranty of any kind, and no
other warranties, either expressed or implied, are made with respect to this
textbook. The authors do not warrant, guarantee, or make any representa-
tions regarding the use, or the results of the use, of this book. If you fail
the exam, it is not our fault.
We do not guarantee this textbook in terms of correctness, accuracy,
reliability, or otherwise. We do not guarantee this textbook in terms of
precision, linearity, hysteresis, bias or otherwise. Furthermore, we do not
warrant the reading of this book while operating road vehicles or heavy
equipment or while text messaging.
This textbook is not designed for use in the diagnosis and treatment of
humans or in any life-support systems whose failure to perform can reason-
ably be expected to cause signi…cant injury to a human. If you are using
this book to level a heart-lung machine and it slips o¤, it is not our fault.
The authors expressly disclaim any warranties not stated herein nor shall
we be liable for any direct or indirect damages. Furthermore, we expressly
disclaim any other warranties not stated herein nor shall we be liable for
any real and imaginary damages, as complex as they may be.
We thank the legal profession for subconsciously forcing us to add this
section, and hope the reader understands the serious message. You have to
waste a lot of time on legal junk to be an engineer!
Read this book –and apply it –at your own risk. Caveat emptor.

xv
Dedication

H. Benaroya
In honor of my parents, Rita and Alfred Benaroya, who care
very much for their children. Thank you.
In love of my wife, Shelley, and our children, Ana Faye and
Adam Nathaniel, for all the wonderful times.
In friendship and love of my sister Dahlia, her husband Ron,
and their son Max, for being there.

M. Nagurka
In memory of my mother, Calma M. Nagurka, z"l (February 6,
1928 - January 6, 2006), who always helped others and showered
us with kindness. You are deeply missed.
In honor of my father, Jack Nagurka, a bigger-than-life role
model of courage, respect, and seeing the positive, who instilled
in us the pursuit of knowledge and faith.
and
In love of my wife, Anita L. Nagurka, for being by my side and
…lling my life with your compassion, devotion, and a¤ection.

Both of Us
We also dedicate this book to all who pursue goodness, especially
those who sel‡essly …ght for our freedom. Everything we do, all
that we treasure, ultimately rests on the shoulders of those who
not only support freedom and its institutions with their words
–but with their lives.

xvii
Contents

1 Introduction and Background 1

1.0.1 Challenges and Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 3
1.1 Basic Concepts of Systems and Structures . . . . . . . . . . 10
1.2 Basic Concepts of Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 11
1.2.1 Modeling for Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.2 Problem Idealization and Formulation . . . . . . . . . 12
1.2.3 Concepts of Inertia, Sti¤ness, and Damping . . . . . . 18
1.2.4 Properties of Computer Keyboard Keys . . . . . . . . 19
1.2.5 Computational Aspects . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 22
1.2.6 Is Vibration Good or Bad? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 23
1.2.7 Basic Concepts of Vibration Control . . . . . . . . . . 26
1.3 Basic Concepts of Random Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . 27
1.3.1 Deterministic vs. Nondeterministic Signals . . . . . . 27
1.3.2 Deterministic Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . 28
1.3.3 Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.4 System Uncertainty . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 29
1.3.5 Random Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4 Types of System Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 30
1.4.1 Approximating Nonlinear Behavior . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.2 Assumptions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 31
1.4.3 Discrete Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 32
1.4.4 Continuous Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.4.5 Nonlinear Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.5 Basic Dynamics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.5.1 Statics and Equilibrium . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 33
1.5.2 The Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 34
1.5.3 Linear Momentum and Impulse . . . . . . . . . . . . 37
1.5.4 Principles of Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . 38
1.6 Units . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 42
1.6.1 Metric Confusion Caused Mars Orbiter Loss . . . . . 42

xix
xx CONTENTS

1.6.2 U.S. Customary and SI Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . 42

1.6.3 The Second . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 43
1.6.4 Dimensional Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 45
1.7 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48
1.8 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 48

2 Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration: Discrete Models 51

2.1 Motivating Examples . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.1 Transport of a Satellite . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 52
2.1.2 Rocket . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 55
2.2 Mathematical Modeling: Deterministic . . . . . . . . . . . . 56
2.2.1 Problem Idealization and Formulation . . . . . . . . . 56
2.2.2 Modeling Components of a Mechanical System: Mass,
Damping, and Sti¤ness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 59
2.2.3 Sources of Deterministic Approximation . . . . . . . . 60
2.2.4 Formulating Equations of Motion for a Deterministic
System: Newton’s Second Law . . . . . . . . . . . . . 61
2.2.5 Equations of Motion: Energy Formulation . . . . . . 76
2.2.6 Representing Harmonic Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . 82
2.2.7 Solution of the Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . 91
2.3 Undamped Free Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 92
2.3.1 Alternate Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 95
2.3.2 Phase Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 99
2.4 Undamped Forced Harmonic Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . 101
2.4.1 A Note on Terminology . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 102
2.4.2 Resonance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 105
2.4.3 Vibration of a Structure in Water . . . . . . . . . . . 119
2.5 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.6 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 129
2.7 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 130

3 Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration: Discrete Models with

Damping 157
3.1 Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 157
3.1.1 Examples of Larger Dampers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 162
3.1.2 Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 164
3.1.3 Coulomb (Dry Friction) Damping . . . . . . . . . . . 165
3.1.4 Damping Measures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 166
3.2 Free Vibration with Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . 167
3.2.1 Critical and Overdamped Systems . . . . . . . . . . . 168
3.2.2 Underdamped Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 171
3.2.3 The Logarithmic Decrement . . . . . . . . . . . . . 176
CONTENTS xxi

3.2.4 Some Time Constants . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 179

3.2.5 Phase Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 185
3.3 Free Response with Coulomb Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . 186
3.4 Forced Vibration with Viscous Damping . . . . . . . . . . . 190
3.5 Forced Harmonic Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.5.1 Harmonic Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 193
3.5.2 Harmonic Excitation in Complex Notation . . . . . . 202
3.5.3 Harmonic Base Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 204
3.5.4 Rotating Unbalance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 210
3.6 Periodic But Not Harmonic Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.6.1 Harmonic/Spectral Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 224
3.6.2 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 225
3.7 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 229
3.8 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 230
3.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 231

4 Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration: General Loading and

Advanced Topics 245
4.1 Arbitrary Loading: Laplace Transform . . . . . . . . . . . . 246
4.2 Step Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 251
4.3 Impulsive Excitation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 261
4.4 Arbitrary Loading . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 265
4.5 Introduction to Lagrange’s Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 274
4.6 Notions of Randomness . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 284
4.7 Notions of Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 285
4.8 The Inverse Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 286
4.9 A Self-Excited System and Its Stability . . . . . . . . . . . . 287
4.10 Solution Analysis and Design Techniques . . . . . . . . . . . 288
4.11 A Model of a Bouncing Ball . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 300
4.11.1 Time of Contact . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 302
4.11.2 Sti¤ness and Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 304
4.11.3 Natural Frequency and Damping Ratio . . . . . . . . 305
4.11.4 Approximations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 305
4.12 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 307
4.13 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308
4.14 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 308

5 Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration: Probabilistic Loading 317

5.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 317
5.2 Example Problems and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 322
5.2.1 Random Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 323
5.2.2 Fatigue Life . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 324
xxii CONTENTS

5.2.3 Ocean Wave Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 325

5.2.4 Wind Forces . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.2.5 Material Properties . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 328
5.2.6 Statistics and Probability . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 329
5.3 Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 330
5.3.1 Probability Distribution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 331
5.3.2 Probability Density Function . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 332
5.4 Mathematical Expectation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 334
5.4.1 Variance . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 337
5.5 Useful Probability Densities . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.5.1 The Uniform Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 338
5.5.2 The Exponential Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 341
5.5.3 The Normal (Gaussian) Density . . . . . . . . . . . . 342
5.5.4 The Lognormal Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 348
5.5.5 The Rayleigh Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 349
5.6 Two Random Variables . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 353
5.6.1 Covariance and Correlation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 355
5.7 Random Processes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 360
5.7.1 Basic Random Process Descriptors . . . . . . . . . . . 360
5.7.2 Ensemble Averaging . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 361
5.7.3 Stationarity . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 365
5.7.4 Power Spectrum . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 367
5.8 Random Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.8.1 Formulation and Preliminaries . . . . . . . . . . . . . 375
5.8.2 Derivation of Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5.8.3 Response Correlations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 377
5.8.4 Response Spectral Density . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 379
5.9 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 383
5.10 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384
5.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 384

6 Single Degree-of-Freedom Vibration: Control 393

6.1 Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 394
6.2 Approaches to Controlling Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 396
6.2.1 Why Active Control? . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 397
6.3 Feedback Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 399
6.3.1 Disadvantages of Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 406
6.4 Performance of Feedback Control Systems . . . . . . . . . . 407
6.4.1 Poles and Zeros of a Second-Order System . . . . . . 414
6.4.2 System Gain . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 415
6.4.3 Stability of Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
6.5 Control of Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418
CONTENTS xxiii

6.5.1 Control Actions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 418

6.5.2 Control of Transient Response . . . . . . . . . . . . . 420
6.6 Sensitivity to Parameter Variations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 424
6.7 State Variable Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 430
6.7.1 Transfer Function from State Equation . . . . . . . . 435
6.7.2 Controllability and Observability . . . . . . . . . . . . 437
6.7.3 State Variable Feedback . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 441
6.8 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 443
6.9 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444
6.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 444

7 Variational Principles and Analytical Dynamics 451

7.1 Introduction . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 451
7.2 Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
7.2.1 Work and Energy . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 453
7.2.2 Principle of Virtual Work . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 456
7.2.3 D’Alembert’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 460
7.3 Lagrange’s Equation of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 471
7.3.1 Lagrange’s Equation for Small Oscillations . . . . . . 481
7.4 Hamilton’s Principle . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 486
7.5 Lagrange’s Equation with Damping . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 490
7.6 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 491
7.7 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492
7.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 492

8 Multi Degree-of-Freedom Vibration: Introductory Topics 503

8.1 Example Problems and Motivation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 503
8.1.1 Periodic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
8.1.2 Inverse Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 504
8.1.3 Vehicle Vibration Testing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 505
8.1.4 Scope . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 506
8.2 The Concepts of Sti¤ness and Flexibility . . . . . . . . . . . 506
8.2.1 In‡uence Coe¢ cients . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 507
8.3 Derivation of Equations of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 516
8.3.1 Properties of Mass and Sti¤ness Matrices . . . . . . . 523
8.4 Undamped Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 525
8.4.1 Two Degree-of-Freedom Motion: Direct Method . . . 525
8.4.2 Forced Vibration by the Direct Method . . . . . . . . 537
8.4.3 Undamped Vibration Absorber . . . . . . . . . . . . . 540
8.4.4 Beating Oscillations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 547
8.5 Direct Method: Free Vibration with Damping . . . . . . . . 555
8.6 Modal Analysis . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 567
xxiv CONTENTS

8.6.1 Modal Orthogonality . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 568

8.6.2 Modal Analysis with Forcing . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 575
8.6.3 Modal Analysis with Proportional Damping . . . . . 583
8.7 Real and Complex Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 589
8.7.1 Modal Analysis Compared to the Direct Method . . . 591
8.8 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
8.9 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 593
8.10 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 594

9 Multi Degree-of-Freedom Vibration: Advanced Topics 607

9.1 Overview . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
9.2 Unrestrained Systems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 607
9.2.1 Repeated Frequencies . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 617
9.3 The Geometry of the Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . 618
9.4 Periodic Structures . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 621
9.4.1 Perfect Lattice Models . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 622
9.4.2 E¤ects of Imperfection . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 624
9.5 Inverse Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 626
9.5.1 Deterministic Inverse Vibration Problem . . . . . . . 628
9.5.2 E¤ect of Uncertain Data . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 632
9.6 Sloshing of Fluids in Containers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 637
9.7 Stability of Motion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 641
9.8 Multivariable Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
9.8.1 State and Output Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 645
9.8.2 Controllability and Observability . . . . . . . . . . . . 646
9.8.3 Closed-Loop Feedback of MIMO Systems . . . . . . . 647
9.9 Stochastic Response of MDOF System . . . . . . . . . . . . . 648
9.10 Stochastic Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 652
9.11 Rayleigh’s Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 654
9.12 Monte Carlo Simulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 659
9.12.1 Random Number Generation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 660
9.12.2 Generation of Random Variates . . . . . . . . . . . . 662
9.12.3 Generating a Time History for a Random Process
De…ned by a Power Spectral Density . . . . . . . . . 665
9.13 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 668
9.14 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669
9.15 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 669

10 Continuous Models for Vibration 675

10.1 Limit of a Discrete Formulation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 675
10.2 Vibration of Strings . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 678
10.2.1 Wave Propagation Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 681
CONTENTS xxv

10.2.2 The Wave Equation via Hamilton’s Principle . . . . . 685

10.2.3 Boundary Value Problem for a String . . . . . . . . . 689
10.2.4 Modal Solution for Fixed-Fixed Boundary
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 690
10.3 Longitudinal (Axial) Vibration of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . 696
10.3.1 Newton’s Approach to the Governing Equation . . . . 696
10.3.2 Hamilton’s Variational Approach to the Governing
Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 698
10.3.3 Simpli…ed Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . . . . . . . 700
10.3.4 Eigenfunction Expansion Method . . . . . . . . . . . 704
10.4 Torsional Vibration of Shafts . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 711
10.4.1 Torsion of Shaft with Rigid Disk at One End . . . . . 714
10.5 Transverse Vibration of Beams . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 716
10.5.1 Derivation of the Equations of Motion for the Timo-
shenko Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 717
10.5.2 Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
10.5.3 The Bernoulli-Euler Beam . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 723
10.5.4 Orthogonality of the Modes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 731
10.5.5 Nodes and Antinodes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
10.6 Beam Vibration: Special Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 744
10.6.1 Transverse Vibration of Beam with Axial Force . . . 744
10.6.2 Transverse Vibration of Beam with Elastic
Restraints . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 747
10.6.3 Transverse Vibration of Beam on Elastic
Foundation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 750
10.6.4 Response of a Beam with a Moving Support . . . . . 751
10.6.5 Di¤erent Boundary Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . 753
10.6.6 Response of a Beam to a Traveling Force . . . . . . . 755
10.7 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
10.8 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 757
10.9 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 758

11 Advanced Continuous Models for Vibration 769

11.1 Vibration of Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
11.1.1 Rectangular Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 769
11.1.2 Circular Membranes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 777
11.2 Vibration of Plates . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 785
11.2.1 Rectangular Plates: Equation Derivation . . . . . . . 786
11.2.2 Rectangular Plates: Eigenvalue Problem . . . . . . . 790
11.3 Random Vibration of Continuous Structures . . . . . . . . . 795
11.4 Approximate Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
11.4.1 Rayleigh’s Quotient . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 800
xxvi CONTENTS

11.4.2 Rayleigh-Ritz Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 802

11.4.3 The Galerkin Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 812
11.5 Variables That Do Not Separate . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 815
11.5.1 Nonharmonic, Time-Dependent Boundary
Conditions . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 816
11.5.2 Flow in a Pipe with Constant Tension . . . . . . . . . 827
11.6 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 834
11.7 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835
11.8 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 835

12 Nonlinear Vibration 839

12.1 Examples of Nonlinear Vibration . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 842
12.1.1 Approximate Solution of Simple Pendulum . . . . . . 847
12.1.2 Exact Solution of Simple Pendulum . . . . . . . . . . 847
12.1.3 The Du¢ ng and the van der Pol Equations . . . . . . 849
12.2 The Phase Plane . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 850
12.2.1 Stability of Equilibria . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 855
12.3 Perturbation Methods . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 860
12.3.1 Lindstedt-Poincaré Method . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 866
12.3.2 Forced Oscillations of Quasi-Harmonic Systems . . . 869
12.3.3 Jump Phenomenon . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 873
12.3.4 Periodic Solutions of Non-Autonomous Systems . . . 875
12.3.5 Subharmonic and Superharmonic Oscillations . . . . 880
12.4 The Mathieu Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 884
12.5 The van der Pol Equation . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 890
12.5.1 The Unforced van der Pol Equation . . . . . . . . . . 892
12.5.2 Limit Cycles . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 892
12.5.3 The Forced van der Pol Equation . . . . . . . . . . . 893
12.6 Motion in the Large . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 899
12.7 Nonlinear Control . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 902
12.8 Advanced Topics . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 908
12.8.1 Random Du¢ ng Oscillator . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 909
12.8.2 The Nonlinear Pendulum via Galerkin Method . . . . 911
12.9 Concepts Summary . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
12.10 Quotes . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 913
12.11 Problems . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 914

A Mathematical Concepts for Vibration 917

A.1 Complex Numbers . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 917
A.1.1 Adding and Subtracting . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 918
A.1.2 Multiplication . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 919
A.1.3 Division . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 920
CONTENTS xxvii

A.2 Matrices . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 921

A.2.1 Matrix Operations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 922
A.2.2 Determinant and Matrix Inverse . . . . . . . . . . . . 924
A.2.3 Eigenvalues and Eigenvectors of a Square Matrix . . . 926
A.2.4 Matrix Derivatives and Integrals . . . . . . . . . . . . 927
A.3 Taylor Series and Linearization . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 928
A.4 Ordinary Di¤erential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 930
A.4.1 Solution of Linear Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 932
A.4.2 Homogeneous Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 933
A.4.3 Particular Solution . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 937
A.5 Laplace Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 940
A.5.1 Borel’s Theorem . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 942
A.5.2 Partial Fraction Expansion . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 943
A.5.3 Laplace Transform Table . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 944
A.5.4 Initial-Value and Final-Value Theorems . . . . . . . . 944
A.6 Fourier Series and Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
A.6.1 Fourier Series . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 946
A.6.2 Fourier Transforms . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 948
A.7 Partial Di¤erential Equations . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . . 949

Index 953
Chapter 1

Introduction and
Background

“For it is wise to start simply.”

You are starting to read a book on the subject of engineering vibration.

Vibration refers to the oscillatory dynamic response of mechanical systems
such as machines, mechanisms, and motors and of structures such as build-
ings, aircraft, and spacecraft. Our concern is how such systems behave when
undergoing motion, especially oscillatory motion.1

What Is Engineering?
Engineering is a profession of immense creativity and unsung contribution.
Those who work in the profession have given us innumerable gifts – gifts
that we all too often take for granted and on which we totally rely. As
we look around almost all things we can see and use are the results and
contributions of engineers. Sadly, we rarely know the names of those who
gave us these gifts.
Engineers use scienti…c knowledge to safely and economically solve prac-
tical problems to meet human needs. Engineers apply technical and sci-
enti…c knowledge to design and implement structures, machines, devices,
systems, and processes that safely meet desired objectives or criteria – for
the bene…t of people.
The marvel of engineering is one that is hard to capture in words. We
decided to draw on three views that hopefully help paint the picture:
1A student once de…ned vibration as motion that cannot decide which way to go.

1
2 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

“Engineering is one of the oldest examples of applied art – a unique

union of speci…c need and speci…c design in a process that yields an
engineered work or product. The role of engineering in providing for
mankind’s material needs is as old as civilization and had its origin
in the non-literate ages of man’s antiquity. Archaeology constantly
provides us with newly discovered examples of man’s early ability to
provide for his own and society’s well-being through the creative act
of design.”2

“Engineering problems are under-de…ned, there are many solutions,

good, bad and indi¤erent. The art is to arrive at a good solution. This
is a creative activity, involving imagination, intuition and deliberate
choice.”3

“Scientists study the world as it is, engineers create the world that
never has been.”4

The broad discipline of engineering encompasses a range of specialized

subdisciplines, each with a speci…c emphasis on certain …elds of application
and particular areas of technology.

What Is Vibration?
The subject of engineering vibration is a subset of the discipline of mechan-
ics, the science of motions, forces, and time. Mechanics is comprised of
statics – in which time is not a factor – and dynamics – in which time is
a factor. Dynamics includes the special areas of kinematics and kinetics.
Kinematics is the branch of classical mechanics that describes the motion
of objects without consideration of the causes leading to their motion. It is
called “the geometry of motion.”The other branch is kinetics, which studies
the relationship between the motion of objects and its causes. The …eld of
vibration encompasses both kinematic and kinetic problems of engineering
mechanics, as depicted in Figure 1.1.
The subject of vibration has a rich history. Its modern formal study is
often attributed to Rayleigh5 who authored a two part monograph in 1877
2 A History of Engineering and Technology: Artful Methods, E. Garrison,

CRC Press, 1998.

3 This quote is attributed to Ove Arup, also known as Sir Ove Nyquist Arup (April

16, 1895 – February 5, 1988). He was a leading Anglo-Danish engineer and the founder
of the global …rm Arup.
4 This quote is attributed to Theodore von Kármán. His biography appears later in

the book.
5 Lord Rayleigh’s real name was John William Strutt, and he was the Third Baron

Rayleigh. A biography appears later in the book.

 3

Figure 1.1: A high-level demarcation of the discipline of mechanics showing

where vibration …ts.

and 1878.6 Many aspects of vibration, and the overlapping …eld of acoustics,
predate Rayleigh and can be viewed as classical, having been pursued by
mathematicians, physicists, and even physicians during earlier centuries.7

1.0.1 Challenges and Examples

Despite the long history of activity in the subject, problems from the world
of vibration continue to challenge academic and industrial researchers. While
engineers understand the subject in its basic form, new applications force
us to reconsider earlier and simpler formulations that were suitable for less
demanding applications.
Consider, for example, the di¢ culty of designing structures to survive
6 The Theory of Sound, Lord Rayleigh, Vol.1, 1877, Vol.2, 1878. Rayleigh’s mono-

graph, The Theory of Sound, was republished by Dover in 1945. Two books on the
history of mechanics that include details on vibration may also be of interest: A History
of Mechanics, R. Dugas, Dover, 1968, and History of Strength of Materials, S.P.
Timoshenko, Dover, 1983. Dover is an excellent publisher of inexpensive copies of older
and out-of-print scienti…c and mathematical works.
7 A recommended short article on the relation between the natural sciences, mathe-

matics, and engineering is by M.A. Biot, “Science and the Engineer,” Applied Mechanics
Reviews, Vol.16, No.2, Feb.1963, pp.89-90. It remains timely and is interesting reading.
4 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

vibration in extreme environments such as in the ocean, in outer space, or

in seismically active regions. Or, consider next-generation machines made
of advanced materials that are to operate at maximum speeds at very high
temperatures and pressures. Will they vibrate out of control? Will they
operate for a limited time and then fail? Will they work at all? Engineers
continually extend the limits of system performance in extreme environ-
ments. For successful designs that stand the test of time, engineers rely on
computer simulation studies based on models as well as experimental tests.8
Engineers face an amazing array of real-world challenges. To help moti-
vate the subject, we identify several examples that “push the envelope” of
design:
Large o¤shore structures must be designed for ocean depths of well
over 300 m.9 An example is the Troll A platform shown in Figure 1.2.
Some o¤shore structures use cables and tethers that extend through
1 km of ocean. These structures must be designed to withstand very
large forces due to ocean waves, currents, and winds and survive for
many years of operational life. The analysis and design of such struc-
tures requires an in-depth (no pun intended ) understanding of vibra-
tion to predict structural behavior. The ocean and wind environments
are modeled using random vibration probabilistic models.
Aircraft and spacecraft are complex structures that provide a dual
challenge to the engineer. They must be designed to minimize weight
and maximize strength to withstand the severe forces of the atmosphere
and space, respectively. Aircraft contain thousands of mechanical, hy-
draulic, and electronic components under computer control that must
successfully work in concert, within the design speci…cations, to pro-
vide a safe haven for air travelers. Since the 1950s spacecraft devel-
opment has been an exciting and challenging pursuit for engineers.10
Structures that are designed to operate in space must be protected
from the Earth’s environment during their route into orbit. They
must be able to withstand severe temperature gradients in space. The
vibrational demands on spacecraft have pushed engineering creativ-
ity in the areas of materials science and control. The engineer must
examine all aspects and paths of the spacecraft on its way from the
manufacturing facility to the launchpad and beyond.
8 Statistical methods for design are often a core part of engineering models. These

methods are especially important for design in extreme environments due to the inherent
complexities and uncertainties that cannot be reduced to de…nitive design constraints.
9 In this textbook, both SI and English systems of units are used. Later in this chapter,

a more complete discussion of units appears.

1 0 Dream Machines: An Illustrated History of the Spaceship in Art, Science,

and Literature, R. Miller, Krieger Publishers, 1993.

 5

Figure 1.2: The Troll A platform in the North Sea for production of gas. It
is among the largest and most complex engineering projects. The Troll A
was built by Norwegian Contractors for Norske Shell. This gas platform was
a televised sensation when it was towed into the North Sea in 1996, where
it is operated by Statoil. There are between 200 and 300 people working
on the platform. Troll A has an overall height of 472 meters and weighs
656,000 tons. The platform stands on the sea ‡oor 303 m below the surface
of the sea. The walls of Troll A’s legs are over 1 m thick. The base and the
deck were built separately. They were joined while the base was partially
submerged. It has the distinction of being the tallest structure ever moved
by mankind. The Troll platform was towed over 200 km from Vats, in the
northern part of Rogaland, to the Troll …eld, 80 km northwest of Bergen.
The tow took seven days. Gas rises from 40 wells, and is exported through
a number of pipes. In 2006, the 10th anniversary of Statoil’s operatorship
of Troll gas production was celebrated with a concert by Katie Melua held
in the Troll A platform. As well as entertaining the workers on the rig, the
concert set a new world record for the deepest underwater concert at 303
m. In 1996 the platform set the Guiness World Record for “largest o¤shore
gas platform.” (Courtesy of Helge Hansen/StatoilHydro.)
6 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 1.3: Computational ‡uid dynamics image of space shuttle launch

con…guration with surrounding ‡ow. (Courtesy of NASA Ames Research
Center, Image Number ACD97-0192-1, 1997.)

Structures and machines designed for the Earth’s seismic regions must
operate safely when subjected to earthquakes. For the most severe
earthquakes, homes and buildings must not fail in a way that will
harm occupants. A signi…cant challenge is that the designer does not
know in advance when an earthquake will occur or what its magnitude
will be. The time of the loading event is of importance for structures
such as o¢ ce buildings that have di¤erent occupancy levels at di¤erent
times of day. For an economical and safe design, engineering computer
tools that include statistical methods are needed. Historical records
are used to estimate these characteristics for a particular region, and
they must be accounted for in any earthquake-resistant design. Figure
1.4 shows damping elements on each ‡oor of a building.

As another example of an earthquake-resistant design, consider the

17-story Buddhist Headquarters building, shown in the photograph
of Figure 1.5 taken during construction in 2002 in Taipei, Taiwan.
Vibration dampers were installed at each ‡oor to dissipate energy in
the event of an earthquake.11

Problems in the …eld of vibration seem ubiquitous. Applications criss-

cross the entire spectrum of engineering disciplines. One goal of this book
is to introduce the reader to some of these problems and provide the reader
1 1 The building contains a total of 60 dampers, each having a 178 mm stroke and
capable of carrying a 981 kN load.
 7

Figure 1.4: Building showing damping elements between ‡oors. A

MR damper – or magnetorheological damper – contains a suspension of
micrometer-sized magnetic particles in a carrier ‡uid, usually a type of oil.
When subjected to a magnetic …eld, the ‡uid greatly increases its apparent
viscosity. The yield stress of the ‡uid can be controlled by varying the mag-
netic …eld intensity. Thus, the MR damper’s ability to transmit force can
be controlled with an electromagnet, which gives rise to its many possible
control-based applications. Chevron braces consist of two braces forming
an inverted V-shape that can carry both compression and tension loads.
(Courtesy of Lord Corporation, Cary, NC.)
8 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 1.5: Large dampers installed on each ‡oor at the Buddhist head-
quarters in Taipei, Taiwan. (Courtesy of Mr. Douglas P. Taylor of Taylor
Devices, Inc.)

with fundamental methods of engineering vibration analysis to help under-

stand and solve them.
Vibration sensing is an important aspect of measurement. Seismology
is the study of vibration primarily focused on detecting and monitoring
ground vibrations or earthquakes. Seismology is also used to study bomb
blasts to determine signatures and locations, for example, to verify nuclear
test ban treaties. In addition to detecting earthquakes deep in the earth,
vibration sensing is able to detect vibrations in engines, motors, and indus-
trial machinery. It can also be used for diagnosis by monitoring vibrations
over time.12
There are many excellent textbooks on vibration including Meirovitch,13

1 2 By monitoring vibration over time it is possible to identify problems that may be

developing, before they become catastrophic.

1 3 Elements of Vibration Analysis, L. Meirovitch, Second Edition, McGraw-Hill,

1990.
 9

Weaver, Timoshenko and Young,14 Inman,15 Thompson,16 and Kelley.17

Others are cited in the body of the text. This book is written with an
e¤ort to build on these classics. The study of vibration in this book in-
cludes, in addition to classical vibration analysis, two disciplines that are
much younger but have become an intimate part of vibration: uncertainty
modeling and vibration control.
Classical vibration is based on many simplifying assumptions. One such
assumption is determinism, which means that parameters and system mod-
els are known. Although determinism is reasonable in most engineering
applications, it cannot be used in problems where complex behavior occurs,
for example, in seismic analysis or the estimation of aerodynamic loads.
In such cases, statistical scatter of data precludes a deterministic analysis.
We do not know when an earthquake will occur or when a peak gust will
appear. The best we can hope for is to be able to estimate the probability
of occurrence.
With structures being designed for extreme environments and for new
applications, it has become necessary to consider how to minimize exces-
sive vibratory motion. Thus, the need to control vibrational behavior has
become increasingly important. Active control of structures is a relatively
new …eld, which builds on the mature discipline of feedback control, tran-
scending many …elds. Much of the development of vibration control evolved
from earlier developments in the aerospace and space communities, where
control system design was integrated into the design of aircraft, spacecraft,
and rockets to meet performance and mass requirements.
Our studies begin with simple deterministic models. These models per-
mit us to understand the fundamentals of vibratory systems and enable us
to predict key features of their behavior. We then continue to more re-
alistic and complex models. For example, we will begin with the simple
harmonic motion of a structure that can be represented by a single degree-
of-freedom model. Later, it will be of interest to examine the e¤ects of
random loading and the need to control the vibratory behavior by passive
and active means. We then investigate more detailed models involving mul-
tiple degrees-of-freedom leading to our …nal chapters on continuous systems
(which theoretically have an in…nite number of degrees-of-freedom) and on
nonlinear vibration.
In this manner, insight and intuition will be built up methodically, re-
1 4 Vibration Problems in Engineering, W. Weaver, S.P. Timoshenko, D.H. Young,

Fifth Edition, Wiley-Interscience, 1990.

1 5 Engineering Vibration, D.J. Inman, Prentice-Hall, 1994.
1 6 Theory of Vibration with Applications, W.T. Thompson, Fourth Edition,

Prentice-Hall, 1993.
1 7 Advanced Vibration Analysis, S.G. Kelley, CRC Press, 2007.
10 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

sulting in a sophisticated understanding of vibration. The remainder of this

chapter provides a qualitative introduction to the topics introduced in the
following chapters. This book includes numerous example problems to help
…x these ideas more …rmly. With this grounding, more advanced problems
become accessible.

1.1 Basic Concepts of Systems and Structures

The terms systems and structures are sometimes distinguished as follows:
structures are used to represent particular elements such as beams and
rods, mechanical components such as rotors, or a large-scale grouping of
assembled components. The term systems is meant to be more abstract
and general. All structures are systems, but not all systems are structures.
Engineering systems can range in scale from the miniscule, arising from
nanotechnology, to the enormous, such as stadiums, bridges, and expansive
structures. Oftentimes, the terms mechanical systems and structural sys-
tems are used interchangeably.18 We use both terms to represent structures
or more general assemblies signifying that simple structural models can be
utilized in studies of complex interconnected groups of components. Exam-
ples of non-structural systems can be based on ‡uidic or electromagnetic
components.
A system may be de…ned as a group of integrated items, behaving as
a unit, such as automobiles, industrial machines, and computers. Systems
may be engineered or they may exist naturally. Humans, plants, and ani-
mals are all natural systems, and are much more complicated and sophis-
ticated than engineered systems. Understanding natural systems requires
knowledge of biology, chemistry, and physics.
System modeling is the process of approximating physical characteristics
into a mathematical representation, generally consisting of one or more
equations. Mathematical analyses can then be brought to bear to “solve”
the equations.19 Solving the equations eventually results in a prediction of
model behavior. The engineer’s task is then to study these predictions and
make sure they make sense physically. It is also to make sure that a design
based on them can be created for manufacture or construction.
1 8 Engineering textbooks sometimes distinguish between the words system and struc-

ture, reserving structure to mean rigid, that is, no part is in motion relative to any other
part. This special case is a useful model in statics and dynamics, and is referred to as
zero degrees-of-freedom. In reality, there are no perfectly rigid structures, as at some
scale and load, there are always …nite deformations.
1 9 System modeling is generally very challenging and requires creativity and intuition.

It is not following a cookbook! Modeling is as much an art developed after much practice
and experience as it is a science.
1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 11

Implicit in these de…nitions is the separation of the system from its en-
vironment. An environment is generally viewed as external to the system,
interacting with the system and being the source of inputs to the system
that a¤ect its behavior. The development of linear system models generally
proceeds independently of environmental models. Once the vibration char-
acteristics of the system are represented accurately, it is possible to examine
how the system behaves in various environments of di¤ering characteristics.
For simple models, Chapters 2, 3 and 4 introduce us to these studies. Non-
linear system models require that the system and environmental aspects
be considered simultaneously. This is an added complexity of nonlinear
models, and is treated in Chapter 12.
Linearity is signi…cant because it draws on a suite of applicable theo-
ries that simplify the formulation and solution of the problems at hand.
The assumption (that must be veri…ed) that a system behaves linearly and
elastically allows the engineer to de…ne many characteristics about that
structure.
The environment exerts loads or forces on the system. We use the terms
loads and forces interchangeably. However, a load is a more general term.
For example, a temperature gradient is a load but not a force.

1.2 Basic Concepts of Vibration

We will learn to represent vibrating systems by mathematical models, and
to occasionally account for uncertainties in these models. Once the basics
are understood, we will begin to explore how to modify the behavior of the
system, or control its vibratory characteristics, so that it can perform as
desired under stricter margins.
For example, what if an analysis of structural response amplitudes pre-
dicts that the structure impacts its surroundings? The analyst or designer
has two options. One is to redesign the structure with new dimensions,
masses, and sti¤nesses. The other option is to generate forces that act on
the structure to balance the existing forces, resulting in an acceptable total
displacement. These generated forces are known as control forces. These
concepts are introduced in the early chapters, and discussed in more detail
in Chapter 6 on feedback control.
As analysts and designers,20 our interests are with physical structures
2 0 An analyst is traditionally one who performs a mathematical analysis of a structure

without necessarily specifying how the structure should be dimensioned or built. The
designer has traditionally been the one who makes use of analytical results, whether from
a computer analysis or by utilizing a design code, to specify dimensions and construction
sequence. Sometimes analysis has taken on an air of being more sophisticated, and design
more routine, but those familiar with both recognize the challenges of both. The actual
12 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

and systems. The key word here is physical, in the sense that the com-
plicating aspects of the structure cannot be ignored. In the design o¢ ce,
we are challenged with a process that …rst requires a conceptualization of
the necessary structure to be built. A preliminary concept that appears to
satisfy the needs of the customer is stipulated by the designer. Then some
rough (approximate) analyses are performed to get a sense of how well the
structure satis…es the major constraints we have placed on its design, con-
straints that force it to be viable in its intended mission. If the conceptual
structural design is still acceptable, then a full-scale analysis and design is
required. Realistic and important aspects of the problem are retained here.
If the conceptual design points to some poor characteristics that may
compromise the mission of the structure, then a redesign is called for, with
appropriate changes made to alleviate any shortcomings. Experiments on
scale models are usually necessary to gather data as well as to gain con…-
dence that the mathematical model matches reality.

1.2.1 Modeling for Vibration

We have only hinted at how an engineer approaches a new problem. Many of
the problems presented in this book do not re‡ect those initially encountered
by a practicing engineer. Problems in engineering practice are typically
vague and ill-de…ned, and often formulated by a nontechnical person who
has a need for a product or a process. It is the engineer’s task to take the
ill-de…ned problem and turn it into a simpler, representative problem that
can be solved using known or newly developed techniques.
That formulation is used as the basis for a design, from which the system
is built or manufactured.

1.2.2 Problem Idealization and Formulation

The process of understanding how the physical world behaves and how it can
be modeled generally begins with an understanding of how much simpler
systems and components behave. Such simpler systems are called idealized
systems and the process by which they are derived and formulated requires
a sophisticated understanding of the actual system. Usually, the idealized
system is used to better understand the intricacies of the real or physical
system.
Idealization of the physical system is required because the real system
is too complex to be modeled and analyzed, either mathematically or com-
putationally. The analyst and designer must distill the essential properties
situation is that design is integral to engineering and its greatest challenge. One may
make a case that analysis is a subset of design.
1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 13

of the original system in the creation of the idealized model. This model
needs to be representative of the physical characteristics and behavior of
the real system. We develop an understanding of the behavior of the real
system based on the analysis and observation of the idealized system.
The following four examples provide the reader with an intuitive view
of the process of model idealization. In these examples, the full structure is
shown …rst, and then some possible simpli…ed schematic representations are
drawn alongside. Each simpli…ed model can be used to better understand
some aspects of the behavior of the actual system. Note that the full model
is a result of an understanding that begins with the study of the simpler
models.

Tower Structure In Figure 1.6(a) a tower structure is shown as it might

appear, and then it is idealized in three simpli…ed models. The reference to
degree-of-freedom signi…es the number of coordinates needed to de…ne the
position of all the masses in the idealization. Also in these simpli…ed mod-
els are schematic elements that represent structural sti¤ness and damping,
concepts that are introduced in this chapter. Models (b) and (c) are studied
in Chapters 2, 3, 4, 8 and 9. Model (d) is studied in Chapters 10 and 11.

Automobile Figure 1.7(a) shows a schematic of an automobile, as well as

four possible idealized models that are suitable for a preliminary analysis.
Models (b), (c) and (d) include separate modeling of the tire-suspension
system. Model (b) is studied in Chapters 2 to 4. Models (c) and (d)
are studied in Chapters 8 and 9, and models such as in (e) are studied in
Chapter 10.

Rocket A rocket structure along with possible idealizations are shown in

Figure 1.8. These simpli…ed models represent axial extension as well as
a bending motion of the rocket structure. Models of the type shown in
(b) are studied in Chapters 8 and 9, and those such as (c) are studied in
Chapters 10 and 11.

Turbine A schematic of a turbine is presented with its idealized model in

Figure 1.9. The idealized model is conceived of as a rotating shaft support-
ing several rigid rotors. The rotors and the shaft initially may be assumed
to be rigid; a more realistic model may include elastic e¤ects. Chapters 3,
4, 8, and 9 explore such models.
These examples highlight an important engineering concept: more than
one idealized model can be used for studying the behavior of a full-scale
structure. In engineering practice, simple models are created …rst in order
14 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 1.6: A tower structure and its idealized models.

1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 15

Figure 1.7: An automobile and its idealized models.

16 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 1.8: A rocket and its idealized models.

Figure 1.9: A turbine and its idealized model.

1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 17

to understand the general behavioral characteristics of the full structure

which may next be designed. Once the simpler models are understood,
more complex and realistic models are used to begin conceptual designs of
the full structure. The process is one of developing more realistic models,
as needed, until the actual structure or system is …nalized.

Figure 1.10: A sketch of the proposed Mubarak Tower in Kuwait showing

it at 250 m and above. The spire would reach 1,001 m. Ailerons would
be used to de‡ect wind gusts. Hidden from this view are the three towers
designed to brace each other.

World’s Tallest Building

The Burj Mubarak al Kabir tower21 (Mubarak for short) is an example of
how modeling can result in clever and exciting designs. If constructed, the
Mubarak would be the world’s tallest building. It would form the center-
piece of Silk City, a planned city of 700,000 people being considered by the
Kuwaiti government. It would be completed in 2016 at an estimated cost
of $7.37 billion to build. A sketch is shown in Figure 1.10.22
2 1 One reference for the information here is R.M. Pacella, “Extreme Engineering,” Pop-

ular Science, Vol.274, No.3, March 2009, pp.36-37.

2 2 The …gure is adapted from a sketch at

http://skyscraperpage.com/cities/?buildingID=47178.
18 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

The challenge is to erect a 1001 m (3300 ft) skyscraper that is strong

enough to withstand enormous wind loads. At that height, winds would
sway a conventional skyscraper like a tree branch and turbulent vortices
would shake it to so violently it could collapse.
So instead of building one shaky tower, the Mubarak was designed as
three interlocking towers, each twisting 45 degrees top to bottom to help
stabilize it. The inside edges of the buildings would meet in the center to
form a triangular shaft through the middle. The concept is to have two of
the three towers bracing the building at all times, regardless of which way
the wind blows.
The three towers would thus be designed to minimize swaying of the
high-rise. However, the design does not solve the problem of wind whip-
ping around the uppermost stories and vibrating the building. The e¤ect
of these winds could be catastrophic. To help mitigate the aerodynamic
loads, the proposed design includes ailerons. The ailerons would run the
full length of each edge of the towers and be actively controlled to redirect
the changing winds around the structure and scatter the vortices, thereby
reducing vibrations.

1.2.3 Concepts of Inertia, Sti¤ness, and Damping

The dynamic behavior of systems results from the exchange and dissipation
of energies. Dynamic forces transfer their energy to the system, which then
responds via several mechanisms, such as bending or extension. Dynamic
behavior can be predicted in several ways. The best known method is
Newton’s second law of motion, discussed in a subsequent section. If the
external force is static or quasi -static, system forces develop to create an
equilibrium. External dynamic forces are balanced in a more complex way
with inertial, damping, and sti¤ness forces.
Inertia is the resistance of an object to a change in its state of motion. In
common usage, the term “inertia”is used to refer to an object’s “resistance
to a change in velocity” – which is equivalent to its mass – or sometimes
to its momentum (mass times velocity). In translational systems we use
the term inertia synonymously with mass. This is consistent with “the
principle of inertia” as described by Newton in his First Law of Motion.
Newton’s laws are discussed later in this chapter. Expressed simply his …rst
law states that an object that is not subject to any net external force moves
at a constant velocity. In even simpler terms, inertia means that an object
will always continue moving at its current speed and in its current direction
until some force causes its speed or direction to change. This would include
an object that is not in motion, which will remain at rest until some force
causes it to move.
1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 19

Sti¤ ness, a property of a spring, denotes the capacity of a system to store

strain energy. The sti¤ness force follows Hooke’s law,23 F = kx, where the
sti¤ness constant k is expressed in units of force per unit length and x is the
elongation of the spring from its undeformed con…guration. This is a linear
model where spring extension is measured with respect to the undeformed
length. More complicated laws exist, for example, the nonlinear relation (see
Section 1.4.1), F = k(x)xa , where the exponent a depends on the particular
material being modeled, and the sti¤ness parameter k(x) is a function of
how much the spring has been elongated x.
Damping 24 de…nes the ability of a system or structure to dissipate en-
ergy.25 For an oscillatory system, damping is a measure of how much energy
is dissipated by the system during an oscillation cycle.

1.2.4 Properties of Computer Keyboard Keys

We all use computer keyboards, but probably have not given much thought
to the mechanical properties of the keys. In this section,26 we focus on
computer keyboard keys. They serve as an important and readily-available
example from which we can better understand the meaning of inertia, sti¤-
ness, and damping. The keys provide the tactile “feel”for successful typing.
2 3 Hooke’s law is a simple constitutive law, a mathematical model de…ning the relation-

ship between material characteristics, force, and displacement.

2 4 “Although both words (damping or dampening) are used interchangeably, it is com-

monly understood that when one needs to dampen a structure, he or she should reach for
the nearest garden hose. But, if it is the conversion of mechanical energy into thermal en-
ergy for the purpose of reducing the mechanical vibration of a structure, damping is what
you need. That there is confusion over this rather trivial grammatical point suggests a
basic lack of understanding on the subject of damping among technical professionals.”
(Paul Macioce, “Viscoelastic Damping 101,” Sound and Vibration, Vol.37, No.4, April
2003, p.10).
2 5 Certain nonlinear systems exhibit negative damping, where energy is actually sup-

plied to the system. An excellent …rst book for further study of the subject is Nonlinear
Vibrations in Mechanical and Electrical Systems, J.J. Stoker, originally published
in 1950, and available through Wiley-Interscience in a 1992 edition. A more modern in-
troduction is o¤ered in Nonlinear Oscillations, A.H. Nayfeh and D.T. Mook, Wiley,
1979.
2 6 The authors are grateful to Dr. Richard Marklin (Department of Mechanical En-

gineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI) for information related to computer

keyboards. The reader is referred to the following two papers for more information
about the studies and results presented in this section.
(1) M.L. Nagurka and R.M. Marklin, “Measurement of Sti¤ness and Damping Character-
istics of Computer Keyboard Keys,” ASME Journal of Dynamic Systems, Measurement
and Control, Vol.127, June 2005, pp.283-288.
(2) M.J. Bufton, R.M. Marklin, M.L. Nagurka, and G.G. Simoneau, “E¤ect of Keyswitch
Design of Desktop and Notebook Keyboards Related to Key Sti¤ness and Typing Force,”
Ergonomics, Vol.49, No.10, August 2006, pp.996-1012.
20 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

The “feel” is often represented by the e¤ective sti¤ness, damping, and

mass of the key. The mass of the key is due to the key cap, whereas the
sti¤ness and damping properties are predicated on the design underlying
the key cap. The most common design, called a rubber-dome key, has a
monolithic rubber dome under the key cap. It produces an initial resistance
force against key depression, a restoring force after key release, and tactile
feedback through a toggling or buckling-like action during which the rubber-
dome gives way. Due to its behavior, this type key is also called a “snap
action” key.
A complicated nonlinear relationship exists between key force and dis-
placement for a rubber-dome key, as depicted in Figure 1.11.27 The force-

Figure 1.11: Relationship between key force and key displacement.

displacement characteristic exhibits a regime of negative sti¤ness, indicated

by decreasing force with increasing travel. Negative sti¤ness is not com-
monly encountered in mechanical springs, and is due here to the rubber-
dome. Negative sti¤ness occurs after reaching the snap point, corresponding
to the displacement at which the force has a local maximum. Electrical ac-
tuation of the key leading to character generation occurs at a force less than
or equal to the snap point force. Eventually the key bottoms out when full
de‡ection is reached and the force increases dramatically.
Static force-displacement graphs –giving the e¤ective nonlinear sti¤ness
–have been the primary tool to compare computer key characteristics. It is
also possible to determine the force vs. velocity characteristics of keys, giv-
ing the e¤ective damping. Figure 1.12 shows an example of the experimental
results of a depression test of an Enter key on a rubber-dome keyboard. The
best-…t line suggests a viscous damping relationship.
2 7 The …gure is adapted from ISO/DIS 9241/4.2 Standard, 1998.
1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 21

Figure 1.12: Damping force vs. speed for a depression test of the Enter key
on a rubber-dome keyboard. The best-…t line has a slope of 1.033 N-s/m
with a correlation coe¢ cient of 0.931, suggesting that a straight line model
is appropriate. A linear relationship between force and velocity is called a
viscous damper.

Damping may be important because typing is a dynamic activity. An

individual typing at 90 words per minute (reasonable for a trained touch
typist) is depressing and releasing each key in approximately 133 ms (as-
suming no time for …nger travel between keys). Although an individual
does not type at constant velocity, it is still possible to calculate an average
key velocity. Typing at 90 words per minute corresponds to 60 mm/s on a
keyboard with an assumed key travel of 4 mm. These calculations provide
a lower bound for the key velocity in actual typing.
The results suggest that velocity-dependent forces (damping forces) of
keys augment the static (sti¤ness) forces and are more evident during higher
speed typing. If the key mechanism follows a linear damping model, as
implied by Figure 1.12, these forces would play a more dominant role at
higher typing speeds. If this is the case, damping of the key mechanism
would dissipate energy imparted to the key from the …ngertip and would
require that a typist exert greater contact force as the speed of depression
increases.
To prevent key ringing and dampen unwanted oscillations, some damp-
ing may be desirable in the key mechanism. This damping would dissipate
the energy imparted to the key suspension and the energy associated with
accelerating the key mass during key strike and return. Signi…cant damp-
ing would not be desirable, since it would increase the force exerted by the
22 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

…ngers during fast keystrokes. There may be a range of damping that o¤ers
a compromise in minimizing key vibration and muscle force for activation.
Key force is related to both key displacement and speed, as depicted in
the three-dimensional graph of Figure 1.13. The relationship, summarizing
a series of experiments, is clearly nonlinear, making the modeling of the
sti¤ness and damping of computer keyboard keys quite challenging.

Figure 1.13: Key force as a function of both displacement and speed for
depression tests of an Enter key on a rubber-dome keyboard. The three-
dimensional surface summarizes the results of many tests and indicates the
complicated nature of modeling the key force.

1.2.5 Computational Aspects

Engineers are called upon to tackle some of society’s most di¢ cult tech-
nical problems, each of which has considerable economic constraints. The
complexities of such problems require engineers of many disciplines to work
together to …nd e¤ective, implementable solutions. So many factors and so
much information must be tracked and integrated that the analysis, design,
and management of such projects require computational assistance.
This book will provide the conceptual foundations of the subject of vi-
bration. From this the engineer will be able to utilize computational tools,
1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 23

and then be able to interpret the computational results. We will occa-

sionally hint at computational aspects of the subject under study. Certain
computational tools that are readily available will be utilized to generate
some analytical results and some of the numerically-generated results.28

1.2.6 Is Vibration Good or Bad?

When one …rst begins to study and consider engineering vibration, there is
an implicit belief that vibration is bad and must be removed at all costs.
Certainly too much vibration – vibration with excessive amplitudes of os-
cillation – can be detrimental, even fatal. In general, vibration is not a
desirable attribute in an engineering system. But, there are many positive
examples of vibration.
Perhaps the most positive example of vibration is music, which is acoustic
vibration. Grandfather clocks rely on timing from the period of an oscillat-
ing pendulum. Jackhammers operate by putting vibration to good use in
breaking up roads. The vibration and noise produced by rumble strips are
e¤ective alarms for drivers leaving the roadway or needing to slow down.
Paint shaking machines vibrate cans vigorously to mix paint at the time of
purchase. And a vibrating massage chair makes us feel good.
In nature, we …nd examples of natural structures that vibrate under
load. In a strong wind a tree oscillates with large amplitudes. In so doing,
it is surviving the large loads by ‡exing. Had it been very rigid, the tree
might crack and fall. Instead it goes with the ‡ow.
Engineers design structures so that they survive all anticipated environ-
ments and uses, and do so reliably for a speci…ed period of time. This often
involves designing structures so that they go with the ‡ow – for example,
designing tall buildings that intentionally sway due to wind gusts.
If the future cannot be anticipated to an acceptable margin, and/or the
system cannot be made to perform or operate as desired, then it may be
necessary to build in the means to alter system properties to achieve the
desired behavior automatically. This we do using a control system. We
will see examples of structures which were designed with passive and active
controllers later in the book.
Next we look at manufacturing examples that intentionally use vibration
to their advantage.

2 8 A tutorial for MATLAB used for simple vibration problems is available online. MAT-

LAB is a registered trademark of Mathworks, Inc.

24 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Vibratory Feeding and Finishing Parts orienting29 is an important

part of automation systems. In many mechanized production processes
parts produced by one machine are dropped randomly into a bin and then
must be oriented properly before being fed into another machine for further
processing or assembly. For small parts one of the most common ways to
accomplish this task is by using a vibratory bowl feeder. Vibratory bowl
feeders30 exploit vibration in a positive way to orient and sort parts.
In a vibratory bowl feeder, the parts are placed in the bottom of a bowl.
By vibration of the bowl the parts spiral up the inside curved wall of the
bowl. As each part climbs, it has to pass various stages which are designed
to pass only single parts in the desired orientation.
The bowl employs an internal spiral track leading from the bottom up
to the top edge. The bowl is vibrated vertically with an acceleration greater
than that of gravity and at the same time given a rotational oscillation. The
result is that parts are thrown up and land back on the track a little higher
than the point at which they left. A system of gates and trap-doors near the
top of the track ensures that any parts which are oriented incorrectly (or
are of incorrect dimension) are thrown o¤ the track to return to the bottom
of the bowl. Only parts of the correct size and orientation are allowed to
emerge. The rest are rejected back to the supply part of the bowl.
There are two types of vibratory bowl feeder drives: electromagnetic
bowl feeder drives and free-piston pneumatic drives. Although there are
distinct di¤erences in performance, they each convey parts through vibra-
tion.
Watching a vibratory bowl feeder in operation is mesmerizing. The parts
spiraling up seem to defy gravity. In fact, there is no trick. The added
vibrational energy causes the part to go up the spiral each cycle more than
it goes down. The key to the net upwards motion is a combination of the
frictional coe¢ cients, the bowl inclination angle, and the bowl vibrational
amplitude and frequency.
Some products cannot be vibrated successfully due to their unique geom-
etry. Others should not be vibrated since they will be damaged in the
process. The vibratory bowl feeder is applicable to parts which are small,
of suitable shape (for example, geometries that are not prone to get tan-
gled or locked together), and able to withstand the considerable amount of
jostling which occurs while they are at the bottom of the bowl.
A related manufacturing operation which relies on vibration for its suc-
cess is vibratory bowl …nishing. Here parts are “…nished”(ground, polished,
2 9 The authors are grateful to Dr. Vikram Cariapa and Mr. Thomas Silman (Depart-

ment of Mechanical Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI) for information,

photographs, and open access to the Mass Finishing Laboratory.
3 0 Design of Automatic Machinery, S.J. Derby, CRC Press, 2004.
1.2. BASIC CONCEPTS OF VIBRATION 25

cleaned) by abrading with or without media.31 Vibratory bowl …nishing can

be used in …nal …nishing (before electroplating), to produce a matte sur-
face (before chemical treatments), and to remove corrosion or residual paint
(after stripping operations).

Figure 1.14: Photograph showing the top view of a vibratory bowl …n-
isher (Spiratron ST-1, Roto-Finish, Kalamazoo, MI) located in the Mass
Finishing Laboratory, Department of Mechanical Engineering, Marquette
University, Milwaukee, WI. (Courtesy of Dr. Vikram Cariapa. Photograph
by Mark Nagurka, March 2009.)

Vibratory …nishing utilizes a rotating, eccentric weight system which

dynamically oscillates an attached open-topped tub or bowl mounted on
springs. Most machines employ an adjustable eccentric weight system,
shown in Figure 1.14 as the squares above the center shaft to the right
and left. By adding or removing weights the amount of vibrational energy
available in an individual …nishing operation can be adjusted. The vibrat-
ing action of the bowl causes the workload – the media and part(s) – to
“‡ow” around the bowl in a twisting toroidal path. Figure 1.15 captures
the vibratory bowl …nisher in operation.
3 1 The term media refers to the abrasive or nonabrasive consumable elements used in

mass-…nishing processes. The main function of media is to abrade or burnish the edges
and surfaces of components to the desired …nish. Media also helps keep the workpieces
from impinging on each other and serve as carriers for any compounds used.
The media may be anything from ground corn cob to ceramic pieces (shown in pho-
tographs). The ratio of media to parts is a variable and ranges vary based on the
operators’decision. Sometimes ‡uid compounds are added as well.
26 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 1.15: Photograph of vibratory bowl …nishing in operation. Here a

test was conducted with a laser to image the average dilated height of the
media. It allowed the average density of the media to be determined during
operation. (Courtesy of Mr. Thomas Silman and Dr. Vikram Cariapa.
Photograph by T. Silman in the Mass Finishing Laboratory, Department of
Mechanical Engineering, Marquette University, Milwaukee, WI.)

The forces generated by the vibrating action of the bowl and the result-
ing tumbling motion cause the media to rub against and abrade the exposed
surfaces of the part(s). While it is a relatively simple machine which re-
quires very little operator intervention during operation, it can be di¢ cult
to …nd the right combination of media, machinery settings for amplitude
and frequency, and part sizes to …nish in an e¤ective and e¢ cient manner.

1.2.7 Basic Concepts of Vibration Control

Vibration control is the study of how to modify the response of a structure
or machine to meet desired speci…cations. If a response exceeds certain
tolerances, appropriate forces, called feedback forces, are needed to bring
the response within acceptable levels.
Structures and machines are designed to behave acceptably. Displace-
ment amplitudes must remain below a particular value, and operating fre-
quencies must remain far from the natural frequency of the structure. Since
operating conditions of a machine or structure change with time, when it
becomes impossible to incorporate all the necessary constraints in the design
a priori, feedback control may be the only option for an e¤ective design.
Structural control is a vast subject to which numerous books and papers
are dedicated. Chapter 6 provides an introduction.
1.3. BASIC CONCEPTS OF RANDOM VIBRATION 27

1.3 Basic Concepts of Random Vibration

1.3.1 Deterministic vs. Nondeterministic Signals
Signals can be classi…ed as either deterministic or nondeterministic. A
deterministic signal can be described by an explicit mathematical relation.
Its future behavior is predictable. A nondeterministic signal is a random
signal. It has a time history that is unique, and its future behavior cannot
be determined exactly –but only to within some con…dence limits.

Figure 1.16: Classi…cation of deterministic signals.

Deterministic signals can be subclassi…ed into static and dynamic sig-

nals, as shown in Figure 1.16.32 In static signals time is not a factor. They
are steady in time; the amplitude remains constant. In dynamic signals
time is a factor. The amplitudes are either periodic or aperiodic. A periodic
signal repeats itself in regular intervals; an aperiodic signal does not. A
simple periodic signal has one period. A complex periodic signal has more
than one period and as such is built up of simple periodic signals. An al-
most periodic signal is comprised of two or more simple periodic signals
3 2 Figures 1.16 and 1.17 are adapted from two sources: (1) Random Data: Analysis

and Measurement Procedures, J.S. Bendat and A.G. Piersol, Second Edition, Wiley,
1986, and (2) Measurement and Data Analysis for Engineering and Science, P.F.
Dunn, McGraw-Hill, 2005, p.368.
28 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

with arbitrary frequencies. If the ratios of all possible pairs of frequencies

are rational numbers, then an almost periodic signal is complex periodic.

Figure 1.17: Classi…cation of nondeterministic signals.

Nondeterministic signals can be subclassi…ed into nonstationary and sta-

tionary signals, as shown in Figure 1.17. In stationary signals, the statistical
properties, such as the mean value and variance, do not change over time.
The probability distribution is the same at all times. Stationary signals are
either ergodic or nonergodic. In ergodic signals, statistical sampling can be
performed at one instant across a group of identical signals or sampled over
time on a single signal with no change in the measured result. In prac-
tice many random signals representing stationary physical phenomena are
assumed ergodic.

1.3.2 Deterministic Approximations

For many applications, the material or geometric uncertainties or inaccura-

cies are extremely small when compared to their average values. In these
instances, it is reasonable to use the average material modulus or average
dimension in a calculation. Errors resulting from ignoring any deviations
from the true value will not appreciably a¤ect the results of the analysis.
Most of the structures we rely on have been designed in this way.
Sometimes it is not possible to distinguish in advance which uncertainties
can be ignored and which can be included. In such a case, testing is required
to provide a more complete understanding.
1.3. BASIC CONCEPTS OF RANDOM VIBRATION 29

1.3.3 Probability
Probability is a much misunderstood and maligned subject that practition-
ers may try to avoid at all costs.33 To some extent this is a reasonable
reaction to a discipline that tends to be very formal and mathematical with
connections rarely made to experience. The language is strange, and the
outcomes are, after all, not certain. Solutions to problems with some degree
of uncertainty will have as much or more uncertainty than the original prob-
lem. For example, if there is 10% uncertainty in the loading data, then we
expect at least 10% uncertainty in the calculated structural displacement.
However, the probabilistic approach is the more general framework for
the analysis of systems and structures since it explicitly takes into account
all the possible loads and material properties. The analysis uses the probabil-
ity density function, a concept introduced in Chapter 5 as the fundamental
building block of a probabilistic analysis.
The deterministic case is but one of countless cases built into the prob-
abilistic model. The probabilistic framework provides a way by which un-
certainties can be formalized and quanti…ed so that vibration responses in
the presence of uncertainties can be estimated.
A probabilistic analysis provides a measure of the underlying uncertain-
ties, and, very importantly, helps determine the need for additional informa-
tion or data before progressing to a design. In particular, one can develop
con…dence bounds on the values of parameters, and then the structural re-
sponse. Such con…dence bounds are a statement that parameter values are
in a certain range with a certain probability.

1.3.4 System Uncertainty

All systems have associated uncertainties to bound the errors which occur
in measurement and calculation. Uncertainties result from inaccuracies in
manufacturing tools, instruments that measure data, and from an incom-
plete understanding of the laws governing the behavior of natural phenom-
ena, such as wind and earthquakes.
Two basic approaches are available to the analyst confronted by a lack
of information. The …rst approach assumes a deterministic model, where
all parameters and dimensions are assumed to be known exactly. One then
takes into account the known imperfections by overdesigning, for example,
by assuming less material strength than actually exists.
The second approach requires the use of probabilistic models to explic-
itly incorporate inaccuracies into the mathematical models that are utilized
3 3 Perhaps this is because probability is rarely introduced without much jargon and

legalistic discussion.
30 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

in analysis and design. This approach will be explored in more detail in

subsequent chapters, in particular Chapter 5.
Both approaches have their place in engineering practice. By far, the
deterministic approach is most widely used, but the need for very complex
structures that must operate in severe environments has necessitated the
introduction of probabilistic tools in analysis and design. Earthquake design
codes, for example, are based on probabilistic criteria of structural behavior
as well as environmental characteristics.

1.3.5 Random Vibration

Random vibration has evolved over the past half century as the discipline
focused on the estimation of structural dynamic behavior in response to
complex environments that are modeled based on probability. The math-
ematical techniques of the …eld were drawn from physics, electronics, and
electrical engineering and quickly moved over to aerospace engineering.
The need to minimize the mass of airborne structures, while designing
them to be strong and reliable, challenged engineers. Atmospheric charac-
teristics were exceedingly di¢ cult to characterize, being complex and unpre-
dictable. Probabilistic tools were developed to model atmospheric behavior
and random forces.
In time, these tools began to be applied to the design of structures in
seismic zones where base excitation due to earthquakes had uncertainties in
magnitude and timing, to skyscrapers responding to complex wind-related
forces, and to o¤shore drilling platforms subjected to wind, wave and current
forces of sizable magnitude and uncertainty. There are many engineering
applications.

1.4 Types of System Models

System models vary depending on the way a physical problem is idealized
and the information required for the analysis. Models may be discrete or
continuous, linear or nonlinear. The nonlinear model will govern a broader
range of dynamic behavior, but can require intricate analytical techniques
that are beyond the scope of this book. The continuous model is more real-
istic than the discrete one, but much more di¢ cult to solve. Linear discrete
and linear continuous models are considered in this text. Chapters 10 and
11 introduce linear continuous vibrating systems such as strings, beams,
membranes, and plates.
1.4. TYPES OF SYSTEM MODELS 31

1.4.1 Approximating Nonlinear Behavior

Much of engineering analysis and design is based on linear models. Two
very good reasons why this is so are expressed by the principle of linear
superposition and linear systems theory.
The principle of linear superposition34 provides analysts with the tools
to solve complex linear problems by breaking them down into simpler com-
ponents. Linearity permits the addition of the simple solutions in order to
obtain the complete solution.
Linear system theory is the general framework for the analysis of linear
systems and structures. Thus, as soon as we are able to claim and justify
that a system, whether mechanical, electrical, or otherwise, behaves linearly,
then all the tools of linear system theory become available for analysis.
Linearity is generally a local phenomenon, meaning that only small dis-
placements or stresses can be viewed as approximately linear. Thus, Hooke’s
law is valid as long as the spring is not stretched beyond a certain fraction of
its initial length. The term “approximately linear” is, however, very prob-
lem dependent. The error that one can accept depends on the application.
In some problems a nonlinear model is appropriate. One di¢ cult aspect in
the analysis of nonlinear systems is that, while there are unifying princi-
ples, many solution techniques are required, each for a particular problem.
Linear solution techniques are applicable to any linear problem, regardless
of its origin.

1.4.2 Assumptions
Any model contains implicit (unstated) as well as explicit (stated and justi-
…ed) assumptions. When a one-dimensional model is adopted, implicit as-
sumptions are made that one coordinate is su¢ cient to describe the motion
and that additional coordinates are not needed to understand the behavior
of interest.
For example, the deformation of a rod in its axial direction is accom-
panied by contraction of its cross-section in a proportion that is given by
Poisson’s ratio. If one is primarily interested in tensile stresses within the
elastic range, the secondary e¤ects such as the change in rod cross-section
can be safely ignored. For larger stresses, the reduction in cross-section
becomes a signi…cant factor in the calculation of axial stresses.
The important conclusion is that one must always be aware of de…ned
and hidden assumptions in any formulation.
3 4 This principle serves as the basis for the theory of linear di¤erential equations. See

the Appendix for a review.

32 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.4.3 Discrete Models

In most engineering applications, discrete models are used because of the
eventual need for computational models. Computers operate only in dis-
crete time and therefore require discretized models. Common methods used
for such analyses are the …nite and boundary element methods. Our initial
studies focus on discrete models which help us begin to understand model-
ing, and structural characteristics such as inertia, sti¤ness, and damping.

Single Degree-of-Freedom Models

In a single degree-of-freedom model one coordinate is su¢ cient to describe

the response of a system. It re‡ects the dominance of one response para-
meter over all others. While such a system rarely exists in application, it
proves to be a useful idealized model for learning the concepts of vibration
as well as for gathering initial insights into the character of a more com-
plicated dynamic system. Single degree-of-freedom models help us de…ne
and understand many of the key characteristics of a vibrating system and
therefore prove to be extremely useful in preliminary studies. We will begin
our studies of vibration utilizing basic single degree-of-freedom models in
Chapter 2, and more advanced models in Chapters 3 and 4.

Multi Degree-of-Freedom Models

Where more than one coordinate is needed to de…ne the behavior of a sys-
tem, multi degree-of-freedom models are required. Generally, it is necessary
to include as many degrees-of-freedom as there are distinct motions in a sys-
tem. A continuous system has an in…nite number of degrees-of-freedom in
theory, but even these are modeled in practice using a …nite number of
degrees-of-freedom.
In many applications, it su¢ ces to model the …rst several degrees-of-
freedom to help understand the system. Other times, where the prediction
of very detailed behavior is required, many more degrees-of-freedom are
required. The determining factor will be whether the analysis is used for
preliminary studies or for a detailed design. For example, aircraft struc-
tures have hundreds of thousands of components and, therefore, hundreds
of thousands of degrees-of-freedom. To gain a basic understanding of air-
craft structural vibration, models of less than ten degrees-of-freedom may
be su¢ cient, but to design such a structure for manufacture requires the
information from models of thousands of degrees-of-freedom. We will study
such systems in Chapters 8 and 9.
1.5. BASIC DYNAMICS 33

1.4.4 Continuous Models

Other engineering systems can only be represented with parameters that are
distributed in space. Distributed parameter, or continuous, system models
are necessary when the physical characteristics of a structure cannot be
lumped accurately at discrete locations. Distributed parameter models of
more than one variable are generally in the form of partial di¤erential equa-
tions. However, it should be noted that if one utilizes computers for the
solution of such models, these will have to be discretized via specialized
numerical techniques. We will also discover that many of our solutions for
continuous models utilize results from discrete solutions. Such models are
studied in Chapters 10 and 11.

1.4.5 Nonlinear Models

This text focuses on the modeling of system vibration where materials and
geometry remain within the linear range. Generally this means that os-
cillation amplitudes remain “small” and materials are within linear elas-
tic bounds. Such models are extremely powerful, and carry with them a
tremendous body of mathematical analysis for their solution.
However, there are important cases where a linear model will not be
able to predict some signi…cant behavior characteristics. Some applications
cannot be approximated as linear. Behaviors such as limit cycles, hysteresis,
and chaotic oscillations, do not exist even as approximations in the linear
domain. These phenomena require at least a “small”amount of nonlinearity
in their governing equations.
Such problems are introduced and discussed in Chapter 12. Addition-
ally, the issue of stability is examined. Stability is a characteristic of the
oscillatory behavior of a system, where the term stable implies that the sys-
tem remains close in some sense to an equilibrium. Unstable implies that
oscillations grow without bounds and the system fails its intended purpose.

1.5 Basic Dynamics

1.5.1 Statics and Equilibrium
A static system, as distinguished from a dynamic system, is one that does
not change as a function of time. Many engineering problems begin by
considering the static behavior of the system. The concept of equilibrium
implies a static situation, that is, one which is not time-dependent, although
34 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

dynamic equilibrium35 is sometimes a useful concept. A static structure

resists external forces by deforming itself and/or by transmitting forces
through connections to its environment. Dynamic implies time-dependent
behavior.

1.5.2 The Equations of Motion

The step that follows the idealization of a system is the formulation or
derivation of the equations of motion. The simplicity of developing the
governing equations and the ease in solving them are related directly to the
system complexity and the e¤ectiveness of its idealization. Thus, a delicate
balance exists between physical reality and mathematical solvability. Small
changes in the formulation of the idealized model may result in signi…cantly
more di¢ cult governing equations.
We will focus on two distinct approaches to the derivation of the system
governing equations: Newton’s second law of motion and methods based on
the consideration of kinetic and potential energies. Each has its advantages.
The …rst method is useful for simpler problems that permit visualization
of the interaction between the forces acting on a system and the resulting
internal sti¤ness and damping reaction forces. Energy methods are generally
simpler to apply, especially for systems with many components that interact
in an intricate fashion. Both of these approaches are used and discussed in
detail in the following chapters.

Newton’s First and Third Laws of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion is treated in the following section in more
depth as it is such an important method of vibration analysis.
Newton’s First Law of Motion states that every object in a state of
uniform motion tends to remain in that state of motion unless an external
force is applied to it.36 Newton’s …rst law of motion predicts the behavior of
objects for which all existing forces are balanced. The …rst law –sometimes
referred to as the law of inertia – states that if the forces acting on an
object are balanced, then there is no acceleration of that object. Objects in
equilibrium (the condition in which all forces balance) will not accelerate.
3 5 D’Alembert’s principle, which we explore in Chapter 7, is essentially a dynamic

equilibrium form of Newton’s second law of motion.

3 6 Newton’s …rst law of motion is often stated as: An object at rest tends to stay at

rest and an object in motion tends to stay in motion with the same speed and in the
same direction unless acted upon by an unbalanced force. There are two parts to this
statement: one predicts the behavior of stationary objects and the other predicts the
behavior of moving objects. The behavior of all objects can be described by saying that
objects tend to “keep on doing what they are doing”(unless acted upon by an unbalanced
force).
1.5. BASIC DYNAMICS 35

Newton’s Third Law of Motion states that for every action there is an
equal and opposite reaction. This statement means that in every interaction,
there is a pair of forces acting on the two interacting objects. The magnitude
of the forces on the …rst object equals the magnitude of the force on the
second object. The direction of the force on the …rst object is opposite to
the direction of the force on the second object. Forces always come in pairs
–equal and opposite action-reaction force pairs.

Newton’s Second Law of Motion

Newton’s second law of motion is one of the most important physical laws
and is fundamental to many sciences. It states that the acceleration of an
object is proportional to the applied force and inversely proportional to the
object’s mass. The mathematical form of this law, F = ma; originates and
is veri…ed by way of experiments. Accordingly, an object will accelerate
only if there is a net or unbalanced force acting on it. The presence of an
unbalanced force will accelerate an object – changing either its speed, its
direction, or both.
Consider the following ideal experiment37 in which an object is subjected
to a force F and the acceleration a is measured. Assume that all measure-
ments are exact. The experiment is conducted in an inertial setting, that is,
the experimental apparatus is not accelerating. If this experiment is carried
out on the same object n times, we …nd the following relations to be true,
F1 F2 Fn
= = = = constant:
a1 a2 an
All the experiments for the same object yield the same constant quantity
for the ratio between force and acceleration: This property of the object is
called its inertia. It can be understood physically as the resistance of the ob-
ject to a rate change in its velocity. For a given force, an object with a large
inertia has a small acceleration. For the same force, but for an object with a
small inertia, the acceleration is larger. The quantitative measure of inertia
is the mass m: Another conclusion drawn from the experiments is that the
acceleration is always in the direction of the applied force. Therefore, the
equation relating force and acceleration is a vector relation.
Newton’s second law of motion takes the form
F = ma;
where the bold notation is used to indicate a vector. For one-dimensional
motion, vector notation is not needed. If there are many forces, F1 ; F2 ; . . .
3 7 This discussion is based on the well-developed introduction in Engineering Me-

chanics: Dynamics, J.L. Meriam and L.G. Kraige, Fifth Edition, Wiley, 2002.
36 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Fn ; acting on the object then a vector summation of all the forces is taken,
n
X
F = ma:
i=1

For an object of mass m with position de…ned by vector r; the instan-

taneous velocity at time t is given by the limit
r dr
v(t) = lim = ;
t!0 t dt
and the instantaneous acceleration at time t is given by
v dv d2 r
a(t) = lim = = 2:
t!0 t dt dt
Velocity is the time rate of change of position and acceleration is the time
rate of change of velocity.

Example 1.1 The V-2 Rocket38

The V-2 military rocket, used by Germany in 1945, weighed about 12
tons (12,000 kg) loaded with fuel and 3 tons (3,000 kg) empty. Its rocket
engine created a thrust of 240,000 N. Approximating g by 10 m/s2 , what
was the acceleration of the V-2 at launch and at burn-out, just before it ran
out of fuel?
Solution: Let the upwards direction be positive, the downwards direc-
tion negative. Using this convention, we can work with signed numbers
rather than vectors. At launch, two forces act on the rocket: a thrust of
+240,000 N, and the weight of the loaded rocket, mg = 120; 000 N (if the
thrust were less than 120,000 N, the rocket would not lift o¤). The total
upwards force is therefore
F = +240; 000 N 120; 000 N = +120; 000 N;
and the initial acceleration, by Newton’s 2nd law of motion, is
F 120; 000 N 2
a= = = 10 m/s = 1 g:
m 12; 000 kg
Thus, the rocket thus starts rising with the same acceleration as a stone
starts falling. As the fuel is used up, the mass m decreases but the force
does not, so we expect a to grow larger. At burn-out, mg = 30; 000 N and
we have F = +240; 000 N 30; 000 N = +210; 000 N, giving
F 210; 000 N 2
a= = = 70 m/s = 7 g:
m 3; 000 kg
3 8 This example is included with permission of Dr. David P. Stern, www.phy6.org.
1.5. BASIC DYNAMICS 37

The fact that acceleration increases as fuel is burned up is particularly

important in manned space‡ight, when the “payload” includes astronauts.
The body of an astronaut given an acceleration of 7 g will experience a force
up to 8 times its weight (gravity still contributes), creating excessive stress
(3-4 g is probably the limit without special suits). It is hard to control the
thrust of a rocket, but a rocket with several stages can drop the …rst stage
before the acceleration gets too large, and continue with a smaller engine.
Or, as with the space shuttle and the original Atlas rocket, some rocket
engines are shut o¤ or dropped, while others continue operating.

1.5.3 Linear Momentum and Impulse

The linear momentum of an object of mass m is de…ned as p = mv: New-
ton’s second law of motion can then be written for constant mass m sub-
jected to n external forces as
n
X d
Fi = (mv) :
i=1
dt
If the sum of the forces equals zero, then the change in momentum is also
zero. This is a statement of the principle of conservation of linear momen-
tum.
The equation can be written equivalently as
Z t2
Fdt = m (v2 v1 ) ; (1.1)
t1
Pn
where F = i=1 Fi : The concept of a large force acting over a short period
of time, shown in Figure 1.18, has important applications. One example
is the collision between bodies. Collisions happen over periods of time
that are short compared to time scales of other dynamic characteristics.
During collisions large forces act resulting in almost instantaneous changes
in velocity and therefore in linear momentum.
Applying Equation 1.1 for change in momentum due to an impulsive
force during to a collision yields
Z t=0+
F (t)dt = p
t=0
= mv(0+ ) mv(0 );
where (t) is the Dirac delta function,
Z t=0+
(t)dt = 1;
t=0
38 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 1.18: Large force acting over short period of time.

and zero otherwise. Therefore,

p =mv(0+ ) mv(0 );

and recognizing that v(0+ ) v(0 ) = v(0), the initial velocity of the system,

p
v(0) = :
m
The impulse response is the response of the system due to the initial velocity
condition. This is discussed further in Section 4.3 in the context of an
oscillator.

1.5.4 Principles of Work and Energy

The concepts of work and energy are fundamental to the study of dynam-
ics and vibration. We consider energy formulations throughout this book,
with many details provided in Chapter 7. Here some key de…nitions are
introduced. Consider a particle of mass m moving along a curve C under
the action of a force F as shown in Figure 1.19. (We follow the custom in
dynamics of showing vectors as bold face variables.)
The position of the particle with respect to origin O of coordinate system
xyz with unit vectors i; j; and k; respectively, is given by the vector r, which
is a function of time. The work necessary to move the mass a distance dr is
the scalar dW = F dr. The work done to move the particle from position
r1 to position r2 is the scalar W12 de…ned as
Z r2
W12 = F dr:
r1
1.5. BASIC DYNAMICS 39

Figure 1.19: Path of particle of mass m due to force F:

Assuming the mass of the particle is constant, Newton’s second law of mo-
tion can be written as
d_r d dr
F=m =m :
dt dt dt

To relate force, work, and energy, we use dr = r_ dt, and the above equations,
to …nd
Z t2
d_r
W12 = m r_ dt
t1 dt
Z
1 t2 d
= m (_r r_ ) dt
2 t1 dt
1
= m[(_r2 r_ 2 ) (_r1 r_ 1 )]
2
1
= m(r_22 r_12 )
2
= T2 T1 ;

where the limits of integration have been transformed from r to t, and T is

the kinetic energy of the particle, T = 12 m_r r_ : As expected, we started with
a scalar, the work, and ended with a scalar, the change in kinetic energy.
The kinetic energy of a body is de…ned as the total work that must be done
40 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

Figure 1.20: Path in a conservative force …eld.

on the particle to bring it from a state of rest to a velocity r_ : Thus, for

v = r_ ;
Z v2
T = mv dv
v1
1
= m v22 v12 :
2
Next, the work done by the force is related to the respective change
in position of the mass. To do this, we de…ne a conservative force, Fc ;
as one that is a function of position, Fc = F(r): The work done by a
conservative force depends only on the initial and the …nal positions of
the particle and is independent of the path connecting these positions. A
conservative force …eld is one where the forces are conservative. Examples
of conservative forces are gravity, mg; and the spring force, kx. The work
done by nonconservative forces is path-dependent and the change in total
energy equals the work done by the nonconservative force.
From Figure 1.20, any path within the conservative force …eld which
connects points 1 and 2 can be selected, and the negative of the work done
bringing the particle from 1 to 2 will be the same, and is denoted by
Z r2 Z r2
W12c = Fc (r) dr = Fc (r) dr;
r1 r1
| {z } | {z }
Path I Path II
1.5. BASIC DYNAMICS 41

because by de…nition Fc is a function of at most r:

The potential energy V (r1 ) is associated with position r1 and is de…ned
as the work done by a conservative force moving a particle from position r1
to a reference position rp ,
Z r1
V (r1 ) = Fc (r) dr:
rp

We next relate the work done moving a particle in a conservative force …eld
to the potential energy of the particle. To do this, we consider W12c again
but choose an arbitrary path through reference position rp . Then
Z rp Z r2
W12c = F dr + F dr
r1 rp
Z rp Z rp
= F dr F dr
r1 r2
= [V (r2 ) V (r1 )]
= (V2 V1 ):

Thus, the work done in a conservative force …eld is the negative of the
change in potential energy. From vector calculus, a conservative force equals
the negative of the gradient of the potential energy function. Gravitational
potential energy is de…ned as the work done against the gravitational …eld
to elevate a body of mass m a distance h above an arbitrary reference plane
(datum),
Wg = mgh;

where positive work is performed in the direction of the gravitational …eld.

Finally, if we denote W12nc as the nonconservative work, then

W12nc = W12 W12c

= (T2 T1 ) + (V2 V1 )
= (T2 + V2 ) (T1 + V1 )
= E 2 E1 ;

where Ei denotes the total energy in state i. Therefore, W12nc is a measure

of the change in particle energy due to dissipation, and if W12nc = 0 then
E2 = E1 . In summary, the energy of the particle is constant and this is the
principle of conservation of energy.
42 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

1.6 Units
1.6.1 Metric Confusion Caused Mars Orbiter Loss
NASA lost the $125 million Mars Climate Orbiter39 on September 23, 1999
because one engineering team used metric units while another used English
units for a key spacecraft operation, according to a review of the loss. For
that reason, information failed to transfer between the Mars Climate Orbiter
spacecraft team at Lockheed Martin in Colorado and the mission navigation
team in California. Lockheed Martin built the spacecraft.
“People sometimes make errors,”said Edward Weiler, NASA’s Associate
Administrator for Space Science in a written statement. “The problem here
was not the error, it was the failure of NASA’s systems engineering, and
the checks and balances in our processes to detect the error. That’s why we
lost the spacecraft.”
An internal peer review panel at NASA’s Jet Propulsion Laboratory
found that the failed information transfer scrambled commands for maneu-
vering the spacecraft to place it in orbit around Mars. “Our inability to
recognize and correct this simple error has had major implications,” said
JPL Director Edward Stone. JPL oversaw the Climate Orbiter mission.
The spacecraft completed a nearly 10-month journey to Mars before it
was lost. The navigation mishap pushed the spacecraft dangerously close to
the planet’s atmosphere where it presumably burned and broke into pieces,
ending the mission on the day when engineers had expected to celebrate the
craft’s entry into Mars’orbit.
Climate Orbiter was to relay data from a subsequent mission (Mars Polar
Lander) and expected to land on Mars in December 1999. This unfortunate
event demonstrates the importance of working in consistent units, a lesson
for all engineers.

1.6.2 U.S. Customary and SI Systems

All physical parameters have units that tie them to a particular system.
There are two primary systems of units, the English/U.S. System, some-
times called the U.S. Customary System, and the SI System, where SI stands
for Système International. The SI units are considered modern and can be
used seamlessly across the globe. In this book, both systems are used, which
is the practice in the United States.
In Table 1.1, the English and SI systems of units are shown for certain
key physical parameters that we will encounter in this text. In Section 1.6.4,
we will learn how the dimensions of parameters relevant to a particular
3 9 Based on a web-posted story by CNN on September 30, 1999 (4:21 p.m. EDT).
1.6. UNITS 43

Table 1.1: SI and English/U.S. Units for Key Physical Parameters

Parameter SI English/U.S.
Mass kg 2.2046 lbm = 0:0685 slug
Length m 3.28 ft
2
Acceleration m/s 3.28 ft/s2
Force N (kg-m/s2 ) 0.2248 lbf
2
Spring constant N/m 6:8543 10 lb/ft
2 4
Pressure Pa (N/m ) 1:45 10 psi (lb/in2 )
2
Damping constant N-s/m 6:8543 10 lb-s/ft
2
Mass moment of inertia kg-m 0.7375 lb-ft-s2

problem can be used to derive equations that relate those parameters, and
help direct the design of experiments.
In the SI system, the units of force (Newton, N) are derived using New-
ton’s second law of motion from the base units of mass (kilogram, kg) times
the acceleration (meter per second per second, m/s2 ): Thus the Newton has
the units N = kg-m/s2 . Acceleration due to Earth’s gravitational …eld is
approximately 9.8 m/s2 . In the U.S. or English system, the units of mass
(slug) are derived from the units of force (pound force, lb) divided by the
units of acceleration (foot per second per second, ft/s2 ): Thus, the mass
units are slug (lb-s2 =ft). One slug equals 14.59 kg.
If we apply a force to an object sitting on a frictionless horizontal plane,
it will accelerate. A force of 1 N on a body of mass 1 kg accelerates at 1
m/s2 . A force of 1 lb on a body of mass 1 slug accelerates at 1 ft/s2 : A
force of 1 lb (sometimes denoted lbf for clarity) on a body of mass 1 pound
mass (denoted lbm ) accelerates at 32.2 ft/s2 : Generally, to avoid confusion,
the term lb is used for forces and slug is used for mass in the English/U.S.
system of units.

1.6.3 The Second

The de…nition of the second as of 1967 from the Thirteenth General Con-
ference on Weights and Measures is:
The duration of 9,192,631,770 periods of the radiation corre-
sponding to the transition between the two hyper…ne levels of
the ground state of the cesium-133 atom.40
4 0 There are 54 electrons spinning around the nucleus of the cesium-133 atom. As the
44 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

This is the o¢ cial de…nition of the second, also called the atomic second.
The second, then, is de…ned based on counting the time duration of some-
thing that vibrates or oscillates over 9 billion times.41 (With a frequency of
9:193 109 cycles per second or Hz, each period of radiation is 1:088 10 10
s or 0.11 ns.) The problem is that the de…nition of time seems to rely on
the concept of time, making it circular.42 ;43
During the 1970s it was realized that gravitational time dilation44 caused
the second produced by each atomic clock to di¤er depending on its altitude.
A uniform second was produced by correcting the output of each atomic
clock to mean sea level, lengthening the second by about 1 10 10 s, or one
period. This correction was applied at the beginning of 1977 and formalized
in 1980.
The de…nition of the second was re…ned again at the 1997 meeting of The
International Bureau of Weights and Measures to include the statement:

This de…nition refers to a cesium atom at rest at a temperature

of 0 K.

The revised de…nition implies that the ideal atomic clock would contain a
single cesium atom at rest emitting a single frequency. In practice, however,
lone electron in the outermost shell spins it creates a tiny magnetic …eld. The nucleus
spins also, creating its own magnetic …eld. When the two magnetic …elds are spinning
in the same direction, the total energy within the atom is slightly higher than when
the two spins are in opposing directions. When the lonely electron ‡ips its magnetic
direction relative to the nucleus it emits or absorbs a tiny quantum of energy in the form
of radiation with a frequency of 9,192,631,770 cycles per second. (Rhythms of Life,
R.G. Foster and L. Kreitzman, Pro…le Books, 2004.)
4 1 It is interesting that we use oscillations to track the ‡ow of continuous time. Using

oscillatory motion to track time seems reminiscent of using a pendulum to measure time.
As noted by Landes, “One would have expected something very di¤erent – that time,
which is itself continuous, even and unidirectional would be best measured by some other
continuous, even and unidirectional phenomenon.”(Revolution in Time: Clocks and
the Making of the Modern World, D.S. Landes, Belknap Press, 2000.)
4 2 “The problem is that it is di¢ cult, perhaps even impossible, to come up with a

de…nition of time without using the word ‘time’itself.” (Rhythms of Life, R.G. Foster
and L. Kreitzman, Pro…le Books, 2004, paraphrasing B. Greene.)
4 3 “Perfectly regular cycles of motion implicitly involve a notion of time, since regular

refers to equal time durations elapsing for each cycle.” (The Elegant Universe: Su-
perstrings, Hidden Dimensions, and the Quest for the Ultimate Theory, B.
Greene, W.W. Norton & Company, 2003.)
4 4 Gravitational time dilation is the e¤ect of time passing at di¤erent rates in regions

of di¤erent gravitational potential; the higher the local distortion of space-time due to
gravity, the more slowly time passes. Einstein originally predicted this e¤ect in his theory
of relativity. It has been con…rmed by tests that have demonstrated that atomic clocks at
di¤erent altitudes (and thus di¤erent gravitational potential) show di¤erent times. The
e¤ects detected in such experiments are extremely small, with di¤erences being measured
in nanoseconds.
1.6. UNITS 45

the de…nition means that for highest accuracy determination of the second
atomic clocks should compensate for the e¤ects of the ambient temperature
(black-body radiation).
According to Newton, writing in the late 17th century, “time ‡ows
equably without reference to anything external,”meaning that the universe
is equipped with a kind of built-in clock that ticks o¤ seconds identically,
regardless of location or epoch. This is an intuitive perspective of time.
In the early part of the 20th century, Einstein introduced a counter-
intuitive paradigm-shift that modi…ed the Newtonian view of time. Ac-
cording to Einstein, the passage of time depends on circumstance and envi-
ronment. He showed that the wristwatches worn by two individuals moving
relative to one another, or experiencing di¤erent gravitational …elds, tick
o¤ time at di¤erent rates. The passage of time, according to Einstein, is in
the eye of the beholder.45
Numerous experiments and astronomical observations leave no doubt
that Einstein was right. Nevertheless, because Einstein’s concept of time
becomes meaningful only at high speeds (near the speed of light, the maxi-
mum possible speed) or in strong gravitational …elds (near a black hole), in
the real-world – in which engineers work – we adopt Newton’s concept of
time and we rely on it for measurement of vibration.

1.6.4 Dimensional Analysis

Physical variables possess units. Therefore, for any equation to be true it
must have consistent units. Just as the numbers on both sides of the equality
must be equal to each other, the same is true for the units. Dimensional
analysis is a method that seeks to identify signi…cant dimensionless ratios
or variables in a problem. These dimensionless groups are used because
relationships derived for such ratios are independent of a particular set of
units. Sometimes the process of identifying these groups leads to important
but unnoticed relationships between particular variables. Examples include
the Reynolds number as one such parameter in ‡uid mechanics, and the
viscous damping factor, introduced in the next chapter as a very important
parameter in vibration studies.
In addition, it is possible to use the units of variables that we expect to
be part of a particular analysis to derive analytical relationships between
those variables. This may appear remarkable, but as mentioned above, the
units must also satisfy the equations. Essentially, the units of the vari-
ables provide us with additional equations that must be satis…ed. In the
4 5 B. Greene, “The Time We Thought We Knew,” The New York Times, January 1,

2004.
46 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

following example we consider an example to demonstrate how the rele-

vant parameters of an oscillator problem are de…ned on purely dimensional
considerations.
The problems we study in this book, and in the physical sciences in
general, are formulated in terms of only a few physical variables. These
are energy, velocity, density, force, momentum, temperature, and stress, for
example. Other disciplines, such as electricity and magnetism, would have
their own variables. Each variable has associated units, and we examine
how these units can be used to derive key nondimensional parameters for
particular problems. Dimensional analysis, also called similitude theory, is
useful in the planning and design of experiments because key parameters
are identi…ed and scaling relations can be derived. Therefore, one can focus
on the important variables of a problem when designing an experiment and
deciding which parameters need to be measured.

Example 1.2 Dimensions of a Vibrating System

In designing an experiment to determine key parameters required for the
design of a rocket, one can answer questions such as: If the rocket is 1=5th
scale, then what scale factors apply to the aerodynamic load and thrust?
Variables scale di¤erently according to their units.
We know that sti¤ness and mass are two of the key parameters that
de…ne an oscillatory system’s behavior. Use dimensional analysis46 to derive
some key dimensionless parameters considering only units relevant to the
modeling of a vibrating system.
Solution: For an undamped oscillator, the following parameters are
required to model its behavior: X to represent maximum de‡ection, K
to represent spring constant, and M to represent mass. The forcing can
be represented by peak magnitude P , with an associated time constant T .
The time constant could be representative of frequency or time to peak
amplitude.
The basis for this procedure is the Buckingham- Theorem, which states
that any complete physical relation can be expressed in terms of a set of
independent dimensionless products composed of the relevant physical pa-
rameters, called (pi) terms. Because terms are products or quotients
of zero-dimension, a general dimensionless equation expressing this is

X a K b M c P d T e = M 0 L0 T 0 ; (1.2)

where the equality implies dimensional equality, and superscripts are pow-
ers. The right-hand side is a product of mass, length, and time, each taken
4 6 Similarity Methods in Engineering Dynamics, W.E. Baker, P.S. Westine, and

F.T. Dodge, Elsevier, 1991, presents interesting applications of dimensional analysis.

1.6. UNITS 47

to the zero power, indicating that both sides of the equation must be di-
mensionless. In order to treat Equation 1.2 as an algebraic equation, we
need to substitute appropriate units for the variables on the left-hand side,
obtaining
b d
M ML
La M c
T e = M 0 L0 T 0 :
T2 T2
Combining like terms on the left-hand side results in the simpli…ed equation

M (b+c+d) L(a+d) T (e 2b 2d)

= M 0 L0 T 0 :

This equation is equivalent to three equations since the units of each dimen-
sional quantity must satisfy the equality. Therefore, we equate the powers
of like units:

b+c+d=0
a+d=0
e 2b 2d = 0:

These three equations can be solved for any two of the …ve constants in
terms of the others. We solve for a and e to …nd

a=a
1
b=a+ e
2
1
c= e
2
d= a
e = e:

Substituting the new expressions for b; c and d into Equation 1.2 we …nd

X a K (a+e=2) M ( e=2)
P a
T e = M 0 L0 T 0 :

Collecting terms with the same exponents,

r !e
a
XK K
T = M 0 L0 T 0 ;
P M

and identifying the dimensionless terms, we have

r
X K
; T:
P=K M
48 CHAPTER 1. INTRODUCTION AND BACKGROUND

The Buckingham- theorem further states that there exists a function of

these dimensionless terms such that
r !
X K
f ; T = 0;
P=K M
q
X K
meaning that P=K is a function of M T. These parameters turn out to be
X
important in describing an oscillator. P=K is the static displacement, P=K
is the maximumpdisplacement normalized with respect to the static dis-
placement, and K=M is the natural frequency of oscillation. The natural
frequency is the single most important parameter specifying vibration.
q In
X K
an experiment, data could be gathered to plot P=K as a function of M T.
This is much easier and more useful than plotting all the combinations of
the original …ve parameters with which we started.
These ideas can be used to tackle new and more complex problems in
which the key parameters may not even be known. The Buckingham-
Theorem is a very useful tool for identifying the important parameters of a
problem.

1.7 Concepts Summary

We have introduced the subject matter of this text on vibration. An ef-
fort has been made to provide the reader with an opening to the concepts
of vibration and dynamics, to modeling, and to the concerns of engineers
working with problems of vibration.
The next chapter begins our study of the simplest vibration problems,
those amenable to single degree-of-freedom mathematical models. Such
models lead us to the important vibration parameters of natural frequency
of oscillation and the viscous damping factor.

1.8 Quotes
“Art without engineering is dreaming; engineering without art is cal-
culating.” (Steven K. Roberts)

“Why do two bodies attract each other? Why should there be this
force at all? What does it consist of? And the answer is: We don’t
know. Newton’s mathematical formula simply describes the phenom-
enon, but why that phenomenon should exist in the …rst place or how
1.8. QUOTES 49

it operates, we don’t know. In this great age of technology, we don’t

even understand what it is that keeps our feet on the ground.” (M.
Scott Peck, Further Along The Road Less Traveled, 1993, p.73)
“Engineering must be experienced. It must be learned and not learned
about. Engineering is so close to the life of every student that there
is no need to con…ne its study to the reading of textbooks or listening
to lectures. Wherever you may go in the world, engineering is an
intimate part of our lives – from waking up to the alarm clock, to
turning o¤ the lights at night, to getting to and from work or school,
to using a computer. No teacher ever needs to look far for materials
as the study of engineering is the study of the accomplishments that
surround us everywhere.” (Mark Nagurka)
“The Golden Age of Engineering was the decade before we landed on
the Moon.” (William F. Hughes)
“For every action, there is an equal and opposite criticism.”