Friction Stir Welding - FSW

• Variation of FRW (invented by TWI, UK) in which rapidly rotating probe

is plunged into joint between two plates being squeezed together.

• Frictional heating and softening occurs. Metals plasticized due to heat,

from both sides intermix (stirred) and form weld.

• Refined grain structure; ductility, fatigue life and toughness good

• No filler metal or shielding gas, so no

porosity or cracking. Low heat input and
distortion. Access to 1 side enough

• Can weld metals that are often seen as

incompatible. Parameters require
careful control
Lecture 9 1
 Friction Stir Welding - FSW
• Process variables include probe geometry (dia, depth and profile);
shoulder dia (provides additional heat and prevents expulsion of
softened metal from joint), rotation speed, force and travel speed

• Require little edge preparation and virtually no post weld machining

due absence of splatter or distortion.

• 50mm thick Al plates welded

single side process and 75mm
with double sided process

• Cu, Pb, Sn, Zn, T have been

welded with steel sheet/plates

Lecture 9 2
 Friction Stir Welding - FSW
• Friction Surfacing - Same principle
as FSW. Used to deposit metal on
surface of a plate, cylinder etc. For
wear, corrosion resistance etc.

• By moving a substrate across the

face of the rotating rod a plasticized
layer between 0.2-2.5mm thick is
deposited

• The resulting composite material is

created to provide the characteristics
demanded by any given application.
Lecture 9 3
MECH 423 Casting, Welding, Heat
Treating and NDT
Time: _ _ W _ F 14:45 - 16:00

Credits: 3.5 Session: Fall

Other Welding Processes

Lecture 10

Lecture 10 4
 Ultrasonic Welding USW
Vibrational motion causing friction.

• Localized high frequency (I0 - 20 kHz) shear vibrations between surfaces

(lightly held together).

• (heating but not melting) . Rapid stress reversal removes oxide films and

surface impurities allowing coalescence (atom-to-atom contact).

• Spot, ring, line and seam welds.

• Sheet/foil/wire 1 - 2.5 mm

• Good for dissimilar materials + electronics (low heat) explosive

casings. Plastics (can be done with vertical vibrations)

• Efficient, less surface preparation and required skill

Lecture 10 5
 Ultrasonic Welding USW

Schematic of a wedge-reed
ultrasonic spot welding system.
Note the piezoelectric transducer
used to supply needed
vibrational energy to cause
frictional heating.

Lecture 10 6
Ultrasonic Welding USW

Lecture 10 7
Ultrasonic Welding USW

Metal combinations that

can be ultrasonically
Lecture 10 welded 8
 Diffusion Welding DFW
• AKA Diffusion Bonding. Heat + Pressure + time (no motion of workpieces)
• Filler metal may/may not. (not as high pressure for plastic deformation)
• T < Tm, allow diffusion over time (elevated temp to increase diffusion)
• Used for dissimilar + reactive refractory metals, Ti, Zr, Be, ceramics.
• Can produce perfect welds!
• Dissimilar materials can be
joined (metal-to-ceramic).
• Used commonly for bonding
titanium in aerospace
applications. (Ti dissolves its
surface oxide on heating).
• Quality of weld depends on surface condition. It is a slow process.
Lecture 10 9
 Explosive Welding EXW
• Usually used for cladding (eg corrosion resistance
sheet to heavier plate) large areas of bonding
• Pieces start out cold but heat up at faying
surfaces.
• Progressive detonation (shaped charge and
controlled detonation).
• produces compressive shock wave
forcing metals together.
• air squeezed out at supersonic velocities cleaning off surface film
causing localized heating.
• deformation also causes heating, good atom contact. weld formed.
• low temperature weld (usually a distorted interface – wavy).
Lecture 10 dynamicmaterials.com 10
Explosive Welding EXW

Lecture 10 11
Explosive Welding EXW
• stainless 304 to low
carbon steel;
• pure titanium to low
carbon steel.
• Used for transition
joints:
• Cu-steel, Cu-stainless
steel, Cu-Al, Al-steel.

Commercially important
metals that can be
bonded by explosive
welding

Lecture 10 12
Other Welding Processes

Lecture 10 13
 Thermit Welding TW
• AKA aluminothermic; Use heat produced from highly exothermic
chemical reaction between solids to produce melting and joining.
• Thermit is a mixture of 1 part AL to 3 parts Iron Oxide + alloys
• Chemical reaction: Metal Oxide + Reducing Agent
• E.g. 8Al + 3Fe304  9Fe + 4Al203 + heat
• RA MO M slag 2750°C (30secs)
• (Use a magnesium fuse to ignite usually at 1100°C)
• Also CuO plus Al. (superheated metal flows by gravity into the
weld area providing heat and filler metal)
• Requires runners and risers to direct metal and prevent shrinkage
• Old technique, less common now
Lecture 10 14
 Thermit Welding TW
• Effective in producing
economic welds in thick
sections – less
sophisticated eqpt.
(can be used in remote
applications)
• Casting repairs,
railroad rails, heavy
copper cables. Typical arrangement of the Thermit process for
welding concrete reinforcing steel bars,
• Also copper, brasses,
horizontally or vertically.
nickel chromium and
manganese.
Lecture 10 15
 ElectroSlag Welding ESW
• Good for thick steel welds
• Arc used to start weld, but then heat produced by resistance
heating of SLAG (1760°C) (different from SAW)
• Molten slag melts metal into pool + filler
• up to 65 mm deep slag layer - cleans/protects
• 12 - 20 mm deep weld pool
• Plates (water-cooled) keep liquids in.
• Vertical joints most common (circumferential as well)
• Thickness 13 - 90 mm!
• Building, Shipbuilding, pressure vessels, Castings
• Large HAZ, grain growth
• Large deposition rates (15-25 kg/hr/electrode).
Lecture 10 16
ElectroSlag Welding ESW

Lecture 10 17
 High Energy Density Beam W
• Electron beam welding (EBW) and Laser Beam Welding (LBW).
• Very high intensity beam of electromagnetic energy (electrons or
photons).
• An important factor in welding is heat input – this has good and bad
effects. Need high heat input to melt metals but high input will cause
more heat affected area in workpiece. What we want is enough energy
focussed into small area rather than spread out, i.e. maximize melting
efficiency and minimize HAZ.
• Energy density is best way to describe “hotness” for welding.
Measured in watts/m2.
• Other factors to consider are energy losses during welding.
• Can measure energy losses (or heat transfer efficiency) for welding
processes: low efficiency (0.25) high efficiency (0.9)
Lecture 10 18
 High Energy Density Beam W

Causes of loss of energy during transfer from a welding source to the

workpiece.
Lecture 10 19
High Energy Density Beam W

Lecture 10 20
 Electron Beam Welding EBW
• Fusion welding - heating caused by EB from Tungsten filament.

• Beam is focused (ø0.8 - 3.2 mm) + can produce high temperatures

• Must be used in hard vacuum (10-3 – 10-5 atm) to prevent electrons

from interacting with atoms/molecules in atmosphere.

• Imposes size restrictions (but vacuum cleans surfaces) + slow

changeover – hence expensive.

• Some allow exterior sample welds but high losses, shallower weld
depths & x-ray hazard; some machines operate with sample in “soft”
vacuum (0.1-0.01 atm).

• high power + heat, deep, narrow welds, high speeds; V. narrow HAZ,
deep penetration; no filler, gas, flux, etc.
Lecture 10 21
Electron Beam Welding EBW

Lecture 10 22
 Electron Beam Welding EBW
• Good for difficult-to-weld materials; Zr, Be, W
• But expensive equipment, joint preparation has to be good.
• EBW is normally done autogenously (i.e. no other filler metal) so
joints must fit together very well - simple straight or square butt.
• Filler metal can be added as wire for shallow
welds or to correct underfill in deep
penetration welds.
• Usually used in keyhole mode.
• Electron absorption in materials high; so transfer efficiency > 90%.
• EBW is routinely used for specific applications in the aerospace and
automotive industries.

Lecture 10 23
 Laser Beam Welding LBW
• Laser is heat source 10 kW/cm2
• Thin column of vaporized metal when used in keyhole mode
(focused)
• Narrow weld pool, thin HAZ
• Usually performed autogenously (without filler) but filler can be
used on shallower welds.
• Usually used with inert shielding gas (shroud or box) or
vacuum.
• Some materials reflect light so photon absorption and thus
transfer efficiency varies on the material – highly reflective
materials (Al) only 10% but for non-reflective materials
(graphite) up to 90%.
• Special coatings can be used to increase efficiency.

Lecture 10 24
Laser Beam Welding LBW

Schematic profiles of typical welds

Lecture 10 25
 Laser Beam Welding LBW

Isometric
illustration of the
movement of a
keyhole in laser
welding to
produce a weld.

Lecture 10 26
 Laser Beam Welding LBW
• LBW is like EBW but: can be used in air; no x-rays generated
• easy to shape, direct + focus LB by mirrors/optics etc.
• no physical contact required - weld through window!
• Sharp focus allows v. small welds, low total heat (electronics)
1. The beam can be transmitted through air, vacuum is not required.
2. No X-rays are generated.
3. The laser beam is easily shaped, directed, and focused with both
transmission and reflective optics (lenses and mirrors) and can be
transmitted through fiber optic cables.
4. No direct contact is necessary to produce a weld, only optical
accessibility. Welds can be made on materials that are encapsulated
within transparent containers, such as components in a vacuum tube.
Lecture 10 27
EBW & LBW Comparison

Lecture 10 28
 Flash Welding FW
• Two pieces (current-carrying) lightly touched
and withdrawn to create arc (flash) between
surfaces. (pre heat optional)
• Arc melts surface and cleans oxides. Pieces
are then forced (70MPa) to produce joint.
• Current turned off and pressure maintained to
complete solidification
• Upset may be removed by machining.
• Usually used for butt welding of similar and
dissimilar solids or tubes.
• Surfaces to be square (flashing to be even)
• Expensive equipment but excellent welds.
Lecture 10 29
 Welding of Plastics
• Used for thermo-plastics (heat-softening
plastics - not thermosets or elastomers)
• In contrast/competition to
• adhesive bonding: (requires surface
cleaning and preparation, curing time
etc.,
• mechanical fastening: (not usually leak
tight, thread stripping is common –
requires metal insert).
• Very little heat required as relatively low
melting points (cf metals).

Lecture 10 30
 Welding of Plastics

Now also used for metals (e.g. aluminum)

Lecture 10 31
 Welding of Plastics
• Mechanical/friction heat generation
• USW; high frequency mechanical vibrations 20-80 kHz, 0.5 – 1.5
secs for welding, usually small components, large production runs.
• FRW/spin welding. Very similar to friction welding of metals but
melting occurs at faying surfaces. Good joints, simple preparation.
Requires at least one component to have circular symmetry, with
axis of rotation perpendicular to joint. Joint strengths are 50 to
95% of base material
• vibration welding (like friction but sliding not rotating; also known
as Linear Friction Welding)
• FSW (also on metals): probe - "stirs" up material on either face by
frictional heating, and traverses along leaving molten pool to cool.
Lecture 10 32
 Welding of Plastics
• External heat sources
• hot-plate welding: simplest method, parts are held against heated
hotplate until surface melts and material softens
• hotplate is removed and parts are clamped together and cooled.
• 10 seconds for welding; good strength; limited joints (butt & lap).
• Hot gas welding: very hot "hair dryer" (air, N2, 02, CO2) Resistance
coil heated to 200-300°C.
• Filler material usually used as plastic's do not "melt” into low viscosity
liquid (cf. metals). So filler material is used to squeeze into softened
joint. Often used for repair jobs (too slow for mfg & high operator skill)
• Implant welding: Use metal wire/foil inserted between parts to
provide local resistance or induction heating. Plastic flows around
inserts to form joint. (Similar to spot welds).
Lecture 10 33
Brazing & Soldering - Introduction
• Welding involved melting the pieces of base metal (and filler
metal) and solidifying the weld pool to make one piece. The weld
is the same metal (system) as the workpiece.
• Brazing and Soldering involve joining workpieces without melting
the workpieces.
• welding may not be the best choice.
• heat of welding
• materials possess poor weldability,
• welding is expensive.
• In such cases low-temperature joining methods may be preferred.
• brazing,
• soldering,
• adhesive joining
• mechanical fasteners.
Lecture 10 34
Brazing & Soldering - Introduction
• In brazing and soldering,
• metal surfaces are cleaned,
• components assembled or fixtured,
• low-melting-point nonferrous metal is then melted
• drawn into the space between the two solid surfaces by
capillary action

• allowed to solidify.

• BRAZING
• Brazing is the joining of metals by heat and a filler metal whose
melting temperature is above 840°F (450°C)

• BUT below the melting point of the metals being joined.

Lecture 10 35
 Brazing
Main differences between welding & brazing:

• composition of the brazing alloy is different

significantly from that of the base metal.

• The strength of the brazing alloy is substantially

lower than that of the base metal.

• The melting point of the brazing alloy is lower

than that of the base metal, so the base metal is
not melted.

• Bonding requires capillary action, (flow related to

viscosity of the liquid and joint geometry and
surface wetting characteristics) to distribute filler
between fitting surfaces.

Lecture 10 36
 Brazing
• Virtually all metals can be joined by some type of brazing
metal. - suited for dissimilar metals, (ferrous to
nonferrous, or metals with different mps, metal-ceramic).
• Less heating (c.f.welding) quicker, less energy.
• Lower temperatures reduce HAZ, warping, or distortion.
• Thinner/more complex joints. (closer tolerance, neat)
• Highly adaptable to automation/mass producing delicate
assemblies. A strong permanent joint is formed.
Disadvantages of brazing:
• Small joint clearance to enhance capillary flow of filler
metal
• subsequent heating can cause melting of the braze metal.
• susceptibility to corrosion; filler metal is different
composition, joint is a localized galvanic corrosion cell.
(reduced by proper material selection)
Lecture 10 37
Nature & Strength - Brazed Joints
• Brazing forms a strong metallurgical bond at the interfaces.

• The bonding enhanced by clean surfaces, proper clearance, good

wetting, and good fluidity.

• Strength can be quite high, certainly higher than the strength of the
brazing alloy and possibly higher than the brazed metal.
• Bond strength is a strong function of joint clearance.
• If the joint is too tight, difficult for the braze metal to flow into the gap
and flux may be unable to escape (will leave voids)
• There must be sufficient clearance so that the braze metal will wet
the joint and flow into it under the force of capillary action.
• As the gap is increased beyond this optimum value, however, the
joint strength decreases rapidly, dropping off to that of the braze
metal itself. Lecture 10 38
Nature & Strength - Brazed Joints
• If the gap becomes too great, capillary forces may be insufficient to
draw the material into the joint or hold it in place during solidification.
• Proper clearance varies, depending on type of braze metal. Ideal
clearance is usually between (0.0005 and 0.0015 in.) (10 - 40m)
(an “easy-slip” fit).

Lecture 10 39
Nature & Strength - Brazed Joints
• Clearances up to (0.003 in.) ( 75 m) can be accommodated with a
more sluggish filler metal, such as nickel.
• When clearances > 0.003 < 0.005 in.(75-130 m), acceptable brazing
is difficult, and with gaps > 0.005 in. (130 m) are impossible to braze.
• Joints should be parallel and clearances should exist at brazing
temperature. Effects of thermal expansion should be compensated.
• Wettability – ability of liquid to spread and “wet” surface of solid.
• Function of the surface tensions between braze metal and base alloy.
Usually good when surfaces are clean and alloys can form.
Sometimes interlayers can be used to increase wettability e.g. tin-
plated steel (tinned steel) is easier to solder with lead-tin solder.
• Fluidity – is a measure of how the liquid braze metal flows. Depends
on the metal, temperature, surface cleanliness and clearance.
Lecture 10 40
 Brazing Metals
Brazing materials (MP between 450°C and Metal MP) selected based on:
• compatibility with the base materials, brazing temperature restrictions,
• restrictions due to service or subsequent processing temperatures,
• brazing process to be used, the joint design,
• anticipated service environment, desired appearance,
• desired mechanical properties (strength, ductility, and toughness),
• desired physical properties (electrical, magnetic, or thermal), and
• cost.
• Materials must be capable of “wetting” the joint surfaces, and partially
alloying with the base metals.
• Most commonly used: copper and copper alloys, silver and silver
alloys, and aluminum alloys.

Lecture 10 41
 Brazing Metals

• Copper - most commonly used brazing material.

• Unalloyed copper is used primarily for brazing steel and other high-
melting-point materials, (high-speed steel and tungsten carbide).

• Confined mostly to furnace operations in a protective hydrogen

atmosphere; extremely fluid; requires no flux. Melting point is about
1084oC and tight-fitting joints (75m) are required.
Lecture 10 42
 Brazing Metals
• Copper alloys:

• Copper-zinc alloys; lower melting point than pure copper; used

extensively for brazing steel, cast irons, and copper.
• Copper-phosphorus alloys used for fluxless brazing of copper since
the phosphorus can reduce the copper oxide film. Should not be
used with ferrous or nickel-based materials, as they form brittle
compounds with phosphorus.
• Pure silver is used in brazing titanium.
• Silver solders; alloys of silver and copper with paladium, nickel, tin, or
zinc; brazing temperatures around 750°C; used in joining steels, copper,
brass, and nickel.
• Although quite expensive, only small amount required; cost per joint is
quite low. Also used in brazing stainless steels.

Lecture 10 43
 Brazing Metals
• Aluminum-silicon alloys; (6 to 12% silicon) used for brazing
aluminum and aluminum alloys. Control of temperature essential.
• Braze metal is like base metal, galvanic corrosion is unlikely BUT
control of the brazing temperature is critical (close to melting point of
metal).
• In brazing aluminum, proper fluxing action, surface cleaning, and/or
the use of a controlled-atmosphere or vacuum environment is
required to assure adequate flow of braze metal.

• Nickel- and cobalt-based alloys offer excellent corrosion- and heat-

resistant properties. (good at elevated temperature service
conditions)

• Gold and palladium alloys offer outstanding oxidation and corrosion

resistance, as well as electrical and thermal conductivity.

Lecture 10 44
 Brazing Metals
• Magnesium alloys are used to braze magnesium.
• Amorphous alloy brazing sheets produced by fast cooling metal
(> I million oC per second). Resulting metal foils are extremely
thin (0.04 mm) exhibit excellent ductility and flexibility, even when
alloy itself is brittle.
• Shaped inserts can be cut or stamped from the foil, inserted
into the joint, and heated. Since the braze material is fully
dense, no shrinkage or movement is observed during the
brazing operation. A variety of brazing alloys are currently
available in the form of amorphous foils.
• Nickel-chromium-iron-boron can be used for brazing assemblies
requiring high temperature service. Boron diffuses into base
metal and raises the melting point of remaining filler. Increases
service temperature above MP of the braze alloy.
Lecture 10 45
 Fluxes
• In a normal atmosphere, heat causes formation of surface oxides
that oppose wetting / bonding.

• Fluxes are used for:

• dissolving oxides that may be on the surface prior to heating,

• preventing the formation of oxides during heating,

• lowering the surface tension of the molten brazing metal and thus
promoting its flow into the joint.

• One of the primary factors affecting quality and uniformity of brazed

joints is cleanliness. Fluxes will dissolve modest amounts of oxides,
but they are not cleaners. Before flux applied, dirt, grease, oil, rust,
and heat-treat scale should be removed.

Lecture 10 46
 Fluxes
• If the flux has little cleaning to do
before heating, then it will be more
efficient while brazing.

• Importance of fluxes in aiding

“wetting” of base metal by filler
metal (brazing & soldering)

Lecture 10 47
 Fluxes
• Wetting When Soldering & Brazing

Lecture 10 48
 Fluxes
• Fused Borax in common use as a brazing flux. Modern fluxes with
melting temperatures lower than borax; some more effective in
removing oxidation

• Flux should be selected for compatibility with the metal being brazed

• Paste fluxes are utilized for furnace, induction, and dip brazing, -
usually applied by brushing.

• Either paste or powdered fluxes used with torch brazing . Application

is usually done by dipping the heated end of the filler wire into flux.

• Fluxes for aluminum - mixtures of metallic halide salts, with sodium

and potassium chlorides.

• Most brazing fluxes are corrosive, - residue should be removed

immediately after brazing. (particularly for aluminum - chlorides are
particularly detrimental). Effort directed to developing fluxless
procedures for brazing. Lecture 10 49
 Applying the Brazing Metal
• Can be applied to joints in several ways.

• Oldest (and a common technique in torch brazing) uses rod or wire.

• Joint area is heated to a temperature high enough to melt the

braze alloy and keep it molten while flowing into joint. Braze metal
is then melted by torch and capillary action draws it into the gap.
• Considerable labour and care necessary.
• To avoid these difficulties, braze metal is often applied to joint prior to
heating - wires, shims, powder, or formed rings, washers, disks, etc.
• Rings or shims of braze metal can be fitted into internal grooves in
the joint before assembly. Parts held together by press fits, riveting,
staking, tack welding, or a jig, to maintain their proper alignment
before brazing. Use springs to compensate for thermal expansion.
• Precladding of sheet material with braze alloy. (no capillary flow)
Lecture 10 50
Applying the Brazing Metal

Lecture 10 51
 Heating methods
• Things to consider- Size and shape, type of material, quality, quantity
and rate of production. Temperature uniformity is important.
• Torch-brazing - gas torch flame. Most repair brazes use this but also
many production applications. Flexible, simple, local heating only.
Difficult temperature control, skill required.
• Furnace-brazing - Braze metal pre-applied. Components loaded into
furnace (box or continuous). Controlled heating & atmosphere, no skill.
• Salt-bath Brazing - Dip into molten salt bath (c.f heat treating)
• fast heat transfer; salt-bath prevents oxidation
• uniform temperature, good for uneven thickness parts
• Dip-brazing - Assemblies dipped into bath of molten braze metal
(wasteful) useful only for small parts.
Lecture 10 52
 Induction Brazing
High-frequency induction currents for heating. Used extensively:

• rapid heating - a few seconds for complete cycle.

• semiautomatic, only semiskilled labour is required.

• heating confined to joint area using specially designed coils

and short heating times - minimizes softening and distortion;
reduces scale and discoloration problems.

• uniform results are easily obtained.

• Coils are generally copper tubing (cooling water). Filler material

can be added to the joint manually after heating, BUT usually use
preloaded joints to speed the operation and produce more-
uniform bonds.

Lecture 10 53
 Resistance Brazing
• Parts to be joined are pressed between two electrodes as a current
is passed through.
• Unlike resistance welding, however, most of the resistance is
provided by the electrodes, which are made of carbon or graphite.
Thus most of the heating is by means of conduction from the hot
electrodes.
• The resistance process is used primarily to braze electrical
components, such as conductors, cable connectors, and similar
devices. Equipment is generally an adaptation of conventional
resistance welders.
• Infrared heat lamps, lasers, E-Beams can also be heat sources for
Brazing
Lecture 10 54
 Brazed Joint DESIGN
• Use THIN layer of braze. To maximize load bearing ability of braze
• ensure proper joint clearance
• increase area of joint;
• lap (shear)
• Butt (used where joint strength not critical)
• scarf
• Overlap-type joints are preferred.
• For good joints, a lap of 1-1.25 times metal thickness (t) can provide
strong joint but for industrial production lap should be 3 to 6 t.
• This ensures failure of the base metal and not the joint.
• Alignment is less problem, capillary action easier; assembly usually
easier. Maximum strength attainable.
Lecture 10 55
Brazed Joint DESIGN

Lecture 10 56
Brazed Joint DESIGN

Lecture 10 57
 Brazed Joint DESIGN
• Material effects should be considered during joint design -
important role in braze strength

Lecture 10 58
 Braze Welding
• Capillary action is not used to distribute filler metal. Filler is
deposited by gravity (like OFW) using an oxyacetylene torch.
• Used as a lower temperature method for repairing steel and
ferrous castings, joining cast irons.
• Since low temp, warping is minimized, and no change of crystal
structure. Does not require wetting surfaces (no capillary)
• Allows build up of filler metal to achieve full strength though.

Lecture 10 59
 Soldering
• Brazing-type operation where filler metal melting point is below
450oC (840oF). Typically used for connecting thin metals, electronic
components (mostly where higher temperature should be avoided)

• Important steps in making a good soldered joint:

• design of acceptable joint

• selection of correct solder metal for the job

• selection of proper flux

• cleaning surfaces

• application of flux, solder and heat to fill joint by capillary action

• removing residual flux if required.

Lecture 10 60
 Solder Joint Design
• Used for wide variety of sizes, shapes and thickness joints. (clearance)

• Extensively used for electrical couplings and gas/air-tight seals.

• Shear strength is usually less than 2MPa. So if more strength required

usually combined with other form of mechanical joint as seam-lock.

• Avoid butt joints, and soldering

where joint is subject to peeling.

• Parts need to be held firmly until

solder is completely solidified.

• Flux should be removed after

soldering (method depends on
type of flux; water, alcohol etc.).
Lecture 10 61
 Metals to be Joined

• Copper, silver, gold, tin plated steels easily joined

• Aluminum (has strong oxide film) so difficult to solder unless using

special fluxes and modified techniques (used in automotive radiators)
Lecture 10 62
 Solder Metals
• Usually low MP alloys Lead-Tin alloys (+ antimony 0.5%)

• low cost, reasonable mechanical properties.

• Good knowledge base

• plumbing, electronics, car-body dent repair, radiators.

• Tin is more expensive than lead, so lower tin compositions used

unless lower melting point, higher strength, higher fluidity required.

• High melting point – higher lead content (cheaper)

• “Mushy” wiping solder has 30-40% tin.

• Low melting point solder has eutectic composition (62%Sn -

38%Pb) fast melting, fast freezing, high strength.

Lecture 10 63
 Solder Metals
• Lead-free solders - Used where
lead toxicity may be a problem.
(water supplies etc).

• Other alloys include

• Tin-antimony (higher
melting points)

• Bismuth

• Tin-indium

Lecture 10 64
 Soldering Fluxes
• Same principles as brazing so surfaces must be clean; mechanical or
chemical cleaning.
• Fluxes remove surface oxides:
• Corrosive: muriatic acid, zinc/ammonium chlorides. Al, steels, copper,
brass, bronze….
• Non-corrosive: rosin (residue after distilling turpentine), good for
copper, brass, tin or silver -plated surfaces

• Heating for Soldering

• Similar to brazing, (furnace and salt bath heating is not usually used)
• Wave soldering is used for wires while dip soldering for auto parts
• Hand soldering is done by solder iron and oxy fuel torch
Lecture 10 65
MECH 423 Casting, Welding, Heat
Treating and NDT
Time: _ T _ _ _17:45 - 20:15

Credits: 3.5 Session: Fall

Welding Joints & Metallurgy

Lecture 11

Lecture 11 66
 Flow of Heat in Welds
• Heat (energy) is introduced into workpiece to cause melting during
fusion welding. Not all heat contributes to melting. Some conducted
away raising temperature of surrounding material causing
(unwanted) metallurgical & geometrical changes - AKA – HAZ.
• How the heat is distributed directly influences:
• the rate and extent of melting; (affects weld volume, shape,
homogeneity, shrinkage, distortion, related defects).
• the rate of cooling and solidification; (solidification structure,
related properties).
• the rate of heating and cooling in the HAZ; (thermally induced
stresses, cooling rate in solidification zone, structural changes in
HAZ, distortion, residual stresses).
Lecture 11 67
 Weld Zones Prediction
• A fusion weld produces several distinct microstructural zones in
both pure metals and alloys.
• Fusion zone, FZ: – portion of metal that is melted during welding
(above Tm or TL for alloy).
• Partially Melted Zone, PMZ: – for an alloy where temperature is
between TLiquidus and TSolidus. (No PMZ in pure metal).
• Heat Affected Zone HAZ: – portion of base material that was not
melted but whose properties are affected by heat of welding
(phase transformation, reaction).
• Unaffected Base Material UBM: – portion of base material which
has not been affected by welding heat.

Lecture 11 68
Weld Zones Prediction
The various
microstructural
zones formed
in fusion welds
between a
pure metal
(right) and an
alloy (alloy).

Schematic of
the distinct
zones in a
fusion weld in a
pure metal (a)
and an alloy (c)
as these
correspond to
phase regions
in the
hypothetical
phase diagram
shown (b).

Lecture 11 69
 Simplified welding equations.
Peak Temperatures in solid metal:

1

2e Chy  1
0.5

TP  T0 H net Tm  T0
where:
T0 = temperature of workpiece at start of welding (K)
TP = Peak temperature at distance y from fusion boundary (K)
Tm = melting temperature (or liquidus) of metal being welded (K)
 = density of metal (g.m-3)
C = specific heat (J.g-1 .K-1)
Hnet = heat input (J.m-1) = q/v = EI/v for arc welding processes
h = thickness of base material (m)
e = base of natural logarithms (2.718)
y = distance form fusion zone (= 0 at the fusion zone, where TP = Tm) (m)

Lecture 11 70
Solidification rate
The rate at which weld metal solidifies can have a strong effect
on microstructure and properties.
Solidification time, St , in seconds: LH net
St 
2kC Tm  T0 
2

where:
L = Latent heat of fusion (J/m3)
T0 = temperature of workpiece at start of welding (K)
Tm = melting temperature (or liquidus) of metal being welded (K)
k = thermal conductivity (J.m-1.s-1. K-1)
 = density of metal (g.m-3)
C = specific heat (J.g-1 .K-1)
Hnet = heat input (J.m-1) = q/v = EI/v for arc welding processes

Lecture 11 71
Cooling Rates
Final metallurgical state of FZ and HAZ is primarily determined
by cooling rates. Affects fineness/coarseness of grains,
homogeneity, phases, microconstituents etc. Especially in
steels where some phase transformations are dependent on
cooling rate (fast cooling can produce hard, brittle martensite).
For a single pass in a butt joint between thick plates (> 6
passes) of equal thickness:
2k TC  T0 
2
R
H net
where:
R = cooling rate at the weld centreline (K/s)
T0 = initial temperature of workpiece (K)
TC = temperature at which cooling rate is calculated (K)
k = thermal conductivity (J.m-1.s-1. K-1)
Hnet = heat input (J.m-1) = q/v = EI/v for arc welding processes

Lecture 11 72
For thin plates ( < 4 passes):
2
 h 
R  2kC   TC  T0 
 H net 
where:
R = cooling rate at the weld centreline (K/s)
T0 = initial temperature of workpiece (K)
TC = temperature at which cooling rate is calculated (K)
k = thermal conductivity (J.m-1.s-1. K-1)
 = density of metal (g.m-3)
C = specific heat (J.g-1 .K-1)
C = volumetric specific heat (J.m-1 .K-1)
Hnet = heat input (J.m-1) = q/v = EI/v for arc welding processes

Note: increasing the initial temperature, T0, (by preheating)

decreases the cooling rate,R.

Lecture 11 73
 Weld Joint Configuration
• Heat flow in weld is affected by size and shape of weld.

• Surfacing or Bead welds, made directly, no surface

preparation. Used for joining thin sheets, adding
coatings over surfaces (wear resistance)

• Groove Welds – full thickness strength, done as V,

Double V u, and J (one side prepared). The type of
groove depends on the thickness of the joint, weld
process and position

Fundamental types of welds, including (a) groove, (b) fillet, (c) plug,
and (d) surfacing.
Lecture 11 74
Schematic of the effect of weldment and weld geometry on the
dimensionality of heat flow: (a) two-dimensional heat flow for full-
penetration welds in thin plates or sheets; (b) two-dimensional heat
flow for full-penetration welds with parallel sides (as in EBW and
some LBW); (c) three-dimensional heat flow for partial- penetration
welds in thick plate; and (d) an intermediate, 2.5-D condition for
near-full-penetration welds.

Lecture 11 75
 Weld Joint Configuration
• Fillet Welds, used for tee, lap or corner joints. No edge
preparation. Size of the weld is measured by the
largest 45° right triangle that could be drawn in the
weld cross section.

• Plug Weld – attach one part over another replacing

rivets are bolts. Normally a hole is made on the top
plate and welding done at the bottom of the hole

• Five basic weld designs and some typical joints are

shown in the figure

Fundamental types of welds, including (a) groove, (b) fillet, (c) plug,
and (d) surfacing.
Lecture 11 76
Weld Joint Configuration

• Inserts are used

in pipelines or
other places
where welding
is restricted to
one side only

Lecture 11 77
 Weld Joint Configuration
Five basic weld designs:
• Type of loading will (a) butt, (b) corner, (c)
edge, (d) lap, (e) tee.
decide the type of
joint, to prevent
failure

• Accessibility and
cost are other
considerations
• Cost is affected by the amount of weld
metal, type of weld equipment, speed
and ease of welding
Some typical weld joint variations.
Lecture 11 78
 Weld Joint Configuration
(a) Single V, (b) double
V, (c) single U, (d)
double U joints. Require
filler metal.

(a) Full penetration,

(b) partial
penetration, (c)
continuous, (d)
intermittent welds.

Lecture 11 79
Weld Joint Configuration

Lecture 11 80
 Weld Joint Configuration

• Straight butt joints do not require filler metal as long as faces

abut tightly (gaps less than 1.5 mm) usually requires machined
surface (not sawn) – GTAW, PAW, LBW, EBW .

• Other joint configurations (V, double V, J, U etc) require filler

metal and preparation is made by cutting, machining etc. –
SMAW, FCAW, GMAW, SAW.

• Likewise with corner and edge joints. Some can be done

without preparation, others require machining.

Lecture 11 81
 Weld Design Considerations
• Welding is a unique process producing
monolithic structures (one-piece from 2 or
more pieces welded together)

• If pieces joined together, and if there is a

crack in one, it does not propagate to other
piece normally.

• In case of welding, since it becomes single piece, crack can

propagate through to other piece. (The crack can initiate in the weld
or otherwise). - reflects the monolithic nature of welding process.

• Another consideration is small pieces may behave differently

compared to larger pieces of steel (shown in figure)
Lecture 11 82
 Weld Design Considerations
• Joint designed primarily for load-carrying ability.

• Variable in design and layout can affect costs, distortion, reliability,

inspection, corrosion, type of defects.

• Select design that requires least amount of weld metal. (minimizes

distortion, residual stresses).

1. Where possible use square grooves (cheaper) and partial

penetration (helps maintain dimensions – unmelted metal in
contact) except where stress raisers cannot be tolerated (fatigue).

2. Use lap and fillet (instead of groove) welds where fatigue is not a
problem (cheaper).

Lecture 11 83
 Weld Design Considerations
3. Use double-V double-U (instead of single-V or –U) for thick plates
(reduces weld metal vol.; controls distortion & balances heat input).

4. For corner joints in thick plates where fillet welds are inadequate,
bevel both plates to reduce tendency for lamellar tearing.
5. Design so weld can be accessed and inspected.

6. Over designing is a common problem in welding

that should be avoided (causes excessive weight
and costs – as a fillet weld side increases x2 the
weld metal increases by x4

Lecture 11 84
 Weld Metallurgy
• Remember(?)

• HEAT TREATMENT and how various microstructures + properties

can be obtained by different cooling rates.

• CASTING - liquids shrink on solidifying, type of

grain structures, segregation, etc.

• WELDING - combines both usually:

• Melting + solidifying of weld pool

• Varying heating/cooling rates

Lecture 11 85
 Weld Metallurgy
• Figure shows a welding where Metals A and B are welded with

Metal C as a backing plate and Metal D as a filler

• Molten pool is a complex alloy of ABCD held in

place by metal mould (formed by solids)

• Fusion welding can be viewed as a casting with

small amount of molten metal

• Resultant structure can be

understood if it is analyzed as casting and

subsequent heat treating

Lecture 11 86
 Weld Fusion Zone
• The composition of the material in the weld pool depends on the
joint design

• Upper design has more base and lower one has more filler metal

• Microstructure in this zone depends purely on the cooling rate of

the metal as in casting
• This region cannot have properties similar
to that of the wrought parent metal

• Mainly because casting is inferior to

wrought products and metal in the fusion
zone has solidified from molten state as in
casting
Lecture 11 87
 Weld Fusion Zone
• All of these can affect microstructure
• Heating up to welding temperature
• Cooling down from welding temperature
• Holding at temperature during welding
Manual arc multi-pass welds of
• Formation of molten metal (a) single vee-butt and (b)
double vee-butt weld. Plate is
• Solidification of molten metal 180mm (7”) thick!
• As weld can be considered as a mini-“casting”:
• cast metal is always inferior to same alloy in wrought
condition.
• Good mechanical properties can be attained only if the filler
metal has properties (in as deposited condition) superior to or
equal to that of parent wrought metal
Lecture 11 88
 Weld Fusion Zone
• So may use filler metal/electrode of slightly different
composition.

• Structure is changed (due to melting and solidification in short time

due to low volume of molten metal ).

• Fusion zone is “casting”. Cooling rates influence grain structure

• Variation in grain structure, gas porosity, shrinkage, cracks and

similar to that of casting

• Contributing factors include: impurities, base metal dilution of filler,

turbulence & mixing, “casting” and “mould” interact, large
temperature gradients, dynamic (moving) process etc.
Lecture 11 89
Weld Fusion Zone

Lecture 11 90
 Heat Affected Zone - HAZ
• Adjacent to Fusion zone is region where temperature is not
sufficient to cause melting but is often high enough to change the
microstructure. (an abnormal, widely varying heat treatment).

• Phase transformations

• recrystallisation

• grain growth

• precipitation/coarsening

• Embrittlement, cracking

• Steels can get anywhere from brittle martensite to coarse pearlite.

• Usually HAZ is weakest region in material (especially if base

material is cold-worked or precipitation hardened).
Lecture 11 91
 Heat Affected Zone - HAZ
• Altered structure – so no longer have positives of parent metal

• Not molten – cannot assume properties of solidified weld metal

• Making this the weakest zone in the weld

If there are no
obvious defects
like cracks in
the weld zone,
normally the
weld starts to
fail in HAZ

Lecture 11 92