ENGINE COMPONENTS

Engine Bottom End

The term engine bottom end generally refers to the block, crankshaft, connecting rods, pistons,
and related components. Another name for engine bottom end is the short block. It is an
assembled engine block with the cylinder heads, intake manifold, exhaust manifold, and other
external parts removed.

Engine Block

The engine block, also called cylinder block, forms the main body of the engine. Other parts
bolt to or fit inside the block. Figure 1.1 shows a cutaway view of a basic block with parts
installed.

Figure 1.1 The block is the main supporting member of the engine.
The cylinders, also known as the cylinder bores, are large, round holes machined through the
block from top to bottom. The pistons fit into the cylinders of the engine block. The cylinders
are slightly larger than the pistons. This lets the pistons slide up and down freely.

The deck, or deck surface, is the top of the block surrounding the cylinders. It is machined
perfectly flat. The cylinder head bolts to the deck. Oil and coolant passages through the deck
surface allow lubrication and cooling of the cylinder head parts.

Water jackets are coolant passages through the block. They allow a solution of water and
antifreeze to cool the cylinders.

Core plugs, or freeze plugs, are round, metal plugs on the outside of the block. They seal holes
left in the block after casting (manufacturing in a foundry). The plugs prevent coolant leakage
out of the water jackets. Some new engines do not have freeze plugs.

The main bearing bores are holes machined in the bottom of the block to hold the crankshaft.
Removable bearing inserts fit into these bores.

Main caps bolt to the bottom of the block and hold the crankshaft and main bearing inserts in
place. Two or four large bolts normally secure each cap to the block. The caps and the block
together form the main bearing bores.

The crankcase is the lowest portion of the block. The crankshaft rotates inside the crankcase.

Crankshaft

The crankshaft harnesses the tremendous force produced by the downward thrust of the pistons.
It changes the up-and-down motion of the pistons into a rotating motion. The crankshaft fits into
the bottom of the engine block, Figure 11.5 Figure 11-6 pictures an engine crankshaft.

Figure 1.2 The crankshaft fits into the bottom of the block.
The crankshaft main journals are surfaces that are precisely machined and polished. They fit
into the block's main bearings. The crankshaft rod journals are also machined and polished
surfaces, but they are offset from the main journals. The connecting rods bolt to the rod journals.
With the engine running, the rod journals circle around the centerline of the crankshaft.

Figure 1.3 Study the basic parts of a crankshaft. Journals are very smooth surfaces for the bearings.

Counterweights are formed on the crankshaft to prevent vibration. These weights counteract the
weight of the connecting rod, pistons, rings and rod journal offset. See Figure 11.7

Figure 1.4 As an engine runs, the connecting rod journal spins around the main journal. The counterweight
offsets the weight of the piston and rod to prevent vibration.
The crankshaft snout sticks through the front of the block. It provides a mounting place for the
camshaft drive mechanism, front damper, and fan belt pulleys.

A crankshaft flange holds the flywheel. The flywheel bolts to this flange. The center of the
flange has a pilot hole or bushing for the transmission torque converter or input shaft.
Automobile engines normally have 4, 6, or 8 cylinders. The crankshaft rod journals are arranged
so there is always at least one cylinder on a power stroke. As a result, force is always being
transmitted to the crankshaft to smooth engine operation.

Engine Main Bearings

The engine main bearings are removable inserts that fit between the block main bore and the
crankshaft main journals. One-half of each insert fits into the block. The other half fits into the
block main caps. See Figure 1.5

Oil holes in the upper bearing inserts line up with oil holes in the block. This allows oil to flow
through the block and main bearings, and into the crankshaft. The oil flows through the
crankshaft to lubricate the main bearings and the connecting rod bearings. This prevents metal-
to-metal contact.

Figure 1.5 The engine bottom end consists of these basic parts. Note the crankshaft bearings and block
main
 caps.
A main thrust bearing limits the distance the crankshaft can slide forward or rearward in the
block. Flanges are formed on the main thrust bearing. These flanges almost touch the thrust
surfaces on the crankshaft. This limits crankshaft end play (front-to-rear movement). See Figure
1.6. Normally, only one of the main bearings serves as a thrust bearing.

Main bearing clearance is the space between the crankshaft main journal and the main bearing
insert. Clearance allows lubricating oil to enter and separate the journal and bearing. This allows
the journal to rotate without rubbing on the bearing and causing excess wear.

Figure 1.6 Main bearing inserts fit between the crankshaft main journals and the block. One bearing has
thrust
surfaces to control crankshaft end play. Oil holes and grooves allow oil to lubricate the bearings.

Crankshaft Oil Seals

Crankshaft oil seals keep oil from leaking from the front and rear of the engine. The oil pump
forces oil into the main and rod bearings. This causes oil to spray out of the bearings. Seals are
placed around the front and rear of the crankshaft to contain this oil.

The rear main oil seal fits around the rear of the crankshaft to prevent oil leakage, as pictured in
Figure 1.5. It can be a one- or two-piece seal. The seal lip rides on a machined and polished
surface on the crankshaft.

The front seal prevents oil leakage around the crankshaft snout. It is normally a one-piece seal
that is pressed into the engine's front cover (metal housing that bolts to the front of the engine).
The seal lip may contact the crankshaft directly, or it may contact a sleeve that fits over the
crankshaft snout.
Flywheel

A flywheel is a large metal disk mounted on the rear of the crankshaft. See Figure 1.5. A
flywheel can have several functions:

 The flywheel connects the engine crankshaft to the transmission or transaxle. Either the
manual clutch or the automatic transmission torque converter bolts to the flywheel.

 The flywheel for a vehicle with a manual transmission is very heavy and can help smooth
engine operation.

 The flywheel generally contains a large ring gear, which is used to start the engine. A
small gear on the starting motor engages the flywheel ring gear and turns the flywheel.

Connecting Rod

The connecting rod fastens the piston to the crankshaft. It transfers piston movement and
combustion pressure to the crankshaft rod journals. The connecting rod also causes piston
movement during the non-powerproducing strokes (intake, compression, and exhaust). See
Figure 1.7.

The connecting rod small end, or top end, fits around the piston pin. Also called the upper end,
it contains a one-piece bushing. The bushing is pressed into the rod small end.

The connecting rod I-beam is the center section of the rod. 'The I-beam shape provides a very
high strengthto-weight ratio. It prevents the rod from bending, twisting, and breaking.

The connecting rod cap bolts to the bottom of the connecting rod body. It can be removed for
disassembly of the engine.

The connecting rod big end, or lower end, is a hole machined in the rod body and cap. The
connecting rod bearing fits into the big end.

Connecting rod bolts and nuts clamp the rod cap and rod together. They are special high tensile
strength fasteners. Some rods use cap screws without a nut. The cap screws thread into the rod
itself. This design reduces rod weight.
 Figure 1.7 The connecting rod is the link between the piston and crankshaft.

Piston

The piston transfers the pressure of combustion (expanding gas) to the connecting rod and
crankshaft. It must also hold the piston rings and piston pin while operating in the cylinder. See
Figure 1.8 shows a cutaway view of a piston.

The piston head is the top of the piston and is exposed to the heat and pressure of combustion.
This area must be thick enough to withstand these forces. It must also be shaped to match and
work with the shape of the combustion chamber for complete combustion.

Piston rings grooves are slots machined in the piston for the piston rings. The upper two
grooves hold the compression rings. The lower piston groove holds the oil ring.

Piston oil holes in the bottom ring groove allow the oil to pass through the piston and onto the
cylinder wall. The oil then drains back into the crankcase.

The piston ring lands are the areas between and above the ring grooves. They separate and
support the piston rings as they slide on the cylinder.

The piston skirt is the side of the piston below the last ring. It keeps the piston from tipping in
its cylinder. Without a skirt, the piston could cock and jam in the cylinder.
The piston boss is a reinforced area around the piston pin hole. It must be strong enough to
support the piston pin under severe loads.

A piston pin hole is machined through the pin boss for the piston pin. It is slightly larger than
the piston pin.

Figure 1.8 The piston rides in the cylinder and is exposed to the combustion flame. It must be light and
strong.

Piston Pin

The piston pin, also called wrist pin, allows the piston to swing on the connecting rod. The pin
fits
through the hole in the piston and the connecting rod small end. This is pictured in Figure 1.9.

Figure 1.9 The piston pin allows the connecting rod to swing in the piston. This allows crankshaft and rod
bottom end movement.
Piston Clearance

Piston clearance is the amount of space between the sides of the piston and the cylinder wall.
Clearance allows a lubricating film of oil to form between the piston and the cylinder. It also
allows for expansion when the piston heats up. The piston must always be free to slide up and
down in the cylinder block.

Piston Rings

The piston rings seal the clearance between the outside of the piston and the cylinder wall. They
must keep combustion pressure from entering the crankcase. They must also keep oil from
entering the combustion chambers. Most pistons use three rings: two upper compression rings
and one lower oil ring. See Figure 1.10. Note ring locations. The compression rings prevent
blowby (combustion pressure leaking into engine crankcase). See Figure 1.11 shows how
compression rings function in an engine.

Figure 1.10 The two top piston rings are compression rings. The bottom ring is an oil ring. They fit into
 grooves cut in the piston.

Figure 1.11 The compression ring must prevent combustion pressure from leaking between the piston and
cylinder wall. Pressure actually helps push the ring against the cylinder to aid sealing.

On the compression stroke, pressure is trapped between the cylinder and piston grooves by the
compression rings. Combustion pressure pushes the compression rings down the cylinder wall.
This produces an almost leak proof seal.

The main job of oil rings is to prevent engine oil from entering the combustion chamber. They
scrape excess oil off the cylinder wall, See Figure 11-12. If too much oil got into the combustion
chamber and was burned, blue smoke would come out of the vehicle's exhaust pipe.

Figure 1.12 The oil control ring scrapes excess oil off the cylinder wall. If this oil entered the combustion
chamber, the engine would emit blue smoke.
Ring gap is the split, or space, between the ends of a piston ring. The ring gap allows the ring to
be spread open and installed on the piston. It also allows the ring to be made the cylinder. When
squeezed together and installed in the cylinder, the ring spreads outward and presses on the
cylinder wall. This aids ring sealing.

ENGINE BOTTOM END CONSTRUCTION

The basic parts of an engine bottom end are the block, crankshaft, connecting rods, bearings, and
piston assemblies. See Figure 2.1. This chapter details construction techniques commonly used in
an engine bottom end assembly. This information will help you understand how to repair engine
bottom end components

Figure 2.1 The engine bottom end assembly consist of the block, crankshaft, rods, pistons, and rings.
Understanding the construction of these components is very important to service and repair
operations.

CYLINDER BLOCK CONSTRUCTION

Engine cylinder blocks are normally made of cast iron or aluminum, See Figure 2.2. A cast iron
cylinder block is very heavy and strong. Nickel is sometimes added to the iron to improve
strength and wear resistance. An aluminum cylinder block is relatively light. An aluminum
block also dissipates heat better than a cast iron block. Many late-model vehicles use aluminum
blocks to reduce weight and increase fuel economy.
 Figure 2.2 A cylinder block may be cast from iron or aluminum. The cylinder may be an integral part of the
block or formed by a pressed-in liner.

Cylinder Sleeves

Cylinder sleeves, or liners, are metal, pipe-shaped inserts that fit into the cylinder block. They
act as cylinder walls for the piston to slide up-and-down on, See Figure 2.2.

Cast iron sleeves are commonly used in aluminum cylinder blocks. Sleeves can also be installed
to repair badly damaged cylinder walls in cast iron blocks. There are two basic types of cylinder
sleeves-dry sleeves and wet sleeves. See Figure 2.3.

Figure 2.3 Notice the difference between the two wet sleeves and the one dry sleeve.
A dry sleeve presses into a cylinder that has been bored, or machined, oversize. See Figure 2.4A.
A dry sleeve is relatively thin and is not exposed to engine coolant. The outside of a dry sleeve
touches the walls of the cylinder block. This provides support for the sleeve.

When a cylinder becomes badly worn or is damaged, a dry sleeve can be installed. The original
cylinder must be bored almost as large as the outside diameter of the sleeve. Then, the sleeve is
pressed into the oversized hole. Next, the inside of the sleeve is machined to the original bore
diameter. This allows the use of the original piston size.

A wet sleeve is exposed to the engine coolant. It must withstand combustion pressure and heat
without the added support of the cylinder block. Therefore, it must be thicker than a dry sleeve.
See Figure 2.4B.

A wet sleeve will generally have a flange at the top.When the head is installed, the clamping
action pushesdown on the sleeve and holds it in position. The cylinderhead gasket keeps the top
of the sleeve from leaking. A rubber or copper O-ring is used at the bottom of a wet sleeve to
prevent coolant leakage into the crankcase. The O-ring seal is pinched between the block and the
sleeve to form a leakproof joint.

Figure 2.4 A-A dry sleeve presses into existing cylinderbore. It is not exposed to engine coolant. B-A wet
sleeve is thicker to withstand combustion pressure and heat. It is also exposed to coolant.

Many vehicles use aluminum cylinder blocks with cast iron, wet sleeves. The light aluminum
block reduces weight for increased fuel economy. The cast iron sleeves wear very well,
increasing engine service life. See Figure 2.5.
 Figure 2.5 Modern cylinder blocks are frequently made of aluminum with pressed-in, cast iron wet sleeves.

Line Boring

The term line boring refers to a machining operation that cuts a series of holes through the block
for the crankshaft bearings. A block may also be line bored for the camshaft bearings. The holes
must be in perfect alignment for the crankshaft or camshaft to turn freely. Line boring can also be
done to an OHC cylinder head.

Two- and Four-Bolt Mains

A two-bolt main block only uses two cap screws to secure each main bearing cap to the cylinder
block. A four-bolt main block has four cap screws holding each main cap. Four-bolt mains are
used on high-performance engines. A few engines use six-bolt main caps. With extra bolts, the
block can withstand more crankshaft downward pressure without part failure.

Crossbolted Block

A crossbolted block has extra cap screws going in through the sides of the block and main caps
for added strength. This design is often used on high-performance engines.

Block Girdle
A block girdle, or main bearing bedplate, is a large one-piece cap that fits over the entire
bottom of the block. Also called a unit main cap, it secures the main bearings. All the main caps
are formed as one piece to increase strength and block stiffness. The bedplate can also hold any
balancer shafts. Gears on the crankshaft are used to drive the balancer shafts.

PISTON CONSTRUCTION

Engine pistons are normally cast or forged from an aluminium alloy. Cast pistons are relatively
soft and are used in slow speed, low performance engines. Forged pistons are commonly used in
today's fuel-injected, turbocharged, and diesel engines. These engines expose the pistons to much
higher stress loads, which could break cast aluminum pistons.

Since aluminium is very light and relatively strong, it is an excellent material for engine pistons.
When an engine is running at highway speeds, the piston must withstand tremendous loads. A
piston may accelerate from zero to 60 mph and then back to zero, all in about four inches of
piston travel. A heavy piston could break the connecting rod. A weak piston could fall apart
under these loads.

The design of a piston must provide maximum strength and minimum weight. The piston is
thicker at stress points. The top of the piston is exposed to combustion and tremendous heat. It
can reach operating temperatures as high as 650F (345°C). Several design methods are used to
provide dependable, quiet piston operation.

Piston Parts

The piston head, or crown, is the top of the piston. It is exposed to the heat and pressure of
combustion and must be thick enough to withstand these forces. The head must also be shaped to
match and work with the shape of the combustion chamber for complete combustion. Piston ring
grooves are slots machined in the piston for the piston rings, See Figure 2.6. The upper two
grooves hold the compression rings. The lower piston groove holds the oil ring. Oil holes in the
bottom groove allow the oil to pass through the piston. The oil then drains back into the
crankcase.

The ring lands are the areas between and above the ring grooves. They separate and support the
piston rings as they slide on the cylinder.

A piston skirt is the side of the piston below the last ring. It keeps the piston from tipping in its
cylinder. Without a skirt, the piston could cock and jam in the cylinder. A slipper skirt is
produced when portions of the piston skirt below the piston pin ends are removed. The slipper
skirt provides clearance between the piston and the crankshaft counterweights. This allows the
piston to slide farther down in the cylinder without hitting the crankshaft. A straight skirt is fiat
across the bottom. This style is no longer common in automotive engines.
The piston boss is a reinforced area around the piston pin hole. It must be strong enough to
support the piston pin under severe loads.

A piston pin hole is machined through the pin boss for the piston pin. It is slightly larger than
the pin.

Figure 2.6 Study the major parts of a piston.

Piston Dimensions

See Figure 2.7 several piston dimensions. These dimensions affect how the piston functions in
the cylinder. These dimensions are explained as follows:

 Piston diameter-the distance measured across the sides of the piston.

 Ring groove width-the distance measured from the top to the bottom of the ring groove.

 Ring groove depth-the distance measured from the ring land to the back of the ring
groove.

 Skirt length-the distance from the bottom of the skirt to the centerline of the pin hole.

 Compression distance-the distance from the centerline of the pin hole to the top of the
piston.
 Figure 2.7 The basic dimension of a piston.

Cam-Ground Piston

A cam-ground piston is slightly out of round when viewed from the top. The piston is machined
a few thousandths of an inch larger in diameter perpendicular to the piston pin centerline. See
Figure 2.8.

Cam grinding is done to compensate for different rates of piston expansion due to differences in
metal wall thickness. As the piston is heated by combustion, the thicker area around the pin boss
causes the piston to expand more parallel to the piston pin. The oval-shaped piston becomes
round when hot, and there is still enough clearance parallel to the piston pin.

A cold cam-ground piston has the correct piston-tocylinder clearance. The unexpanded piston
will not slap, flop sideways, and knock in the cylinder because of too much clearance. However,
the cam-ground piston will not become too tight in the cylinder when heated to full operating
temperature.
 Figure 2.8 A cam-gorund piston compensates for different rates of expansions. The piston is larger across
the major diameter.The piston expands more across the minor diameter when heated. This
causes the piston to become round when at full operating temperature.

Piston Taper

Piston taper is also used to maintain the correct piston-to-cylinder clearance. The top of the
piston is machined slightly smaller than the bottom, Figure 2.9. Since the piston head gets hotter
than the skirt, it expands more. The piston taper makes the piston almost equal in size at the top
and bottom at operating temperature.
 Figure 2.9 Piston taper compensates for more expansion around the piston head. The head becomes hotter
than the skirt and expands more. By machining the head smaller, the piston diameter becomes
almost equal at the top and bottom when hot.

Piston Shape

Piston shape generally refers to the contour of the piston head. Usually, a piston head is shaped
to match and work with the shape of the cylinder head combustion chamber. See Figure 2.10.
As its name implies, a flat top piston, See Figure 2.10A, has a flat head that is parallel to the
block's deck surface. This type of piston is often used in engines with wedge- or pancake-type
cylinder heads. Valve reliefs are cut into the head of this type of piston. Valve reliefs are small
indentations either cast or machined into the piston crown to provide ample piston-to-valve
clearance. Without valve reliefs, the valve heads could strike the pistons.

A dished piston, See Figure 2.10B, has a head that is sunken, or recessed. This type of piston
can be used to lower compression pressure in a turbocharged or supercharged engine.

A domed piston, or pop-up piston, has a head that is convex, or curved upward. See Figure 2.
lOC. This type is normally used with a hemi-type cylinder head and some fourvalve heads. The
piston crown must be enlarged to fill the domed combustion chamber and produce enough
compression pressure.

Figure 2.10 Common piston shapes. A-Flat-top pistons are used with wedge-type heads. Note the valve
reliefs cut into the piston head. B-A dished piston lowers the compression ratio. C-A domed
piston raises the compression ratio.
Note: Some diesel engines have domed and dished pistons designed to work with direct fuel
injection.

Variable Compression Piston

A variable compression piston is a two-piece design controlled by engine oil pressure. The head
of the piston fits over and slides on the main body of the piston.

Engine oil pressure is fed between the two halves to form a hydraulic cushion. With normal
driving, the oil pressure extends the top of the piston out for maximum compression ratio and
power. When engine speed increases, the added combustion pressure pushes the head of the
piston down to lower the compression ratio. This prevents engine knocking or pinging.

PISTON RING CONSTRUCTION

Automotive pistons normally use three rings - two compression rings and one oil ring. See
Figure 2.11. It is important for you to understand how variations in ring construction provide
different operating characteristics.

Figure 2.11 The basic parts of a typical piston and rod assembly. This piston pin is press fit in the rod.
The compression rings prevent pressure leakage into the crankcase. They also wipe some of the
oil from the cylinder walls. To accomplish these functions, ring shapes vary, as shown in Figure
2.12. These shapes help the ring seal and remove oil from the cylinder.

Compression rings are usually made of cast iron. An outer layer of chrome or other metal may be
used to increase wear resistance. The face of compression rings may also be grooved to speed
ring seating. Ring seating is the initial ring wear that makes the ring perfectly match the surface
of the cylinder.

Figure 2.12 Various compression ring shapes are available. Each type is designed to help the ring prevent
combustion pressure from leaking into the crankcase.

Oil rings are available in two basic designs: railspacer type and one-piece type, Figure 2.13. The
primary function of oil rings is to keep crankcase oil out of the combustion chambers. A three-
piece oil ring consisting of two rails, or scrapers, and an expander-spacer is the most common.
The ring expander-spacer holds the two steel oil ring rails apart and helps push them outward,
Figure 2.13A. A ring expander can be placed behind a one-piece oil ring to increase ring
tension, Figure 2.13B. It can also be used behind the second compression ring. The expander
helps push the ring out against the cylinder wall, increasing the ring's sealing action.
 Figure 2.13 An oil ring must wipe excess oil off the cylinder wall. A-A three-piece oil ring is the most
common type. B-A one-piece oil ring is made from cast iron. Slots in the ring allow oil to flow
through holes in the piston groove and back into the oil pan.

Piston Ring Dimensions

Basic piston ring dimensions include the width, radial wall thickness, and gap. Refer to Figure
2.14. These dimensions affect the operation of the engine. Ring side and back clearances are also
very important. They must be within factory specifications or poor engine performance could
result.

The piston ring width is the distance from the top of the ring to the bottom of the ring. The
difference between the ring width and the width of the piston ring groove
determines the ring side clearance.

The piston ring radial wall thickness is the distance from the face of the ring to its inner wall.
The difference between the ring wall thickness and ring groove depth determines the rings back
clearance.
 Figure 2.14 Ring width, ring groove depth, ring radial wall thickness, and ring groove height determine the
ring back and side clearances.

The piston ring gap is the distance between the ends of the ring when installed in the cylinder.
This is pictured in Figure 14-15. The ring gap allows the ring to be installed on the piston and to
"spring outward" in its cylinder. The gap also allows the ring to conform to any variation in the
cylinder diameter due to wear.
 Figure 2.15 The ring gap is the small space between the ends of the ring when it is installed on the piston
and the piston is in the cylinder. Most modern piston rings use a butt joint.

Piston Pin Construction

Piston pins are normally made of case-hardened steel. Case-hardening is a heating and cooling
process that increases the wear resistance of the piston pin. It hardens the outer layer of metal on
the pin. The inner metal remains unhardened so the pin is not too brittle. The hollow piston pin is
also machined and polished to a very precise finish. Piston pins are held in the piston by one of
two means- a press-fit or snap rings.

A press-fit piston pin is forced tightly into the connecting rod's small end. It can rotate freely in
the piston pin hole. However, the pin is not free to move in the connecting rod, See Figure 216A.
This holds the pin inside the piston and prevents it from sliding out and rubbing on the cylinder
wall. The press-fit is a very dependable piston pin design. It is also inexpensive to manufacture.

A full-floating piston pin is secured by snap rings and is free to rotate in both the rod and piston.
See Figure 2.16B. The pin is free to “float” in both the piston pin bore and the connecting rod
small end. Full-floating piston pins are better than press-fit pins because they reduce friction and
wear. A bronze bushing is usually used in the connecting rod. The piston pin hole serves as the
other bearing surface for the pin. The snap rings fit into grooves machined inside the piston pin
hole. See Figure 2.17.
 Figure 2.16 A-A press-fit piston pin is forced into the connecting rod. The side of the rod hits the piston
boss before the pin can protrude out of the piston to strike the cylinder wall. B-A full-floating
piston pin has snap rings in grooves on the piston. This holds the pin in place.

Figure 2.17 A full-floating piston pin is held in place by snap rings that fit into grooves in the piston.

Piston Pin Offset

A piston pin offset locates the piston pin hole slightly to one side of the piston centerline. This
helps quiet the piston during use. The pin hole is moved toward the piston's major thrust surface.
This is the surface of the piston that is pushed tightly against the cylinder wall during the power
stroke.
If the pin hole were centered in the piston, the piston could slap or knock in the cylinder. As the
piston moves up in the cylinder, it could be positioned opposite the major thrust surface. Then,
during combustion, the piston could be rapidly pushed to the opposite side of the cylinder,
producing a knocking sound. With the pin offset, the piston tends to be pushed against its major
thrust surface. This reduces its tendency to slap sideways in the cylinder.

A piston notch or other marking on the head of the piston is frequently used to indicate piston
pin offset and the front of the piston. The piston may also have the word "front" or an arrow
stamped on it. This information lets you know how to position the piston in the block for correct
location of the piston pin offset. See Figure 2.18 shows an exploded view of a piston and
connecting rod assembly.

Figure 2.18 An exploded view of piston and rod assembly. The piston has a full-floating piston pin.
CONNECTING ROD CONSTRUCTION

Most connecting rods are made of steel. The rod must withstand tons of force as the piston
moves up and down in the cylinder. Connecting rods normally have an I-beam shape. This shape
has a high strength-to-weight ratio. Connecting rods must be very strong, but as light as possible
for low inertia forces from their changes in direction at top dead center (TDC) and bottom dead
center (BDC). Low-inertia parts are light parts that will accelerate quickly.

Some connecting rods have an oil spurt hole that provides added lubrication for the cylinder
walls, piston pin, and other surrounding parts. See Figure 14-19. Oil pressure forces oil out when
the holes in the crankshaft journal and bearing align with the spurt hole. A drilled connecting
rod has a machined hole through its entire length. The purpose of this hole is to supply oil to the
piston pin.

Figure 1.19 A-Oil spurt holes provide added lubrication for the piston pin, cam lobes, cylinder walls, and
other surrounding parts. B-A drilled rods allows oil to enter the clearance between the pin and
the bushing.

Connecting rod numbers are used to ensure proper location of each connecting rod in the
engine. They also ensure that the rod cap is installed on the rod body correctly. See Figure 2.20.
 Figure 2.20 A rod cap must be installed on the rod correctly. If rod caps are mixed up or turned, the bore for
the bearing may not be round. The bearing could be crushed into the crankshaft journal,
damaging both.

During manufacture, connecting rod caps are bolted to the connecting rods. Then, the crank holes
are machined in the rods. Since these holes may not be perfectly centered, rod caps must not be
mixed up or turned around. If the cap is installed without the rod numbers in alignment, the bore
will not be perfectly round. Severe rod, crankshaft, and bearing damage will result.
A broken-surface rod is scribed and broken off when manufactured to produce a rough,
irregular mating surface between the rod body and cap. This is done to help lock the rod and cap
into alignment. The broken, irregular surfaces match perfectly to prevent the rod and cap from
shifting during engine operation. This type of rod cannot be rebuilt. However, oversize rod
bearings can still be installed during an engine rebuild.

Powdered metal forging refers to a process that forms the rough shape of the part out of metal
powder before final shaping in a powerful forge. Some connecting rods are powdered metal
forged to help control the shape and weight while reducing machining.

Machined block forging involves initial turning in a lathe to bring the blank of metal to size
before forming it in a drop or press forge. This process helps eliminate flashing. Flashing is the
small lip of rough metal produced when the two halves of the forge come together to "smash"
the metal into shape. By reducing flashing, a step is removed from the manufacturing process.

CRANKSHAFT CONSTRUCTION