On: AI °LING AND RECONSTRUCTION KIT EXPERIMENT No:1 NAME Analog Signal Sampling And Reconstruction OBJECTIVE To study different types of signal samplings and its reconstruction 1) Natural Sampling, 2) Sample and Hold, 3) Flat top sampling. THEORY The kit is used to study Analog Signal Sampling and its Reconstruction. It basically consists of functional blocks, namely Function Generator, Sampling Control Logic, Clock section, Sampling Circuitry and Filter Section. Function Generator This Block generates two sine wave signals of 1 KHz and 2 KHz frequency. This sine wave generation is done by feeding 16 KHz and 32 KHz clock to the shift register. The serial to parallel shift register with the resistive ladder network at the output generates 1 KHz and 2 KHz sine waves respectively by the serial shift operation. The R-C active filter suppresses the ripple and smoothness the sine wave. The unity gain amplifier buffer takes care of the impedance matching between sine wave generation and sampling circuit. Sampling Control Logic This unit generates two main signals used in the study of Sampling Theorem, namely the analog signals (5V pp, frequency 1KHz and 2KHz) & sampling signal of frequency 2KHz, 4KHz, 8KHz, 16KHz, 32KHz, and 64KHz. The 6.4 MHz Crystal Oscillator generates the 6.4 MHz clock. The decade counter divides the frequency by 10 and the ripple counter generates the basic sampling frequencies from 2 KHz to 64KH7z and the other control frequencies. From among the various available sampling frequencies, required sampling frequency is selected by using the Frequency selectable switch. The selected sampling frequency is indicated by means of corresponding LED. Clock Section ae This section facilitates the user to have his choice of external or internal clock feeding to the sampling section by using a switch (SW4). Sampling Circuitry ae” a The unit has three parts namely, Natural Sampling Circuit, Flat top Sampling Circuit, and Sample and Hold Circuit. ; The Natural sampling section takes’ sine wave as analog input and samples the analog input at the rate equal to the sampling signal.DCL-01: ANALOG SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION KIT v-17.0 For sample and hold circuit, the output is taken across a capacitor, which holds the level of the samples until the next sample arrives. For flat top sampling clock used is inverted to that of sample & hold circuit. Output of flat top sampling circuit is pulses with flat top and top corresponds to the level of analog signal at the instant of rising edge of the clock signal. Filter Section Two types of Filters are provided on board, viz., 2" Order and 4th Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter. EQUIPMENTS Experimenter kit DCL -01. Connecting Chords Power supply 20 MHz Dual Trace Oscilloscope NOTE: Keep All the Switch Faults (Except Switch 1) In Off Position PROCEDURE 1) Natural Sampling And Its Reconstruction 4. Refer to the Block Diagram (Fig. 1.1) & Carry out the following connections and switch settings. 2. Connect power supply in proper polarity to the kit DCL-01 & switch it on. 3. Connect the 1 KHz, 5Vpp Sine wave signal, generated on board; to the BUF IN post of the BUFFER and BUF OUT post of the BUFFER to the IN post of the Natural Sampling block by means of the Connecting chords provided. 4. Connect the sampling frequency clock in the internal mode INT CLK using switch (sW4). Using clock selector switch (S1) select 8 KHz sampling frequency. . Using switch SW2 select 50% duty cycle. a . Connect the OUT post of the Natural sampling block to the input IN1 post of the 2 Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter and take necessary observation as mentioned below. (Fig. 1.4) 8. Repeat the procedure for the 2 KHz sine wave signal as input. NoaDCL-01: ANALOG SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION KIT v-17.0 OBSERVATIONS Observe the following waveforms in order for every setting and plot it on the paper. a. Analog Input waveform. b. Sampling frequency waveform. : c. Natural sampling signal and its corresponding reconstructed output of 2" order Low Pass Butterworth Filter. SWITCH FAULTS Note: Keep the connections as per the procedure. Now switch corresponding fault switch button in ON condition & observe the different effect on the output. The faults are normally used one at a time. . Put switch 6 of SF2 in Switch Fault section to ON position. This will open B1 bit from the B input (4-bit DIP switch output) of the comparator. This introduces the fault in duty cycle section. With effect, change in duty cycle for settings (10%, 40%, 50%, 80% and 90%) will not be observed as expected. . Put switch 7 of SF2 in Switch Fault section to ON position. This will open the bypass capacitor of the 2™ order low pass butter-worth filter, which results in the induction of ripples at the filter output. . Put switch 8 of SF2 in Switch Fault section to ON position. This Removes the capacitor (C6) used in the generation of 1 KHz sine wave. Which makes the sine wave signal very distorted. The Observation can be made on this signal by changing the sampling frequencies and the duty cycle. PROCEDURE 2) Sample And Hold And Its Reconstruction fi Refer to the Block Diagram (Fig. 1.2) & Carry out the following corinections and switch settings. Connect power supply in proper polarity to the kit DCL-01 & switch it on. Connect the 1 KHz, 5Vpp Sine wave signal, generated onboard, to the BUF IN post of the BUFFER and the BUF OUT post of the BUFFER to the IN post of the Sample and Hold Block by means of the Connecting chords provided. 4. Connect the sampling frequency clock in the internal mode INT CLK using switch (SW4). Using clock selector switch SW1 select 8 KHz sampling frequency. Using switch SW2 select 50% duty cycle. : Connect the OUT post of the Sample and Hold block to the input IN 1 post of the 2" Order Low Pass Butterworth Filter and take necessary observation as mentioned below. (Fig. 1.5) 8. Repeat the procedure for the 2 KHz sine wave signal as input. eon octFUNGTION GENERATOR FIG.1.1 BLOCK DIAGRAM FOR NATURAL SAMPLING 1234 5678 SWITCH FAULTS SELECTION SWITCH SAMPLING GLOK DUTY CYCLE SELECTION SWITCHDCL-01: ANALOG SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION KIT V-17.0 OBSERVATIONS Observe the following waveforms in order for every setting and plot it on the paper. a. Analog Input waveform. b. Sampling frequency waveform. iC Natural sampling signal and its corresponding reconstructed output of 2" order Low Pass Butterworth Filter.v-17.0 DCL-01; ANALOG SIGNAL SAMPLING AND RECONSTRUCTION KIT = INPUT SIGNAL {KHz ‘SVpp | NE CLOCK 8KHz, DUTY CYCLE 50s gl gy NATURAL SAMPLING OUTPUT a Nagel FILTER OUTPUT OUTi FIG.1.4 WAVEFORMS NATURAL SAMPLING : ecce Sees 555i : WOLIMS NOLLOATAS SLIMY HOLLINS pect wu womuaLing #2000 NUE ino no aw ‘WOLVUINIG NOLLINAS ‘AQNINOWA ‘ONITdWYS MABIO61.08: PAM PHIM PI 08: PAM/ PWM / PPM MODULATION & DEMODULATION Kir “varo EXPERIMENT NO. NAME Pulse Amplitude Modulation. OBJECTIVE Study of Pulse Amplitude Modulation & Demodulation THEORY In Pulse Amplitude Modulation, the signal is sampled at regular intervals and the amplitude of each sample is made proportional to the amplitude of the signal at that instant of sampling. This amplitude of each sample is hold for the sample duration to make pulses flat top. The Pulse Amplitude Demodulator consists of Active Low Pass Butterworth filter. It filters out the sampling frequency and their harmonics from the modulated signal and recovers the base band by integrated action. EQUIPMENTS Experimenter kit DCL-08. Connecting Chords Power supply 20 MHz Dual trace oscilloscope NOTE: Keep The Switch Faults In Off Position. PROCEDURE Refer to the block diagram (Fig. 1) and carry out the following connections and switch settings. Connect the Power Supply with proper polarity to the kit DCL-08 and switch it on. Select 16KHz sampling frequency by jumper JP1. Connect the 1KHz, 2Vp-p sine wave signal generated onboard to PAM IN Post. Observe the Pulse Amplitude Modulation output at PAM OUT Post. Short the following posts with the Connecting chords provided as shown in block diagram. PAM OUT and AMP IN AMP OUT and FIL IN Keep the amplifier gain control potentiometer PS to maximum completely clockwise. Observe the Pulse Amplitude Demodulated signal at FIL OUT, which is same as the input signal Repeat the experiment for different input signal and sampling frequencies. 1 OPARONINPUT SIGNAL 1 1KH2,2Vpp | CLOCK 16KHz ill Wt | na (Muu. ail penne ourpur | gama a é ana p 2 260uS FIG.1.2 PAM WAVEFORMS 5 vy 250 {in PAM OUTPUT 4 sila. vil ee oe FILTER OUTPUT 2 260 | ) 2V 260us B24, 250us |, nelle Lekota dene aioe uci alae ete ena |vara DCL-08: PAM/ PWM / PPM MODULATION & DEMODULATION KIT. WOLUNS NOLLOTTAS S1Inva HOLIMS wornnoouaa NowIsod asind muons asin wn iwonwauing 00 wouinao Nt wOLVUIN39 NOWLONM. ; ‘ S “ S a “| DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONCI-08: PAM / PWM / "MODULATION & DEMODULATION kIT v170 EXPERIMENT NO: 2 NAME Pulse Width Modulation. OBJECTIVE Study of Pulse Width Modulation and Demodulation THEORY Pulse Width Modulation This technique of modulation controls the variation of duty cycle of the square wave (With some fundamental frequency) according to the input modulating signal. Here the amplitude variation of the modulation signal is reflected in the ON period variation of square wave. Hence, itis a technique of V to T conversion Pulse Width Demodulation The input signal is Pulse Width Modulated, so the ON time of the signal is changing according to the modulating signal. In this demodulation technique during the ON time of PWM signal one counter is enabled. At the end of ON time, counter gives a particular count, which directly corresponds to the amplitude of input signal. Then this count is fed to a DAC. The output of DAC corresponds to the amplitude of input signal. Thus train of varying pulse widths gives varying count values and accordingly DAC give outputs, which is directly proportional to amplitude of input signal. This is then filtered to get original signal. Thus at the output we get the original modulating signal extracted from PWM wave. EQUIPMENTS Experimenter kit DCL-08. Connecting Chords Power supply 20 MHz Dual trace oscilloscope NOTE: Keep The Switch Faults In Off Position. PROCEDURE 1 Refer to the block diagram (Fig. 2) ) and carry out the following connections and switch settings. 2. Connect the Power Supply with proper polarity to the kit DCL-08 and switch it on 3. Put jumper JP3 to 2™ position. 4, Select 1KHZ 1v-pp sine wave signal generated onboard. 5. Connect this signal to PWM/PPM IN. RETA <2 DIGITAL COMMUNICATIONDCL-08: PAM / PWM / PPM MODULATION & DEMODULATION KIT. V-17.0, 6. Observe the Pulse Width Modulated output at PWM OUT post. Note that since the sampling frequency is high, only blurred band in waveform will be observed due to persistence of vision. In absence of input signal only square wave of fundamental frequency and fixed on time will be observed and no width variation are present. To observe the variation in pulse width, apply 1-30Hz sine wave signal to PWM/PPM IN post. Vary the frequency from 1-30 Hz. Short the following posts with the Connecting chords provided as shown in block diagram for demodulation section. PWM OUT and BUF IN BUF OUT and PWM DMOD IN DMOD OUT and FIL IN Observe the Pulse Width Demodulated output at FIL OUT. Repeat the experiment for different input signal and different sampling clocks with the help of jumper JP3. Procedure for Observation of PWM output in DUAL mode: Keep CH1 knob of CRO on 1 Volt/ div ac. Keep CH2 knob of CRO on 2 Volts/ div ac. Keep Times/ div knob on 1 msec. Keep the CRO in Dual channel (Auto/ TV mode). Use X10 for expansion. After proper triggering of CRO, observe both the signals PWM IN and PWM OUT simultaneously.—- ——— 1 PRR PEP Peeper per pe Et ay ec cis poe ™ INPUT SIGNAL 1KHz,1Vpp - ame! US ILI ANNIUANANOULRUL PWM OUTPUT me LUTEUM UCR BUFFER OUTPUT PYM DEMOD OUTPUT rat ames eer a ae eciaae E gg eal 4 FILTER OUTPUT ) soomv awous FIG.2.2 PWM WAVEFORMS 5. 100uS ) 5 ¥ -100.uS. ) 500 mmi¥ 100 us yh $00 mY, 400 WS 1 1 1 L J JiHALIMS NOLLOITAS SLINVE HOLS So ioeae) pez voivnoowia | 100 cows NTH WH HLYOMEILIN WOU 4 NIgOW3a NIN Ano Wad wouvingon NOLLISOd asind HHLOL isind WOLVWINIS NOLLINMYATION Ki DCL.08: PAM/ PWM /PPM MODULATION & C EXPERIMENT NO: 3 NAME Pulse Position Modulation. OBJECTIVE Study of Pulse Position Modulation and Demodulation THEORY The position of the TTL pulse is changed on time scale according to the variation of input modulating signal amplitude, Width of the pulses and Amplitude of the pulses remain same. Demodulation This pulse position modulated signal is converted into PWM pulse form using Monosatable multivibrator. This signal is then demodulated using the same technique of PWM demodulation. In this demodulation technique during the ON time of PWM signal one counter is enabled. At the end of ON time, counter gives a particular count, which directly corresponds to the amplitude of input signal. Then this count is fed to a DAC. The output of DAC corresponds to the amplitude of input signal. Thus train of varying pulse widths gives varying count values and accordingly DAC gives outputs, which is directly proportional to amplitude of input signal. This is then filtered to get original signal. Thus at the output we get the original modulating signal extracted from PWM wave. EQUIPMENTS Experimenter kit DCL-08 Connecting Chords Power supply 20 MHz Dual trace oscilloscope NOTE: Keep The Switch Faults In Off Position. PROCEDURE 1 Refer to the block diagram (Fig. 3) and carry out the following connections and switch settings. Connect the Power Supply with proper polarity to the kit DCL-08 and switch it on. Put jumper JP3 to 2™ position. Select 1KHZ, 1v-pp sine wave signal generated onboard Connect the selected signal to the PWM/PPM IN. ARON Ream) “8 DyGITAL COMMUNICATIONDCL-08: PAM / PWM/ PPM MODULATION & DEMODULATION KIT V-A7.0 6. Observe the Pulse Position Modulated output at PPM OUT post with shifted position on time scale. Please note amplitude and width of pulse are same and there is shift in position which is proportional to input Analog signal. To observe the variation in pulse positions, apply 1-30Hz sine wave signal to PWM/PPM IN post vary the frequency from 1-30 Hz and observe the signal on Oscilloscope in dual for posts PPM OUT and PWM OUT simultaneously. Then short the following posts with the link provided as shown in block diagram for Demodulation section. PPM OUT and BUFIN BUFOUT and PPM DMOD IN DMOD OUT and FIL IN Observe the Pulse Position Demodulated signal at FIL OUT. Repeat the experiment at different input signal and different sampling frequencies.ULI JUN a {{UUWLEL HL LL iACL-03: FREQU x IENCY MODUL ATION TRANSMITTER KIT & ACL-04: FREQUENCY DEMODULATION RECEIVER KIT V-2 uaa fod. 3 eo NAM / \) STUDY OF FREQUENCY MODULATION. OBJECTIVE: 7x 5 Tg Plot the modulation characteristic of varactor modulator © calculate the modulation sensitivity of varactor modulator. A A Observe and measure frequency deviation and modulation index of FM. *, To study frequency modulation using reactance modulator and measure the frequency deviation /AHEORY: * Mb FREQUENCY MODULATION wai is a type of modulation in which the frequency of the high frequency (Carrier) is ried in accordance with the instantaneous value of the modulating signal ) aD yy 12 MAIN ASPECTS Consider a sine wave signal vm(t) with pulse w (FIG. 1.1) vmn(t) = B+ sin(wet) and another sine wave ve(t) with upper © pulse: Volt) = A + sin(-t) The signal v(t) is called modulating signal, the signal ve(t) is called carrier signal. Vary the frequency of the carrier ve(t) in a way proportional to the amplitude of the modulating signal vm(t). You obtain a v(t) frequency modulated diagonal, which can be expressed by the relation: vin(t) = A+ sin [0(¢t)] with @(t) instantaneous angle function of v(t). 4.3 MATHEMATICAL EXPRESSION OF THE FREQUENCY MODULATED / SIGNAL The instantaneous pulse {(t) of the FM signal by definition: ft) = 0+ Ke vin(t) with Q = carrier pulse K= modulation sensitivity ALOG COMMUNICATION area ‘ANALOG ro} |Re. ACLS FREQUENCY MODULATION TRANSMITTER KIT& AGL-Of: FREQUENCY DEMODLLATION RECENVERKIT_V-2 The instantaneous angle © (t) to be used as subject of the sine to obtain the mathematical operation of the FM signal, is detected by integrating Q (t): o(t) = Jom at In the case of modulating sine wave signal [vm (t) = B.sin (w.t)], 6 (t) it results: O(t) = Qe (t) — (K-B/w) + cos(w-t) The expression of the frequency modulated signal vm (t) becomes: ¥.) ore v(t) = A + sin[Qs (t)- (K*B/w) * cos(wet)] : 3 REQUENCY DEVIATION AF AND MODULATION INDEX Mr The instantaneous frequency F(\) of the carrier modulated by a sine wave, results F(t) = Olt) = © + K-Besin(wet) 2x 2x and oscillates between a minimum Fmin and a maximum-value Fmax Frm KB RUA Qn 2x 2n 2x x Ms frequency deviation AF represents the maximum shift between the modulated signal frequency, over and under the frequency of the carrier: AF = Fmax—Fmin 2 We define as modulation index mi the ratio between AF and the modulating frequency f: mr=Ae \ / fe FREQUENCY MODULATION GENERATION: Thecircuits used to generate a frequency modulation must vary the frequency of a high frequency signal (carrier) as function of the amplitude of a low frequency signal (modulating signal). In practice there are two main methods used to generate the FI kaos DIRECT METHOD An oscilloscope is used in which the reactance of one of the elements of the resonant circuit depends on the modulating voltage. The most common device with variable reactance is the Varactor or Varicap, which is a particular diode which capacity varies as function of the reverse bias voltage (the Varicap is described in the next chapter). FALCON -9- ~~ ANALOG COMMUNICATION LABAr= QURINL Ve tZoMV TOM WHICH. OO = QUIIZ90 = U4 ARIZ! MV. TO OBSERVE i MEASURE FREQUENCY DEVIATION AND MODULATION INDEX OF FM. } ae Modules ACL-03. Power Supply. Oscilloscope. Volt meter. Frequency meter. Connecting Links. Function Generator NOTE : KEEP ALL THE SWITCH FAULTS IN OFF POSITION. Te ‘ PROCEDURE: 1. iz 3. 4. Refer to the FIG.1.9 & Carry out the following connections. Connect the power supply with proper polarity to the kit ACL-O3 while connecting this; ensure that the power supply is OFF. Connect the o/p of function generator OUT post to the modulation IN of FREQUENCY MODULATOR MOD IN post. Switch ON the power supply and Carry out the following presetting: . FUNCTION GENERATOR: sine wave (JP1); LEVEL about 100m\V; FREQ. about 1KHz. FALCON Zs -15- ANALOG COMMUNICATION LABACL-03: FREQUENCY MODULATION TRANSMITTER KIT & ACL-04: FREQUENCY DEMODULATION RECEIVER KIT _V-2 e FREQUENCY MODULATOR LEVEL about 2Vpp; FREQ. on the center; switch on 1500KHz. 5. Connect the oscilloscope to the output of the modulator FM/RF OUT. You obtain a waveform similar to the one of FIG. 1.10. 6. The frequency deviation A F can be calculated as follows (refer to FIG. 1.11): ~~ From the oscilloscope evaluate Fu and Fm, detecting the periods of the respective sine waves /e The frequency deviation AF is defined as: AF= (Fu—Fm)/2 You can note that if the modulator operates in a linear zone so Fu and Fm are over and under the central frequency F of the same quantity AF, otherwise this doés not occur. St The value of the modulation index mris calculated by the relation mf = AF/f, where f is the frequency of the modulating signal. Then observe the FM signal as shown in FIG. 1.10. To observe the FM at lower frequencies apply Sine wave of 1KHz and 1Vpp from external function generator to MOD IN post of onboard Function Generator and keep JP4 at 10-100KHz position and adjust the frequency at about 20-25KHz and output level of Function generator at 2Vpp. ) Ceci pa ae ge 2 ooSmsictv ‘wid || act-03 MODULATING SIGNAL NVM “FREQUENCY MODULATED oUTPUT 4 R f FIG.1.13 FREQUENCY MODULATION ) 1 250us FALCON -17- "ANALOG COMMUNICATION LABINSTRUCTION MANUAL, (amputuve MODULATION AND DEMODULATION ) (cezerve (. ie Construct amplitude Modulator using transistor and to demonstrate OW i _ Much intelligence can be added, to a carrier and observe the amplitude modulated waveforms and check the % of modulation, 2 To demonstrate how Modulated namely RF INTRODUCTION intelligence can be recovered from an amplitude - cartier by using diode demodulator. It has got three parts Oscillator, AM modulator and AM demodulator MODULATION TECHNIQUES Communication Is defined as a process by which information is exchanged. In Electronics, it is the transmission ari reception of information. Likewise, "formation is defined as "the communication of knowledge or intelligence". For he Purposes of this course, itis defined! as any electrical signal representing data. Thus, the purpose of any communications systems is 1 convey or transfer information from one point to another.) INFORMATION TRANSFER Our most fundamental methods of transfering information are speech and, asin this case writing. Communication of the written wor from— ~——. ..hand-carriedeiters-and-newspapers to the mail system, telegraph, and now electronic mail. Spoken communi cations evolved from face-to-face contact Into ~ felephone and radio communication. Allof these steps were taken in an effort to increase the communications distance and speed, a The most significant advance in increasing communications range was radio. e Basically, the audio or Sound waves are converted to an electrical signal then inte audio waves and transmitted to a distant receiving station. However, it the audia signal is transmitted at its original frequency, a number of problems present themselves. First to be etficient, the transmitting antenna must beat least. 1/4 to 1/2. wavelength long. This means that for a 3000 Hz signal, the antenna problem was solved, Gnly one station could transmit at a time. This is because all stations be operating on the same ‘audio" frequencies. And third, transmission ‘system at these frequencies are very inefficient. All of these problems can. solved by using a higher frequency signal as a “carrier* for, Ads ODL ETS eS 8 much higher frequency for transmission, then converted back to audio trequen. former is calledES OF MODULATION F Since, three characteristics of the sine wave carrier can be varied, it follows that frosnent®, {22 types of modulation. These are amplitude modulation (AM), @quency modulation (FM), and phase modulation (PM). However, in practice, it a Fie! difficult to distinguish between phase and frequency modulation. Therefore, ; ve types of modulation are grouped together under the title of Angle Hodulation. Thus, there are two basic types of modulation: Amplitude and Angle. 8 Next section will discuss both of these in detail DULATION 4a Inthe Process of modulation, some characteristic of a high frequency sine wave IS varied in accordance with the information or modulation signal. This signal may _ be an audio wavetorm, a digital pulse train, a television, picture or any other form Of information. The important consideration is that it is transfered to a higher frequency for efficient transmission. AS mentioned before, the modulated high frequency sine wave is called the carrier. The mathematical expression for an unmodulated sine wave or carrier is €=Asin(wi ty) where A = maximum amplitude a w = angular velocity (2.x f) t= time y = phase angle a —This equatlor’shows that there are characteristics of the wave that can be varied or modulated. These are : amplitude (A), angular velocity or frequency (w), and phase angle (p ) a [AmPLiTUDE MODULATION ) { With amplitude modulation, the carrier's amplitude is varied in accordance with the modulating signal. There are several circuits that accomplish this and they will be examined. Right now, we wish to limit our discussion to the characteristics of the modulated wavelorm tse ) “ THE AM WAVEFORM Figure 1. shows a very simple AM cvcuit, Here a radio frequency carrier is applied at “A* and the modulating audio tone at *B*. The circuit consists of a nonlinear davice such as a diode or transistor. The two signals "mix" in this circuit @ = instantaneous value of the wave (voltage or current) aaaand produce the AM waveform show at *C*. Notice that both the negative and Positive peaks of he output waveform correspond exactly tothe modulating tone's waveform. sa EWC 1 Ferree ee | aacteory Toul Figure 1. The basic method of obteining amplitude modulation. (me amplitude and frequency of the modulating tone determines the shape of the output waveform or the modulation envelope) For example,Figure 2-A shows ’ @ high amplitude audio signal. The resultant mOdulated waveform is shown in Figure 2-8. On the other hand, Figure 2-C shows alow amplitude, higher frequency audio signal. The modulated waveform is in Figure 2-D. aa MOCULATING Stoner[— +1 o ° ; ie Vy Figure 2. Examples of how the modulated wavetorm varies with the modulating signal. (PERCENT OF MODULATION’) \ The waveforms of Figure 2-B and Fgure 2-D are said to have dif ferent degrees of moidulation. The degree of modulation is nor mally expressed as a percentage from 0 to 100. However, it is also known as the modulation factor which varies from 0 to 1. An unmodulated carrier like that shown in Figure 3-A has 0% modula tion. For comparison purposes, let's asuune that the carrier has a peak-to-peak “amplitude of 40 volts as shown.., oe is = \ i B 1008 ! v tas Bui ov on ; \ | © ts egies Gu Eun 20 oy Figure 3. Measuring the ;percent of modulation. \ Figure 3-8 shows the same carrier modulated to 100%. Here, the amplitude of the modulated waveform falls to zero volts for an instant during each eycle of the Modulating wave. Also, the amplitude increases to 80 volt peak-to-peak onceCuring each cycle of each modulatin Pooalvampntecel is still ae NG Wave. The average peak-to-peal ip! 7 2 In Figure 3-C the cartier is shown’ modulated to 50%. The peak-to-peak Samplitude varies trom 60 volts to 20 volte However, the average peak-to-peak amplitude is stil 40 vols, The equation for determining the percent of Modulation is Percent of modulation = £mex=E min 100 ) ; For example, in Figure 1-9C, % = x 100 Emax+ Emin 60V. 60V 40V | 80V % = 05X100 = 50 % = % = 100 (Generally, it is desirable to keep the percent of modulation high. For a given transmitter power, a high percent of modlulation will produce a stronger audio tone in the receiver,)The reason for this can oe visualized from Figure - 4. moduration " EAv(vOrE RECOVERED AUDIO Figure 4. The relative amplitude of the recovered audio depends on the modulation percentage.