Developmental and Educational Psychology- PG402-1

Contents

Developmental and Educational Psychology- PG402-1 ........................... 1

1.0 Question 2: Motivation drives learning ............................................ 2

1.2 Conclusion for Question 2 ................................................................ 7

2.0 Question 4: The use of intelligence theories in academic settings. .. 8

2.2 Ken’s intelligence according to Gardner’s theory ......................... 9

2.2.1 The Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence..................... 10

References ............................................................................................... 14

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1.0 Question 2: Motivation drives learning

Psychologists and teachers perceive motivation as being one of the main determinants of the
amount of effort put in by students in their learning task which eventually explain the different
performance levels of learners (Entwistle, 1991). Martin (2007, 2009) describes motivation as
students’ inclination, energy, and drive to learn, work effectively, and achieve potential. Schunk
and Miller (2002) further purport that motivation relates to learners’ willingness and enjoyment to
study, participation in class and academic achievement. From a psychological perspective,
motivation can be viewed from different angles, including from a behaviourist, cognitivist or
humanist approach. The cognitive approach to motivation suggests that people are motivated by
their thoughts, expectations and goals while the behavioural approach suggests that motivation
depends on rewards and punishment. The humanist approach, on the other hand, as advocated by
Maslow, posit a positive view of human behaviour and is based on the fulfillment of needs. Under
the cognitive approach, three theories will be considered, notably the Self-efficacy, Attribution
and Narcissism theories whereas under the behavioural approach, the Self-determination theory
will be discussed. As part of the behavioural approach, discussion will be made on Maslow’s
hierarchy of needs (1943).

According to Bandura (1997), one way of explaining motivation is through the appraisal of an
individual’s competence in terms of self-efficacy and expectancies. In this context, self-efficacy
pertains to the learners’ belief about their own ability in meeting challenges and completing a task
successfully (Akhtar, 2008). Bandura (1997) posits that learners who are self-efficacious, i.e. able
to modulate their behavior to reach their goals, tend to behave better in class through greater effort
and persistence, and deal with problems more effectively through cognitive and emotional
processes. In contrast, students who have low self-efficacy perceive situations to be particularly
difficult and tend to remain in a deficient state. In Accounting classes, it is found that students who
are self-efficacious are usually high achievers, who are task-oriented and self-motivated. Those
students strive to work out challenging questions (those based on several chapters) and have good
analytical skills (for e.g. in terms of analysis financial performance). The best way to keep them
motivated is to adopt a learner-centered approach and let them work on their own, with the teacher
having only a guiding role. Indeed, research have shown strong evidence of the self-efficacy theory
whereby it is found that self-efficacy is significantly related to self-regulation, effort, persistence,

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and achievement (Martin, 2009). In contrast, learners with low self-efficacy (usually low
achievers) are those who lack confidence in their ability, are not motivated and do not put the
necessary efforts in classes. To boost their motivation, the teacher must encourage them and give
them personal attention. Wigfield and Eccles (2000) propose an extension of this theory, called
the Expectancy-value theory whereby it is seen that students having high task-related expectations
and who value what is being taught to them are more motivated to learn and tend to achieve a
higher level. In this regard, it is important to ensure that students understand the value of
Accounting in businesses, so that this subject becomes meaningful to them and thereby arising
their motivation in same, which will be eventually reflected in their performance level.

The Attribution theory, as proposed by Weiner (2010) asserts that the causes of a particular event
to which an individual is faced, determine the latter’s behaviour and cognition. Causes can be
viewed from three perspectives, notably stability, locus and controllability (Weiner, 2010).
Stability pertains to the frequency of the cause, i.e. whether it is temporary or present in all
situations. Examples of stable causes are students’ ability and intelligence. Locus, on the other
hand, refers to whether the cause is internal or external to the individual, and can be exemplified
by effort (internal locus) and good or bad luck (external locus). As far as controllability is
concerned, it is found that the control element constitutes another factor influencing students’
motivation and academic outcomes (Martin et al., 2001 and 2003). Control refers to the belief that
students have about their determination of achieving success and avoiding failure. In this
perspective, students who believe that they have little or no control are unsure about their capacity
to achieve success and avoid failure. Patrick et al. (1993) posit that perceived control predicts
learners’ efforts, attention, persistence, and participation. Harter and Connell (1984) further assert
that lack of control has a negative impact on achievement, motivation and competence. Therefore,
as educators, it is important to consider our learners’ abilities, as well as their socio-emotional
dimension. We should encourage our students, irrespective of their learning abilities, so that they
develop a sense of self-confidence, which will in turn boost their motivation to learn.

According to the theory of Narcissism developed by Kernberg (1928), the learners need others to
admire them or their objects to get the feel good factor. They like grandiose and they fantasize
about excessive happiness and influence. They feel the self-love excessively and depend on other
people’s praises and admiration. If the environment does not provide them with these praises they

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expect, they develop the intense feeling of worthlessness, depression, and anger. One educator in
our group who works in a private secondary school has observed that most of the students in his
school come from the neighborhood villages where social problems like drug addicts, prostitution
and family problems prevail. Those students forge their norms through external stimuli inherent
in their environment, as supported by Skinner and Pavlov. According to the cognitive theory, the
norms that the student internalize from his or her environment becomes an outcome of himself or
herself in the class. In such situation, the educator should provide intrinsic motivation (discussed
in more detail below) in the form of praise and show interest in the work of the learner. At this
age, these learners need excessive admiration and if they are ignored, they tend to destroy the work
of others and cause disturbances in the class.

A more traditional framework explaining motivation is the Self-determination theory, proposed by

Ryan and Deci (2000), which makes distinction between intrinsic and extrinsic motivation. While
intrinsic motivation is based on inherent interest or satisfaction in an activity, extrinsic motivation
is based on external attributes of a task such as a reward or exam grades, as well as punishment.
Indeed, intrinsically motivated learners are self-determined and perceive a learning activity as
being gratifying. They are not motivated by extrinsic rewards, and will accomplish the activity and
persist with same even if difficulties arise (Boekaerts, 2002). In contrast, extrinsically motivated
students are those who are motivated to do an activity solely because of the reward associated with
the accomplishment of same or to avoid being punished in case of non-performance. As educators,
it is important to set the right extrinsic rewards (such as good grades, praises for good performance
or punitive measures in case of wrong behaviour) which learners perceive as motivating enough
to get them to learn.

From a humanist theoretical framework, Maslow provides a pyramid of needs. These needs are set
according to an order of importance ranging from the basic needs through the psychological needs
to the self-esteem needs. It implies that a student should be provided its first set of basic and
physiological needs before moving to the other level of needs in the pyramid. The lower level
needs must be satisfied before higher-order needs can influence behaviour. The educator plays an
important role in the class to identify and locate each student’s needs on the Pyramid and provide
an opportunity to the student to satisfy its next level of needs. This opportunity will motivate the
student. This theory of motivation is important, as there are students whose basic needs have not

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been satisfied, and we expect them to show greater interest in class and aim for praises. We cannot
expect a learner to participate actively in class if he or she is hungry and has not eaten since
morning.

Accounting is taught as from grade 9 and the educator encounters adolescents. According to
Erickson’s psychological theory of development, student faces an identity to role confusion. The
learner is in a constant struggle, experiencing physical, mental and psychological changes. The
adolescent had an urge to discover his identity and new experiences. These adolescents tend to
concentrate less in class. A better-formed educator plays an important role at this stage of the
adolescent’s development. The educator should adopt a careful teaching approach to motivate
these learners. The educator may adopt the Flow theory put forward by Mihály Csíkszentmihályi
to motivate these adolescents and achieve the preset teaching objectives. The flow theory states
that educator should engage students in activities that challenge their abilities and skills. These
activities remain the best medium for them to concentrate and focus on the objectives set by the
educator. These activities result in deep learning and high level of involvement by the learner. At
the same time, it helps the student to put forward their untapped talents. According to Seligman’s
theory of positive psychology, students perform well at school when they have positive
psychology. Seligman identified five elements that should be present for the well-being of a
person. These are a positive emotion, proper engagement, good relationships, having a purpose,
and feel accomplished. In private schools, we get students coming from broken families and some
are left in shelters. Those students develop hate for their parents and they perceive their relationship
with the latter as despicable. They come to school with a negative psychology and do not perform
well in education. Educators are in a better position to identify those students and plan a session
of work to cultivate a positive attitude within them. Educators working under the Seligman’s
theory can boost the students by providing them with a purpose and engagement. Indeed, those
students should get feelings of being accomplished at the end of each class session.

Given the above definitions of motivation, it can be said that motivation indeed impacts on the
learning of students, thereby supporting the statement ‘Take care of motivation and learning will
take care of itself’. For instance, applying this to Bandura’s Self-efficacy theory, it can be said that
for students to attain their learning outcomes, the teacher must ensure that they have high self-
efficacy. In order to achieve same, Schunk and Pajares (2002) suggest that specific, short-term,

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and challenging but attainable goals should be set so as to motivate learners to attain these goals.
In addition, the teacher must always encourage the students to try their best, and provide them with
focused and frequent feedback about their progress towards the goals set for them. In so doing, the
learners will feel accepted and this will boost their confidence and self-esteem. Relating this to
Maslow’s hierarchy of needs (1943), this represents the fulfilment of the self-esteem needs
following which the students will be able to climb the next ladder and focus on self-actualisation
whereby they will aim at achieving the best of themselves. The Attribution and Self-determination
theories as well as can be used to explain how motivation drives learning. Indeed, to increase the
learners’ motivation, the teacher must take into consideration the latter’s ability (internal locus),
confidence in their capacity (controllability) as well as their intrinsic or extrinsic motivation. For
instance, for the high flyers who are usually self-determined, confident, and intrinsically
motivated, the teacher can set challenging, yet attainable activities and allow those students to
work on their own in view of motivating them. Given that the high performers are driven by the
desire of surpassing not only their fellow mates, but their own previous performance as well, this
will definitely be a motivating factor and will eventually lead to better learning outcomes. In
contrast, for the low achievers who usually need to be extrinsically motivated, and lack control or
self-confidence, the teacher has to make use of a variety of strategies to keep them motivated to
learn. For instance, the teacher must give them support and encourage them to make continuous
effort in view of improving their capacity. In addition, individual attention can be beneficial as it
will make the students feel accepted and valued in the class; this can help in boosting their ‘control
factor’, i.e. their determination towards success and avoidance of failure. In certain situations,
given the extrinsic motivation of low performers, the teacher has to set punitive measures in case
of non-accomplishment of learning tasks (such as additional homework or presentation in front of
the class- a positive punishment), but also has to set rewards for the completion of those tasks,
notably in terms of praising the learners or giving them good remarks (positive reinforcement).
However, it is important to stress that extrinsic motivation becomes less effective as learners grow,
and teachers must try to inculcate intrinsic motivation in their students.

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1.2 Conclusion for Question 2

From the above discussion, it can be concluded that by enhancing learners’ self-efficacy, self-
determination and self-confidence (in their capacity of achieving success or avoiding failure), and
helping them to meet their needs, this will boost their motivation to learn which will, in turn, lead
to an improvement of each student’s performance. Hence, as accounting educators, we reiterate
that indeed motivation drives learning.

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2.0 Question 4: The use of intelligence theories in academic settings.

There are four major types of theory relating to intelligences, namely “psychometric theories,
cognitive theories, cognitive-contextual theories and biological theories.” (Anon, 2019)

The most referred to are:

1. “Sternberg’s Triarchic theory”

2. “Gardner’s Theory of multiple intelligences”
3. Biological theories –Describing the relationship between intelligence and the human
brain’s functions
4. “Piaget’s Theory of development.” (Anon, 2019)

This case study is about assessing Ken’s intelligence according to Gardner’s Theory of
multiple intelligences and Sternberg’s Triarchic theory and forming an opinion on the one
having more educational validity

2.1 Ken’s intelligence according to Gardner’s Theory

Howard Gardner has put forward the theory that human beings are intelligent in many ways. He
has suggested that there exist up to nine forms of intelligence till date and that each person has
divergent forms of intelligences. In my humble opinion, the term ‘aptitude’ is more appropriate,
that is, ‘a natural ability to do something’. Humans are naturally more proficient at certain things
than others. Gardner suggests that intelligence is much more than the usual psychometric views
and that individuals have nine distinct intelligences in the form of:

Verbal/linguistic: Finely honed verbal skills and sensitive to sounds, meanings and rhythm of
words.

Spatial ability and visual intelligence: Capable of processing images and pictures by
thought/Abstract and accurate visualization)

Musical intelligences: Able to appreciate but also create rhythm and pitch.

Bodily/kinesthetic intelligence: Dexterity in manipulating objects and body movements.

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Logical/mathematical: Ability to think abstractly and hypothetically as well as the capacity to
determine rational and geometric arrangements.

Interpersonal intelligence: Capable of detecting and rejoining appropriately to other people’s

moods, motivations and desires.

Intrapersonal: Highly intuitive and self-awareness

Naturalist intelligence: Able to easily identify and catalogue florae, wildlife and other objects but
also developing a compassion for nature.

Existential intelligence: Sensitivity, capacity, conceptualization of the meaning of life and

intricacies of humanity. (Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences, 2019)

2.2 Ken’s intelligence according to Gardner’s theory

Based on the information provided, Ken possesses poor visual intelligence. As per his own words,
“I need to be able to see to understand”. He lacks abstract and accurate visualization capabilities.
From the information provided, it is difficult to ascertain whether he also lacks spatial ability,
which is not frequent in boys usually.

He no doubt possesses some musical intelligence as he plays the guitar. However, we do not know
if he plays well or if he cannot play at all but only that he plays guitar when he is frustrated.

Ken has trouble at school regarding mathematical, therefore logical thinking as well presumably.
He especially has difficulty with word problems and areas not tangible. I am thinking in this line
that he could also be experiencing difficulty with subjects such as Design & Technology and
maybe Art as well. This would be indicative of poor spatial ability. There is also no mention of
any ability at sports, an indicator of good spatial ability.

“Interpersonal intelligence is the capacity to discern and respond appropriately to moods,

temperaments, motivations, and desires of other people” (Giger, 2019). This type of intelligence
allows someone to work effectively with other individuals or group of individuals. Ken has good
interpersonal aptitudes being ‘very skilled at working with people’. His arbitrative ability to resolve

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clashes reveals his empathy and diplomacy in resolving disputes in club and organizational
meetings.

There is not enough information in the case to properly assess Ken’s other intelligences according
to Gardner’s theory. No assessment has been made of Ken’s verbal/linguistic aptitudes,
bodily/kinesthetic aptitudes, intrapersonal aptitudes, naturalist aptitudes and his existential
aptitudes.

2.2.1 The Sternberg’s Triarchic Theory of Intelligence

According to B. Goertzel (2006) define intelligent as an achievement of complex objectives in

complex environments. Similarly, H. Nakashima (1999) pointed out that intelligent is the capacity
to process information correctly in a complex environment. Thus, R. Kurzweil (2000) believed
that intelligent can be achieved by limited resources including time to attain goals. Thus, different
authors have different point of view on the definition of intelligence. Therefore, Robert Sternberg
tried to defined intelligent by a theory called the triarchic theory. Triarchic theory was developed
by Robert Sternberg in 1980. This theory mainly based that intelligence have clear elements rather
than single ability. Thus, the triarchic theory of intelligence is a wider concept. Robert Sternberg
has broken down the triarchic theory into three main sub theories which are stated below.

2.2.2 Analytical Intelligence

Analytical intelligence includes features of intelligence which are investigated, assess, judge, and
compare. Sternberg considered that analytical intelligent represent componential analysis with a
view to assess an individual reflection in his interior life. In other words, analytical intelligence
helps in academic problem solving skills. The main objective of analytical intelligence is to have
the capacity of thinking academically so as to ensure that information has process efficiently and
effectively. Therefore, this intelligence will normally assess the theatrical parts of an individual.
This type of intelligence is mainly appropriate for students.

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 2.2.3 Creative Intelligence

Sternberg (1985) consider the creative intelligence as an experiential form of intelligence. The
main assumption of the creative intelligent is that there are two main categories of capacities
related with intelligence with are novelty skills and automatization skills which implies that for a
work to be effective a combination of both skill is required. This is so because at first Sternberg et
al (1985) carried out an exploit which consist about sixty-three people to build up various products
in terms of art, writing, science or even advertising. As a results, of this experience, Sternberg
came to the conclusion that individuals are more creative in specific areas. Later on, Sternberg
(1999) argued that creativity can be applied in training and development to assess the training need
assessment was effective or not. The main objective of creative intelligence is to innovate new
ideas by integrating with relevance information. Again this type of intelligence is mainly suitable
for students.

2.2.4 Practical Intelligence

Practical intelligent is also known as contextual intelligence. Sternberg (1999) pointed out that
practical intelligent illustrated the intelligence related to the real world. This types of intelligence
mainly concerns with evaluating the ability to adapt to a dynamic environment with a view to
identity a person's main strength and weakness. In other words, practical intelligent is concerned
with adjusting to the environment, choosing a better environment and also improving the actual
environment. Sternberg considered that practical intelligence represent tacit knowledge based on
prior experience gain on problem solving issue which might be useful in performing variety of
tasks. Therefore, the main assumption for this type of intelligence is mainly based on past
experience and thus an individual with a high job performance may have an appropriate practical
intelligence to tackle a new challenging task while a person with poor job performance may not
have the required experience to tackle the new challenging task. This type of intelligence seems to
be more applicable for educators, doctors, lawyers and accountants.

Therefore, using the three main types of intelligence, the triarchic theory can be explained by
defining the academic problems for learners using the analytical intelligence, helping learners to
be more innovative by the creative intelligence and helps learners to apply these theatrical parts in
their real life most specifically in their workplace.

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2.3 Ken’s intelligence in relation to Sternberg’s theory of intelligence

Strenberg’s theory of intelligence is consider to be a wide concept which might differs among
individuals. Thus, using Sternberg’s theory of intelligence, we have to assess Ken's intelligent on
three main components as explained below.

First of all, referring to the case study it has been mentioned that Ken has more difficulties in
school and most specifically in mathematics. This clearly shows that the analytical intelligence for
mathematics is slow for Ken. This is so because he is having difficulties in understanding the
theories which represent a weakness for his knowledge in terms of academic problem solving.
Thus, on the basis of judgement we can found that his friends have less problems in mathematics
which clearly indicate that his friends have got more analytical intelligence than Ken.

Besides, referring to the case study it has been said that Ken carried out lot of practice by acting
more “mechanical” compared to his friends. This shows that Ken has lack some creative
intelligence in mathematics. Normally, mathematics is considered to be an innovative subject
whereby creativity is required by learners so as to ensure that learning is taking place. However,
this may not be the case for Ken as he is practicing lot without thinking. With further analysis to
the case study it can be found that Ken suggested that mathematics seems to be unrealistic as he is
not able to understand the sequence and the logical rationing in mathematics. Again it can be said
that Ken’s friends have got more creative intelligence than him.

In addition, using the triarchic theory it can be found that Ken has got more practical intelligence.
This is so because with reference to the case study, Ken is able to manage his anger and he is very
skillful in working with different people. Likewise, with reference to the case study it has been
mentioned that Ken act as arbitrator in times of disputes and disagreements among staffs in the
club or organizational meeting. Thus, Ken is able to cope with different situation compare to his
friends which clearly shows that Ken has more practical intelligent than his friends.

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2.4 Conclusion

In light of the above discussion, using the Gardner’s theory of multiple intelligence, we have
assessed Ken’s intelligence on nine distinct intelligences whereby some intelligences are not
related to the case of Ken. However, considering the Sternberg’s triarchic theory of intelligence,
the case of Ken was analyzed in three main parts and this theory seem to be more applicable to the
case of Ken as it is relevant and apply in every aspect of Ken’s life.

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References
 The Oxford Handbook of School Psychology. Available at:
https://www.oxfordhandbooks.com/view/10.1093/oxfordhb/9780195369809
.001.0001/oxfordhb-9780195369809-e-005#oxfordhb-9780195369809-div1-
005001 [accessed 12th May 2019]

 Gardner, Howard. 1983. Frames of Mind. Basic Books.

 Howard Gardner’s Theory of Multiple Intelligences. (2019). [ebook]

Available at:
https://www.niu.edu/facdev/_pdf/guide/learning/howard_gardner_theory_m
ultiple_intelligences.pdf [Accessed 12 May 2019].

 Giger, M. (2019). Gardner's Multiple Intelligences.

[Blog] mattgig@freesurf.ch. Available at:
http://www.gigers.com/matthias/gifted/gardner.html [Accessed 14 May
2019].
 Anon, (2019). [online] Available at:
https://www.researchgate.net/publication/286298531_Theories_of_Intellige
nce [Accessed 19 May 2019].
 Sternberg, Robert J. 1981. "Intelligence and Nonentrenchment." Journal of
Educational Psychology 73:1 - 16.
 B. Goertzel. The Hidden Pattern. Brown Walker Press, 2006.
 H. Nakashima. AI as complex information processing. Minds and machines,
 9:57–80, 1999.
 R. Kurzweil. The age of spiritual machines: When computers exceed human

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 intelligence. Penguin, 2000.
 Sternberg, R.J. (1985). Beyond IQ. New York: Cambridge University Press
 Triarchic Theory (Robert Sternberg) - InstructionalDesign.org. [online]
Available at: https://www.instructionaldesign.org/theories/triarchic-theory/
[Accessed 19 May 2019].

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