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CHAPTER 8: ORGANIC CHEMISTRY
PART-II
CLASS 10 PAUL DHINAKARAN M
TEXTBOOK: SIMPLIFIED ICSE
CHEMISTRY BY VIRAF J DALAL
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HYDROCARBONS
• TERM: Aliphatic, open-chain organic compounds
containing- carbon and hydrogen only.
• MOLECULAR FORMULA: CxHy , where x and y are
whole number.
• MAIN GROUPS- Aliphatic hydrocarbons are divided
into two main groups:
Saturated Hydrocarbons: e.g. Homologous series of
Alkanes.
Unsaturated Hydrocarbons: e.g. Homologous series of
Alkenes and Alkynes.
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ALKANES ALKENES ALKYNES
NATURE Saturated Unsaturated Unsaturated
hydrocarbon hydrocarbon hydrocarbon
COVALENT Contains a single Contains a double Contains a triple
BOND covalent bond covalent bond covalent bond
GENERAL CnH2n+2 CnH2n CnH2n-2
FORMULA
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COMPARATIVE STUDY PAUL DHINAKARAN M
SATURATED ORGANIC UNSATURATED ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS COMPOUNDS
Methane [CH4]; Ethane [C2H6] Ethene [C2H4]; Ethyne [C2H2]
SPECIAL STRUCTURAL FEATURES SPECIAL STRUCTURAL FEATURES
•They contain carbon atoms joined by a •They contain carbon atoms joined by ·
single covalent bond. - double covalent bonds or
- triple covalent bonds .
•All the 4 valencies of each carbon atom •The valencies of at least 2 carbon atoms-
- are satisfied by hydrogen atoms are not fully satisfied by hydrogen atoms.
- forming single covalent bonds.
•The non-availability of electrons in the •The availability of electrons - in the
single covalent bond makes them double or triple bond makes them
- less reactive and therefore undergo - more reactive and therefore undergo
- characteristic substitution reactions only. - characteristic addition reactions only.
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SATURATED ORGANIC UNSATURATED ORGANIC
COMPOUNDS COMPOUNDS
CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS CHARACTERISTIC REACTIONS
Substitution reactions Addition reactions -
Reactions involving direct displacement or Reactions involving addition of an
substitution of an atom or group of atoms attacking reagent, e.g. hydrogen, halogens
by another atom or group. e.g. in alkanes- etc. across the double or triple bond of an
Replacement - of 'H' by 'Cl' or 'Br' atoms. unsaturated compound to yield - a
saturated product.
H H
H C C H C C C C
H H
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C C C C C CH2
2
H H H H H H H H H3C
3
4 CH
5 CH3
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1
2
3
4
5
6
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ALKANES- INTRODUCTION
• ALKANES - saturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
containing a carbon-carbon single bond.
• They contain a [-C-C-] covalent bond & [-C-H-]
covalent bonds in their molecule.
• Since all the four valencies of carbon atoms are fully
satisfied - by forming single covalent bonds these
compounds are said to be - saturated.
• Alkanes are known as paraffins [latin: parum=little;
affinis=affinity) They contain strong C- C&C-H bonds
and hence are relatively chemically inert.
• GENERAL FORMULA - CnH2n+2
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ALKANES- SOURCES
PAUL DHINAKARAN M
• DISTRIBUTION - Alkanes are - widely distributed in
marshy lands, air & coal mines.
• MAIN SOURCES - The main sources of alkanes are -
natural gas and petroleum.
• Natural gas- contains about 75% methane & is found
associated with petroleum.
• Marsh gas - produced by bacterial decay of vegetable
matter contains methane.
• Fire damp - coal pockets contains large amounts of
methane & are called fire damp.
[Methane - is also one of the gases which contributes
towards green house effect - whose blanketing effect over
the earth's surface results in global warming.]
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ALKANES:NOMENCLATURE
• REFER TEXT
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STRUCTURAL FORMULA PAUL DHINAKARAN M
H
x H
.
.C. .
H x xH Methane H C H
x H
H
H H
x x H H
. . . .. Ethane
Hx .C. C. xH H C C H
x x H H
H H
Electron Dot Structure Branched Structural Formula
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CHEMICAL PROPERTIES – METHANE AND ETHANE –
SUBSTITUTION REACTIONS
• CHLORINATION: Substitution of hydrogen atoms
of methane by chlorine atom.
Diffused sunlight SUBSTITUTED PRODUCTS
UV light
• CH4 + Cl2 Or 400 °C CH3Cl + HCl Monochloromethane
Diffused sunlight
UV light
• CH3Cl + Cl2 Or 400 °C CH2Cl2 + HCl Dichloromethane
Diffused sunlight
UV light
• CH2Cl2 + Cl2 Or 400 °C CHCl3 + HCl Trichloromethane
Diffused sunlight
UV light
• CHCl3 + Cl2 Or 400 °C CCl4 + HCl Tetrachloromethane
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FOR UNDERSTANDING
Cl
Cl C Cl H Cl
Cl
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CHLORINATION OF ETHANE PAUL DHINAKARAN M
SUBSTITUTED PRODUCTS
Diffused sunlight
UV light
• C2H6 + Cl2 Or 400 °C C2H5Cl + HCl Monochloroethane
excess
Diffused sunlight
UV light
• C2H5Cl + Cl2 Or 400 °C C2H4Cl2 + HCl Dichloroethane
Diffused sunlight
UV light
• C2H4Cl2 + Cl2 Or 400 °C C2H3Cl3 + HCl Trichloroethane
Diffused sunlight
UV light
• C2H3Cl3 + Cl2 Or 400 °C C2H2Cl4 + HCl Tetrachloroethane
Diffused sunlight
UV light Pentachloroethane
• C2H2Cl4 + Cl2 Or 400 °C C2HCl5 + HCl
Diffused sunlight
UV light Hexachloroethane
• C2HCl5 + Cl2 Or 400 °C C2Cl6 + HCl
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• The products can be separated by fractional
distillation due to difference in boiling points.
FOR UNDERSTANDING Cl Cl
Cl Cl
Cl C C Cl H Cl
Cl Cl
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COMPLETE OXIDATION OR COMBUSTION
IN EXCESS OF AIR
• CH4 + 2O2 (excess) CO2 + 2H2O + ∆
• 2C2H6 + 7O2 (excess) 4CO2 + 6H2O + ∆
• CONDITIONS:
• IN EXCESS OF AIR/OXYGEN
• Methane or ethane burns with a blue non luminous
flame.
• Products are Carbon dioxide and water.
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ALKENES-INTRODUCTION PAUL DHINAKARAN M
• ALKENES unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons containing a carbon-carbon double
bond [-C=C-) in their molecule.
• Hydrocarbons in which valencies of atleast two carbon atoms - are not fully
satisfied by hydrogen atoms and are deficient in hydrogen as compared to alkanes,
are said to be – unsaturated.
• Alkenes are known as - olefins[latin: Oleum=oil; ficare=to make]
They have tendency to form - oily products on treatment with halogens.
• GENERAL FORMULA - CnH2n
Alkenes have two hydrogen atoms less than the corresponding alkanes -
which have general formula CnH2n+2
• There is no alkene corresponding to methane [CH4], hence the first member of the
alkene series is ethene [ethylene) (C2H4 i.e. CH2=CH2] which corresponds to the
alkane-ethane [C2H6 i.e. CH3-CH3].
• REACTIVITY OF ALKENES - Alkenes are - more reactive than alkanes -
due to the presence of >C=C< carbon-carbon double bond called 'olefenic bond'.
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H H H H
H C C H H C C H
H H
ETHENE
ETHANE
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ALKENES- SOURCES
• DISTRIBUTION - Alkenes - seldom occur free in
nature -though ethylene occurs naturally in small
quantities in plants.
• MAIN SOURCES - Alkenes are however produced
in large amounts during - thermal cracking of
petroleum [hydrocarbons].
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ALKENES-NOMENCLATURE
• There are two main ways of naming alkenes-
COMMON NAME SYSTEM : The names of alkenes
are derived from the - corresponding alkane by
changing the suffix- „ane‟ into „ylene‟ e.g. Ethane to
ethylene.
• IUPAC SYSTEM: The names of alkenes are derived
from corresponding alkane by changing the suffix
“ane” into “ene” e.g. Ethane to ethene.
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ALKENES:CHEMICAL PROPERTIES- PAUL DHINAKARAN M
ADDITION REACTIONS
• CATALYTIC HYDROGENATION: Conditions: Vapors of ethene
Mixed with hydrogen are
Nickel passed over a catalyst e.g. Nickel
H2C=CH2 + H2 300 °C H2C-CH2 [Pd/Pt] at high temperature.
Ethene/Ethylene Ethane
HH
[Additional Product]
H H H H
Nickel
H C C H H C C H
300 °C
H H H H
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• HALOGENATION:
CCl4
H2C=CH2 + Cl2 [Inert Solvent] H2C-CH2
1,2- Dichloro Ethane
Ethene/Ethylene Cl Cl [Ethylene dichloride]
[Additional Product]
H H H H
CCl4
H C C H [Inert Solvent] H C C H
Cl Cl Cl Cl
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• HALOGENATION
CCl4
H2C=CH2 + Br2 [Inert Solvent] H2C-CH2
1,2- Dibromo Ethane
Ethene/Ethylene Br Br [Ethylene dibromide]
[Additional Product]
H H H H
CCl4
H C C H [Inert Solvent] H C C H
Br Br Br Br
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HALOGENATION
• CONDITIONS: The halogen chlorine gas/ bromine
gas is passed into a solution of ethene in an inert
solvent (Carbon tetra chloride) at room
temperature.
Iodine reaction is very difficult.
• CHEMICAL TEST: Brown color of bromine is
discharged serves as a test for unsaturation.
• https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=2C_6ax2TsV8
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• HALOGENATION
CCl4
H2C=CH2 + I2 [Inert Solvent] H2C-CH2
1,2- Di iodoethane
Ethene/Ethylene I I [Additional Product]
H H H H
CCl4
H C C H [Inert Solvent] H C C H
I I I I
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ALKYNES-INTRODUCTION
PAUL DHINAKARAN M
C C
• ALKYNES - unsaturated aliphatic hydrocarbons
containing a - carbon-carbon triple bond in their
molecule.
• GENERAL FORMULA - CnH2n -2
Alkynes have four hydrogen atoms less than the
corresponding alkanes which have general formula
CnH2n+2 . The first member of the alkyne series is ethyne
(acetylene) C2H2 i.e. CH = CH which corresponds to the
alkane - ethane (C2H6 i.e. CH3 – CH3].
• REACTIVITY – Alkynes are more reactive than alkenes
- due to the presence of carbon-carbon triple bond often
referred to as 'acetylenic linkage'.
• The first and most important member of this series of
hydrocarbons is acetylene and hence the series is also
referred as - 'acetylene series'.
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H H
H C C H H C C H
ETHYNE H H
ETHANE
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ALKYNE - SOURCES
• DISTRIBUTION - Naturally occurring alkynes are
encountered less frequently -than even alkenes.
• MAIN SOURCES - The most important and useful
alkyne - acetylene is nowadays produced primarily
from natural gas and from higher alkanes obtained
from petroleum. [acetylene is manufactured on a
large scale by action of water on calcium carbide).
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ALKYNES- NOMENCLATURE
• Alkynes - There are two main ways of naming alkynes -
COMMON NAME SYSTEM: Acetylene is the common
name for the - first member of the series.
• The system is now obsolete and further the - derived
name system is now applicable where the members are
considered as – alkyl derivatives of acetylene e.g.
methyl acetylene.
• I.U.P.A.C. SYSTEM: The names of the members are
derived from the - corresponding alkanes by changing
the suffix -'ane' to 'yne' e.g. ethane to ethyne.
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ALKYNES:CHEMICAL PROPERTIES-ADDITION REACTIONS
• CATALYTIC HYDROGENATION:
H H
Ethyne
Nickel Nickel
H C C H H C C H 300 °C
300 °C
H H H H
Ethene H H
(Addition Product
-1st Stage)
H C C H
Conditions: Vapors of ethyne
H H
Mixed with hydrogen are Ethane
passed over a catalyst e.g. Nickel (Addition Product
[Pd/Pt] at high temperature. -2nd Stage)
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ALKYNES:CHEMICAL PROPERTIES-ADDITION REACTIONS
• HALOGENATION:
Cl Cl
Ethyne
CCl4 CCl4
H C C H [Inert Solvent]
H C C H [Inert Solvent]
Cl Cl Cl Cl
1,2- Dichloro ethene Cl Cl
(Addition Product
-1st Stage)
H C C H
Cl Cl
1,1,2,2- Tetrachloro Ethane
(Addition Product
-Final)
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ALKYNES:CHEMICAL PROPERTIES-ADDITION REACTIONS
• HALOGENATION:
Br Br
Ethyne
CCl4 CCl4
H C C H [Inert Solvent]
H C C H [Inert Solvent]
Br Br Br Br
1,2- Dibromo ethene Br Br
(Addition Product
-1st Stage)
H C C H
Br Br
1,1,2,2- Tetrabromo Ethane
(Addition Product
-Final)
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ALKYNES:CHEMICAL PROPERTIES-ADDITION REACTIONS
• HALOGENATION:
Ethyne
Alcohol
H C C H H C C H
I I I I
Acetylene di iodide
Acetylene reacts with iodine with difficulty giving
Acetylene di iodide [ICH=CHI] as the only end product.
