Data communications involve sharing information between devices.
This can happen nearby or far
away. Local communication is face-to-face, while remote communication spans distances.
Telecommunication, like phones and TV, means far-off communication (tele is Greek for "far"). Data
means info in an agreed form.
Communication needs devices and a medium (like wires). Both hardware (devices) and software
(programs) are essential. A good system has four key traits:
4 Fundamentals Characteristics:
1. Delivery: Data must reach the right place. Only the intended device or user should get it.
2. Accuracy: Data must be right. Incorrect data from transmission are useless.
3. Timeliness: Data should arrive on time. Late data are no good. For videos and audio, real-
time means sending data as they're made, in order, without big delays.
4. Jitter: Jitter is uneven packet timing. It's uneven delays for audio or video. If video packets
come every 30 ms but some take 30 ms and others 40 ms, the video quality is uneven.
5 Components of Data Communications
1. Message: The message is the information (data) to be communicated. Popular forms of
information include text, numbers, pictures, audio, and video.
2. Sender: Is the device that sends the data message. It can be a computer, workstation,
telephone handset, video camera, and so on.
3. Receiver: The receiver is the device that receives the message. It can be a computer,
workstation, telephone handset, television, and so on.
4. Transmission medium: The transmission medium is the physical path by which a message
travels from sender to receiver. Some examples of transmission media include twisted-pair
wire, coaxial cable, fiber-optic cable, and radio waves.
5. Protocol: A protocol is a set of rules that govern data communications. It represents an
agreement between the communicating devices. Without a protocol, two devices may be
connected but not communicating, just as a person speaking French cannot be understood by a
person who speaks only Japanese.
Data Representation
1. Text: In data communications, text is represented as a bit pattern, a sequence of 0s or 1s.
These patterns, known as codes, are designed to represent text symbols. The prevalent system
today is Unicode, using 32 bits to represent symbols from any language worldwide. ASCII, an
older U.S. standard, constitutes the initial 127 characters in Unicode, also known as Basic Latin.
2. Numbers: In data communications are represented as bit patterns just like text. However,
unlike text, a code like ASCII isn't employed for numbers. Instead, the number is directly
converted into a binary number. This simplifies mathematical operations.
3. Images: In data communications are also represented as bit patterns. An image is essentially a
matrix of pixels (tiny dots). The pixel size varies based on resolution. For instance, an image
might have either 1000 pixels or 10,000 pixels. While more pixels provide a higher-quality
image (better resolution), it also necessitates more memory for storage.
4. Audio: In data communications pertains to the recording or broadcasting of sound or music. It
differs fundamentally from text, numbers, or images because it's continuous, not discrete.
Even when we convert sound or music to an electric signal using a microphone, it remains a
continuous signal.
5. Video: In data communications encompasses the recording or broadcasting of pictures or
movies. Videos can take two forms:
Continuous entity, such as those created by a TV camera.
Combination of discrete images, arranged to give the impression of motion.
Simplex mode is unidirectional, like a one-way street. In this mode, one of the two connected
devices can transmit while the other can only receive. Examples include keyboards and
traditional monitors. Keyboards provide input, and monitors accept output. In simplex mode,
the entire channel capacity is used to send data in one direction.
Half-Duplex mode allows each station to both transmit and receive, but not simultaneously.
When one device sends, the other can only receive, and vice versa. It's analogous to a one-lane
road where traffic moves in both directions but alternates. In half-duplex, the entire channel
capacity is occupied by whichever device is transmitting at the moment. Walkie-talkies and CB
radios are examples of half-duplex systems. It's used when there's no need for simultaneous
two-way communication, so the entire channel capacity is available for each direction as
needed.
Full-Duplex mode, also known as duplex, enables both stations to simultaneously transmit and
receive. It's similar to a two-way street with traffic flowing in both directions concurrently. In
full-duplex, the link's capacity is shared by signals traveling in both directions. This sharing can
happen through either physically separate transmission paths for sending and receiving or by
dividing the channel's capacity between signals in both directions. A common example is the
telephone network, where two people can talk and listen simultaneously. Full-duplex is used
when continuous communication in both directions is needed, but the channel's capacity must
be split between the two directions.
Network:
A network is a set of devices (often referred to as nodes) connected by communication links. A
node can be a computer, printer, or any other device capable of sending and/or receiving data
generated by other nodes on the network. A link can be a cable, air, optical fiber, or any
medium which can transport a signal carrying information.
Network Criteria:
Performance
Depends on Network Elements
Measured in terms of Delay and Throughput
Reliability
Failure rate of network components
Measured in terms of availability/robustness
Security
Data protection against corruption/loss of data due to:
Errors
Malicious users
Physical Structures
Type of Connection
Point to Point - single transmitter and receiver
Multipoint - multiple recipients of single transmission
Physical Topology
Connection of devices
Type of transmission - unicast, mulitcast, broadcast
Physical Topology concerns the physical layout of a network. It involves how devices connect to links,
and how multiple links come together to form the network structure. The topology is the geometric
representation of how all the links and devices (nodes) relate to each other. There are four
fundamental topologies: mesh, star, bus, and ring.
1. Mesh Topology: In Mesh Topology, every device is directly connected to every other device via
a dedicated point-to-point link. This dedication ensures that each connection can handle its
own data load, eliminating shared link traffic issues. Mesh offers robustness, as the failure of
one link doesn't disable the whole system. It provides privacy/security, as only the intended
recipient can see the message due to dedicated lines. Fault identification and isolation are
easier with point-to-point links, as traffic can be rerouted around problematic links, helping
pinpoint faults. However, disadvantages include the amount of cabling and the number of I/O
ports needed.
2. Star Topology involves each device having a dedicated link to a central controller or hub.
Devices aren't directly connected to each other; they communicate through the hub. This
topology is more cost-effective than a mesh because each device needs just one link and one
I/O port. Installation and reconfiguration are easy, requiring less cabling. Star topology offers
robustness, as a failure in one link doesn't affect others, making fault identification and isolation
simple.
However, a significant drawback is the dependency on the hub; if it fails, the entire system goes
down. Despite requiring less cabling than a mesh, the star may need more than some other
topologies due to each node connecting to the central hub.
3. Bus Topology is a multipoint network where a single long cable acts as a backbone, connecting
all devices.
Advantages include easy installation; the backbone cable is efficiently laid, connected to
devices through shorter drop lines, reducing cabling compared to star topologies. In contrast,
star topology requires separate cables for each network device.
Disadvantages involve difficulty in adding new devices, as a bus is optimized during installation.
Signal reflection at taps can degrade quality, which is controlled by limiting connected devices'
number and spacing along a cable length. Adding devices may require backbone modification. A
fault or cable break stops all transmission, even between devices on the same side, as damaged
areas reflect signals back, creating noise. Despite these drawbacks, bus topology was one of the
first designs for early local area networks.
4. Ring Topology involves each device having a dedicated connection to its two neighbors. A signal
circulates around the ring in one direction, passing through each device. Each device has a
repeater to regenerate the signal bits.
Advantages include ease of installation and reconfiguration; adding or removing a device only
requires changing two connections. Fault isolation is simplified, as a signal circulates
continuously, and if a device doesn't receive it within a set time, it triggers an alarm for the
network operator.
Disadvantages include unidirectional traffic, where a break in the ring can disable the whole
network. This can be mitigated with a dual ring or a switch that can isolate the break. Ring
topology was popularized by IBM's Token Ring LAN but has become less popular due to the
need for higher-speed LANs today.
Network Types
Encompass various network categories based on criteria like size, geographical coverage, and
ownership. Understanding these distinctions is essential in the world of networking. Two fundamental
network types are LANs (Local Area Networks) and WANs (Wide Area Networks). Additionally, we
delve into the concept of switching, which connects networks to create an internetwork (a network of
networks).
Local Area Networks (LANs)
Short distances
Designed to provide local interconnectivity
Wide Area Networks (WANs)
Long distances
Provide connectivity over large areas
Metropolitan Area Networks (MANs)
Provide connectivity over areas such as a city, a campus
THE INTERNET
The Internet has revolutionized many aspects of our daily lives. It has affected the way we do
business as well as the way we spend our leisure time. The Internet is a communication system
that has brought a wealth of information to our fingertips and organized it for our use.
point-to-point link A dedicated transmission link between two devices.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) A protocol for data transfer across a serial line
privacy A security aspect in which the message makes sense only to the intended receiver.
data-link layer The second layer in the Internet model. It is responsible for node-to-node
TCP/IP protocol suite A group of hierarchical protocols used in an internet.
telecommunications Exchange of information over distance using electronic equipment.
Topology The structure of a network including physical arrangement of devices.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) A transport-layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) A five-layer protocol suite that
defines the exchange of transmissions across the Internet.
transmission medium The physical path linking two communication devices.
transport layer The fourth layer in the Internet and OSI model; responsible for reliable end-to-
end delivery and error recovery.
Unicode The international character set used to define valid characters in computer science.
uniform resource locator (URL) A string of characters (address) that identifies a page on the
World Wide Web.
wide area network (WAN) A network that uses a technology that can span a large geographical
distance.
session layer The fifth layer of the OSI model, responsible for the establishment, management,
and termination of logical connections between two end users.
reliability A QoS flow characteristic; dependability of the transmission. A network is reliable
when it does not corrupt, lose, or duplicate a packet.
protocol Rules for communication.
metropolitan area network (MAN) A network that can span a geographical area the size of
a city
mesh topology A network configuration in which each device has a dedicated point-to-point
link to every other device.
local area network (LAN) A network connecting devices inside a single building or inside
buildings close to each other
jitter A phenomenon in real-time traffic caused by gaps between consecutive packets at the
receiver caused by uneven delays.
Internet service provider (ISP) A company that provides Internet services.
Internet Society (ISOC) The nonprofit organization established to publicize the Internet.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) An application service for retrieving a web document.
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) The computer language for specifying the contents
and format of a Web document. It allows additional text to include codes that define fonts,
layouts, embedded graphics, and hypertext links
LAYERED TASKS
We use the concept of layers in our daily life. As an example, let us consider two friends who
communicate through postal mail. The process of sending a letter to a friend would be complex
if there were no services available from the post office.
point-to-point link A dedicated transmission link between two devices.
Point-to-Point Protocol (PPP) A protocol for data transfer across a serial line
privacy A security aspect in which the message makes sense only to the intended receiver.
data-link layer The second layer in the Internet model. It is responsible for node-to-node
TCP/IP protocol suite A group of hierarchical protocols used in an internet.
telecommunications Exchange of information over distance using electronic equipment.
Topology The structure of a network including physical arrangement of devices.
Transmission Control Protocol (TCP) A transport-layer protocol in the TCP/IP protocol suite.
Transmission Control Protocol/Internet Protocol (TCP/IP) A five-layer protocol suite that
defines the exchange of transmissions across the Internet.
transmission medium The physical path linking two communication devices.
transport layer The fourth layer in the Internet and OSI model; responsible for reliable end-to-
end delivery and error recovery.
Unicode The international character set used to define valid characters in computer science.
uniform resource locator (URL) A string of characters (address) that identifies a page on the
World Wide Web.
wide area network (WAN) A network that uses a technology that can span a large geographical
distance.
session layer The fifth layer of the OSI model, responsible for the establishment, management,
and termination of logical connections between two end users.
reliability A QoS flow characteristic; dependability of the transmission. A network is reliable
when it does not corrupt, lose, or duplicate a packet.
protocol Rules for communication.
metropolitan area network (MAN) A network that can span a geographical area the size of
a city
link to every other device.
local area network (LAN) A network connecting devices inside a single building or inside
buildings close to each other
jitter A phenomenon in real-time traffic caused by gaps between consecutive packets at the
receiver caused by uneven delays.
Internet service provider (ISP) A company that provides Internet services.
Internet Society (ISOC) The nonprofit organization established to publicize the Internet.
HyperText Transfer Protocol (HTTP) An application service for retrieving a web document.
HyperText Markup Language (HTML) The computer language for specifying the contents
and format of a Web document. It allows additional text to include codes that define fonts, lay outs,
embedded graphics, and hypertext links
hub A central device in a star topology that provides a common connection among the nodes
star topology A topology in which all stations are attached to a central device (hub).
ring topology A topology in which the devices are connected in a ring. Each device on the ring
receives the data unit from the previous device, regenerates it, and forwards it to the next device.
mesh topology A network configuration in which each device has a dedicated point-to-point
