Introduction To
Logarithms
Logarithms were originally
developed to simplify complex
arithmetic calculations.
They were designed to transform
multiplicative processes
into additive ones.
If at first this seems like no big deal,
then try multiplying
2,234,459,912 and 3,456,234,459.
Without a calculator !
Clearly, it is a lot easier to add
these two numbers.
Today of course we have calculators
and scientific notation to deal with such
large numbers.
So at first glance, it would seem that
logarithms have become obsolete.
Indeed, they would be obsolete except for one
very important property of logarithms.
It is called
the power property.
For now we need only to observe that
it is an extremely important part
of solving exponential equations.
Our first job is to
try to make some
sense of
logarithms.
Our first question then
must be:
What is a logarithm ?
Of course logarithms have
a precise mathematical
definition just like all terms in
mathematics. So let’s
start with that.
Definition of Logarithm
Suppose b>0 and b≠1,
there is a number ‘p’
such that:
logb n p if and only if b np
Now a mathematician
understands exactly
what that means.
But, many a
student is left
scratching their
head.
The first, and perhaps the
most important step, in
understanding logarithms is
to realize that they always
relate back to exponential
equations.
You must be able to convert
an exponential equation into
logarithmic form and vice
versa.
So let’s get a lot of practice with this !
Example 1:
Write 2 8 in logarithmic form.
3
Solution: log2 8 3
We read this as: ”the log
base 2 of 8 is equal to 3”.
Example 1a:
Write 4 16 in logarithmic form.
2
Solution: log4 16 2
Read as: “the log
base 4 of 16 is
equal to 2”.
Example 1b:
1
Write 2 3
in logarithmic form.
8
1
Solution: log2 3
8
1
Read as: "the log base 2 of is equal to -3".
8
Okay, so now it’s time for
you to try some on your
own.
1. Write 7 49 in logarithmic form.
2
Solution: log7 49 2
2. Write 5 1 in logarithmic form.
0
Solution: log5 1 0
1
2
3. Write 10 in logarithmic form.
100
1
Solution: log10 2
100
1
4. Finally, write 16 4
2
in logarithmic form.
1
Solution: log16 4
2
It is also very important to be
able to start with a logarithmic
expression and change this
into exponential form.
This is simply the reverse of
what we just did.
Example 1:
Write log3 81 4 in exp onential form
Solution: 3 81
4
Example 2:
1
Write log2 3 in exp onential form.
8
1
Solution: 2 3
8
Okay, now you try these next
three.
1. Write log10 100 2 in exp onential form.
1
2. Write log5 3 in exp onential form.
125
1
3. Write log27 3 in exp onential form.
3
1. Write log10 100 2 in exp onential form.
Solution: 10 100
2
1
2. Write log5 3 in exp onential form.
125
3 1
Solution: 5
125
1
3. Write log27 3 in exp onential form.
3
Solution: 27 3
3
We now know that a logarithm is
perhaps best understood
as being
closely related to an
exponential equation.
In fact, whenever we get stuck
in the problems that follow
we will return to
this one simple insight.
We might even state a
simple rule.
When working with logarithms,
if ever you get “stuck”, try
rewriting the problem in
exponential form.
Conversely, when working
with exponential expressions,
if ever you get “stuck”, try
rewriting the problem
in logarithmic form.
Let’s see if this simple
rule
can help us solve some
of the following
problems.
Example 1
Solve for x: log6 x 2
Solution:
Let’s rewrite the problem
in exponential form.
6 x
2
We’re finished !
Example 2
1
Solve for y: log5 y
25
Solution: Rewrite the problem in
exponential form.
1
5
y 1
25
Since 5 2
25
5y 5 2
y 2
Example 3
Evaluate log3 27.
Solution:
Try setting this up like this:
log3 27 y Now rewrite in exponential form.
3 27
y
3 3
y 3
y3
These next two problems
tend to be some of the
trickiest to evaluate.
Actually, they are merely
identities and
the use of our simple
rule
will show this.
Example 4
2
Evaluate: log7 7
Solution:
log7 7 y
2
First, we write the problem with a variable.
7 7
y 2
Now take it out of the logarithmic form
and write it in exponential form.
y2
Example 5
log 4 16
Evaluate: 4
Solution:
4 log 4 16
y First, we write the problem with a variable.
log4 y log4 16 Now take it out of the exponential form
and write it in logarithmic form.
Just like 23 8 converts to log2 8 3
y 16
Fundamental laws of logarithms
1) logb xy logb x logb y
Let logb x A, logb y B
bA x , bB y
xy bAbB bA B
logb xy A B logb x logb y hence proved
Extension logb xyz logb x logb y logb z
x
2) logb logb x logb y
y
3) logb xy ylogb x
Other laws of logarithms
4) logb 1 0 as b0 1
5) logb b 1 as b1 b
loga x Change
6) logb x of base
loga b
Where ‘a’ is any other base
7) blogb x x
logb x
Let b logb x
y logb b logb y
logb x logb b logb y logb x logb y
yx
y
y
8) logbz x logb x
z
Illustrative Example
2
Simplify log 2 2 3
Solution:
2
log 2 2 3
2
3
log 2 2
2 23
log 2
3
2 3
. log 2 log 2
3 2
Illustrative Example
If ax = b, by = c, cz = a, then the value of xyz is
a) 0 b) 1 c) 2 d) 3
Solution:
ax b x loga logb
logb
x
loga
logc loga
Similarly y , z
logb logc
Hence xyz 1
Finally, we want to take a look at
the Property of Equality for
Logarithmic Functions.
Suppose b 0 and b 1.
Then logb x1 logb x 2 if and only if x1 x 2
Basically, with logarithmic functions,
if the bases match on both sides of the equal
sign , then simply set the arguments equal.
Example 1
Solve: log3 (4x 10) log3 (x 1)
Solution:
Since the bases are both ‘3’ we simply set
the arguments equal.
4x 10 x 1
3x 10 1
3x 9
x3
Example 2
Solve: log8 (x 14) log8 (5x)
2
Solution:
Since the bases are both ‘8’ we simply set the arguments equal.
x 14 5x
2
x 5x 14 0
2
Factor
(x 7)(x 2) 0
(x 7) 0 or (x 2) 0
x 7 or x 2 continued on the next page
Example 2
continued
Solve: log8 (x 14) log8 (5x)
2
Solution:
x 7 or x 2
It appears that we have 2 solutions here.
If we take a closer look at the definition of a
logarithm however, we will see that not only
must we use positive bases, but also we
see that the arguments must be positive as
well. Therefore -2 is not a solution.
Let’s end this lesson by taking a closer look
at this.
Our final concern then is to
determine why logarithms like
the one below are undefined.
log 2 (8)
Can anyone give
us an explanation ?
log2 (8) undefined WHY?
One easy explanation is to simply rewrite
this logarithm in exponential form.
We’ll then see why a negative value is not
permitted.
log2 (8) y First, we write the problem with a variable.
2 8
y
Now take it out of the logarithmic form
and write it in exponential form.
What power of 2 would gives us -8 ?
1
2 8 and 2
3 3
8
Hence expressions of this type are undefined.
Characteristic and
Mantissa
Standard form of decimal
n m 10p where 1 m 10
Example 1234.56 1.23456 103
0.001234 1.234 103
Hence log n log m 10p log m log 10p
log n log m plog 10 log m p
p is characteristic of n log(n)=mantissa+characteristic
log(m) is mantissa of n
How to find log(n)
using log tables
1) Step1: Standard form of decimal
n = m x 10p , 1 m < 10
log n p log m
Note to find log(n) we have to
find the mantissa of n i.e. log(m)
2) Step2: Significant digits
Identify 4 digits from left, starting from first non
zero digit of m, inserting zeros at the end if
required, let it be ‘abcd’
How to find log(n)
using log tables
Example n = m x 10p,
p: characteristic, log(m): mantissa
n Std. form p m ‘abcd’
m x 10p
1234.56 1.23456x103 3 1.2345 1234
0.000123 1.23x10-4 -4 1.23 1230
100 1x102 2 1 1000
0.10023 1.0023x10-1 -1 1.0023 1002
Log(n) = p + log(m)
How to find log(n) using
log tables
3) Step3: Select row ‘ab’
Select row ‘ab’ from the
logarithmic table
4) Step4: Select column ‘c’
Locate number at column ‘c’
from the row ‘ab’, let it be x
5) Step5: Select column of mean difference ‘d’
If d 0,Locate number at column ‘d’
of mean difference from the row What if d = 0?
‘ab’, let it be y Consider y = 0
How to find log(n) using log
tables
6) Step6: Finding mantissa hence
log(n)
Log(m) = .(x+y)
Log(n) = p + Log(m)
Never neglect 0’s
Summarize: at end or front
1) Std. Form n = m x 10p
2) Significant digits of m: ‘abcd’
3) Find number at (ab,c), say x, where ab: row, c: col
4) Find number at (ab,d), say y, where d: mean diff
5) log(n) = p + .(x+y)
Illustrative Example
Find log(1234.56)
n Std. form p m ‘abcd’
m x 10p
1234.5 1.23456x1 3 1.2345 1234
6 03
1) Std. Form n = 1.23456 x 103
2) Significant digits of m: 1234
3) Number at (12,3) = 0899
4) Number at (12,4) = 14 Note this
5) log(n) = 3 + .(0899+14) = 3 + 0.0913 = 3.0913
Illustrative Example
Find log(0.000123)
n Std. form p m ‘abcd’
m x 10p
0.0001 1.23x10-4 -4 1.23 1230
23
1) Std. Form n = 1.23 x 10-4 To avoid
the
2) Significant digits of m: 1230 calculations
3) Number at (12,3) = 0899 4.0899
4) As d = 0, y = 0 Note this
5) log(n) = -4 + .(0899+0) = -4 + 0.0899 = -3.9101
Illustrative Example
Find log(100)
n Std. form p m ‘abcd’
m x 10p
100 1x102 2 1 1000
1) Std. Form n = 1 x 102
2) Significant digits of m: 1000
3) Number at (10,0) = 0000
4) As d = 0, y = 0
5) log(n) = 2 + .(0000+0) = 2 + 0.0000 = 2
Illustrative Example
Find log(0.10023)
n Std. form p m ‘abcd’
m x 10p
0.1002 1.0023x10 -1 1.0023 1002
-1
3
1) Std. Form n = 1.0023 x 10-1 To avoid
the
2) Significant digits of m: 1002 calculations
3) Number at (10,0) = 0000 1.0009
4) Number at (10,2) = 9
5) log(n) = -1 + .(0000+9) = -1 + 0.0009 = -0.9991
How to find
Antilog(n)
(1) Step1: Standard form of number
If n 0, say n = m.abcd
If n < 0, convert it into bar notation say
n m.abcd
For eg. If n = -1.2718 = -1 – 0.2718
For bar notation subtract 1, add 1 we get
n = -1-0.2718=-2+1-0.2718
n = -2+0.7282
2.7282
Now n = m.abcdnor
m.abcd
How to find
Antilog(n)
2) Step2: Select row ‘ab’
Select the row ‘ab’ from
the antilog table
Eg. n = -1.2718 2.7282
Select row 72 from table
3) Step3: Select column ‘c’ of ‘ab’
Select the column ‘c’ of
row ‘ab’ from the antilog
table, locate the number
there, let it be x
Eg. n 2.7282
Number at col 8 of row
72 is 5346, x = 5346
How to find
Antilog(n)
4) Step4: Select col. ‘d’ of mean diff.
Select the col ‘d’ of mean
difference of the row ‘ab’
from the antilog table, let
the number there be y, If
d = 0, take y as 0
Eg. n 2.7282
Number at col 2 of mean
diff. of row 72 is 2, y = 2
How to find
Antilog(n)
5) Step5: Antilog(n)
If n = m.abcd i.e. n 0
Antilog(n) = .(x+y) x 10m+1
If n m.abcd i.e. n < 0
Antilog(n) = .(x+y) x 10-(m-1)
Eg. n 2.7282
x = 5346 y=2
Antilog(n) = .(5346 + 2) x 10-(2-1)
= .5348 x 10-1 = 0.05348
Illustrative Example
Find Antilog(3.0913)
Solution:
1) Std. Form n = 3.0913 = m.abcd
2) Row 09
3) Number at (09,1) = 1233
4) Number at (09,3) = 1
5) Antilog(3.0913)
= .(1233+1) x 103+1
= 0.1234 x 104
= 1234
Illustrative Example
Find Antilog(-3.9101)
Solution:
1) Std. Form n = -3.9101
n = -3 – 0.9101 = -4 + 1 – 0.9101
n = -4 + 0.0899 4.0899 m.abcd
2) Row 08
3) Number at (08,9) = 1227
4) Number at (08,9) = 3
5) Antilog(-3.9101) Antilog 4.0899
= .(1277+3) x 10-(4-1)
= 0.1280 x 10-3
= 0.0001280
Illustrative Example
Find Antilog (2)
Solution:
1) Std. Form n = 2 = 2.0000
2) Row 00
3) Number at (00,0) = 1000
4) As d = 0, y = 0
5) Antilog(2) = Antilog(2.0000)
= .(1000+0) x 102+1
= 0.1000 x 103
= 100
Illustrative Example
Find Antilog(-0.9991)
Solution:
1) Std. Form n = -0.9991
-0.9991 = -1 + 1 – 0.9991
= -1 + 0.0009 1.0009
2) Row 00
3) Number at (00,0) = 1000
4) Number at (00,9) = 2
5) Antilog(-0.9991) Antilog 1.0009
= .(1000+2) x 10-(1-1)
= 0.1002
Applications
1) Use in Numerical Calculations
2) Calculation of Compound Interest
n
r
A P 1 Now take log
100
3) Calculation of Population Growth
r
pn po 1 n
Now take log
100
4) Calculation of Depreciation
t
r
v t v o 1 Now take log
100
Illustrative Example
563.4 3 0.4573
Find
6.15 3
Solution:
563.4 3 0.4573
let x
6.15 3
563.4 3 0.4573
log x log
6.15 3
log 563.4 0.4573 log 6.15
3 3
1
log 563.4 log 0.4573 3log 6.15
3
Solution Cont.
1
log 563.4 log 0.4573 3log 6.15
3
2
1
log 5.634 10 log 4.573 10 1 3log 6.15
3
1 1
log 5.634 2 log 4.573 3log 6.15
3 3
1 1
.7508 2 0.6602 3 0.7889 = 0.2708
3 3
x = antilog (0.2708) = 0.1865 × 101
= 1.865
Illustrative Example
Find the compound interest on Rs.
20,000 for 6 years at 10% per
annum compounded annually.
Solution:
n 6
r 10
As A P 1
100
20000 1
100
= 20000 (1.1)6
logA = log [20000 (1.1)6]
= log 20000 + log (1.1)6
= log (2 × 104) + 6 log (1.1)
= log2 + 4 + 6 log (1.1) = 0.301+ 4 + 6 × (0.0414)
= 4.5494
Solution Cont.
log A = 4.5494
A = antilog (4.5494)
= 0.3543 × 105
= 35430
Compound interest = 35430 – 20000 = 15,430
Illustrative Example
The population of the city is 80000. If the
population increases annually at the rate
of 7.5%, find the population of the city
after 2 years. n
r
Solution: As pn po 1
100
2
7.5
p2 80000 1
100
= 80000 (1.075)2
log p2 = log 80000 + 2 log 1.075
= log 8 + 4 + 2 log (1.075)
= 0.9031 + 4 + 2 × (0.0314)
= 4.9659
Solution Cont.
log p2 = 4.9659
p2 = antilog (4.9659)
= 0.9245 × 105
= 92450
Illustrative Example
The value of a washing machine
depreciates at the rate of 2% per annum.
If its present value is Rs6250, what will be
its value after 3 years.
t
Solution: As v v 1 r
o
t
100
3
2
v 2 6250 1
100
= 6250 (0.98)3
log v2 = log 6250 + 3 log 0.98
= log (6.250 × 103) + 3 log (9.8 × 10–1)
= log 6.250 + 3 + 3 log (9.8) – 3
= 0.7959 + 3 × (0.9912)
Solution Cont.
log v2 = 0.7959 + 3 × (0.9912)
= 3.7695
v2 = antilog (3.7695)
= 0.5882 × 104
= Rs. 5882
