Forensic 1

Forensic Photography

Lesson 1
FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY- is defined as the study of the fundamentals of photography, its application to
police work and the preparation of photographic evidence. It consists of the legal aspects of photography that
covers the following phases:
a) Fundamental concepts of photography
b) Application to police work
c) Preparation of photographic evidence

According to (Redsicker 2001), Forensic Photography is the art or science of documenting photographically a
crime scene and evidence for laboratory examination and analysis for purposes of court trial.

Photography- is from Greek words “Phos” or Photo which means light and “grapho” which means to “Draw”
or graphia meaning “write”. Therefore photography best translates to “write with light”. (Herschel 1839).
This word is defined as an art or science that deals with the reproduction of images through the action of light
upon sensitized material (film and photographic paper) with the aid of the camera and its accessories and the
chemical process involved therein. (Modern definition)
Modern photography may be defined as any means for the chemical, thermal, electrical or electronic
recording of the images of scenes, or objects formed by some type of radiant energy, including gamma rays, X-
rays, ultra-violet rays, visible light and infrared rays.(Technical/Legal definition) This definition is broad enough
to include not only the conventional methods of photography but almost any new process that may be
developed. (Scott 1975)

Police Photography- is an art or science that deals with the study of the principles of photography, the
preparation of photographic evidence and its application to police work. (Aquino 1972).

PHOTOGRAPHY IN CRIMINAL INVESTIGATION:

Photography is an essential tool for the law-enforcement investigator. As a tool, it enables him to record
the visible and in any cases, the invisible evidence of crime. Special techniques employing infra-red, ultra-violet,
and x-ray radiation enable him to record evidence which is not visible. The photographic evidence can then
restored indefinitely and retrieve when needed. There is not other process which can be ferret, record,
remember, and recall criminal evidence as well as photography.

Photographs are also means of communication. It is a language sometimes defined as the “the most
universal of all. Photography has an advantage as languages because it does not rely upon abstract symbols-
words. Photography, thus, is more direct and less subject to misunderstanding. As a communication medium-
has few, if any, equal.

FUNCTIONS OF PHOTOGRAPHY IN INVESTIGATIVE WORK

1. Identification
A. Criminal
B. Missing person
C. Lost and stolen properties
D. Civilian

2. Communication and microfilm files

A. Transmission of photos (wire or photos)
B. Investigative report file

3. Evidence
A.) Recording and preserving
1. Crime scene
2. Vehicular accidence
3. Homicide or Murder
4. Robbery cases
5. Fires or Arson
6. Object of evidence
7. Evidential traces
B.) Discovering and proving
1. By contrast control (lightning, film and paper, filter)
2. By magnification (photo micrography, photo macrography)
3. By invisible radiation(infra-red, ultra-violet, X-ray)
4. Action of offenders (recording)

4. Action of offenders (recording)

a) Surveillance
b) Burglary
c) Confessions
d) Reenactment of crime
 5. Court Exhibits
a) Demonstration enlargements
b) Individual photos
c) Projection slides
d) Motion pictures

6. Crime prevention
a) Security clearance

7. Public relations

8. Police training
a) Prepared training films (police tactics, investigation techniques)
b) Traffic studies
c) Documentaries (Riots and mob control, disasters, prison disorders)

9. Reproduction and copying

a) Photographs
b) Official records

PRINCIPLES OF PHOTOGRAPHY

A photograph is both the mechanical and chemical result of photography. To produce a photograph, light
is needed aside from sensitized materials (film or papers). Light radiated or reflected by the subject must reach
the film while all other lights are excluded. The exclusion of all other lights is achieved by placing the film inside a
light tight box (camera).
The effect of light on the film is not visible in the formation of images of objects. To make it visible, we
need or require a chemical processing of the expose film called development.
The visual effect of light on the film after development varies when the quantity quality of light the
reached the emulsion of the film. To grant in greater amount of light will produce an opaque or very black shade
after development. Too little produces a transparent or white shade after a development.
The amount of light reaching the film is dependent upon several factors like lighting condition, lens
opening, shutter speed, & filter used.

Lesson 2

HISTORY OF PHOTOGRAPHY

Equipment -1700 – Camera Obscura (dark chamber) was designed by Leonardo da Vinci for accurate
perspective and scale.

Chemicals-1725 – 1777 – Light sensitivity of silver nitrate and silver chloride solution had been discovered and
investigated.
1800 – Thomas Wedgewood and Humphery Davy – produced photograms.

True Photography accomplished by:

1. Joseph Nicephore Niepce-1816 – was able to obtain camera images on papers sensitized with silver
chloride solution.
2. Louis Jacques Daguerre-1839 – “Daguerreotype”- The first practical photography process. Image
was made permanent by the use of hypo.
3. William Henry Fox Talbot-1841 – he patented “Calotype” process negatives on paper sensitized with
silver-iodide and silver nitrate. These were contact on sensitized paper. As you tone and revolving
power, Daguerreo-type was better.

Sir John F.W. Herchel-1839 – he coined the word “photography”

James Clark Maxwell-1861 – he researched on colors.

a) 1907 – Lumiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue,
green, and red filter.
b) 1914 – US Eastman Kodak introduced two (2) color subtractive processes called Kodachrome.
Twenty one (21) years later, a three (3) color process came out.
c) 1935 – Electronic flash unit came out.
d) 1947 – Edwin H. Land introduced “POLAROID,” a one step photography.
e) 1960. Laser was invented making possible holography.

1482- The earliest known form of camera, Camera OBSCURA, was described by Leonardo da Vinci of Italy.

An Italian, Geronimo Cardano- fitted a biconvex lens to the Camera Obscura in 1550 and in 1568, Daniel
Barbaro suggested the use of a diaphragm to sharpen the image. By the end of the 17 th century, small portable
Camera Obscura that were equipped with reflex viewing system had been developed. The camera Obscura was
first used successfully for photography in 1820’s by the French Scientist Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French
Chemist.

1727- Johann Heinrich Schulze- a German physician was credited with the discovery of the light sensitivity of
silver salt.

1777- Karl Wilhelm Scheele, a Swedish chemist investigated the darkening of silver chloride by light and found
out that the salt was reduced to metallic silver.

1816- Joseph Nicephore Niepce, a French chemist, experimented with silver nitrate. On the same year he
suppossedly produced image on paper from a negative, but he too was unable to remove the unexposed silver
salts and secure a permanent image. He discovered that bitumen of Judea an asphaltic material became
insoluble when exposed to light. Between 1824 to 1826, Niepce produce prints by coating the bitumen on metal
plates, exposing it to light under a drawing or transparency and dissolving the unexposed bitumen. The plates
was then etched with acid, which did not react with the remaining bitumen.1829- Niepce formed a partnership
with Louis Jacquis Mande Dagurre, a French painter, to proceed on bitumen process but later Niepce died in
1833 and the work was continued with the partnership of Niepce’s son, Isidore.
Daguerre discarded the bitumen process and worked on his own procedure with the exposure of a
polished silver plate to the vapor of iodine forming a sensitive layer of silver iodide After the plate had been
exposed in the camera, the image was developed with mercury vapor. The process is then called Dagurreotypy.

1835- French Dagurre discovered that mercury fume will develop an invisible (latent) image on a silver plate that
is sensitized with iodine fumes before exposure.

1835- William Henry Fox Talbot, an English archeologist and philologist, experimented with various salts of
silver and found that silver chloride was more sensitive to light than was silver nitrate.

Talbot process or Talbotype process, is a process wherein the paper was sensitized with silver iodide and
after exposure was developed in Gallic acid.

The modern photography is based on Talbot’s Negative – to - Positive principle.

1839- is generally known as the birth of photography. William Henry Fox Talbot explained a process he had
invented (Calotype) at the Royal Society of London.

The “Calotype” used paper with its surface fibers impregnated with light sensitive compounds.

Sir John F.W. Herschel coins the word “photography”; (suggest “negative” and “positive” in the following year)
and point out that image can be made permanent by dissolving away unexposed silver compounds with a
solution of hyposulfite of soda (hypo or sodium thiosulfate), which he had discovered in 1819.

1839- Daguerreotype consisted of two wooden boxes perfected his photographic process. Images are made
permanent by the use of hypo. The precision of details and exquisite beauty of these direct-positive images on
silver plates make the Daguerreotype an immediate success.

1840- U.S. J. W. Draper is also one to produce photographic portraits using a lens with a diameter of five
inches and a focus of seven inches.

1840, Australia-Hungary, J.M. Petzval designed the first lens specifically for photographic use. Its maximum
aperture if f/3.6 makes it possible to take portrait exposure of less than one minute, launching the most
widespread use of the Daguerreotype. The lens is produced the following year by Volglander for use in the first
all-metal camera.

1843-1848- Major achievements with the paper-negative process are made by Hill Adamson and by various
photographers on the continent beyond the reach of Talbot’s legal agents.

1845- F Von Marten, France, Invented the panoramic camera, wherein the lens is rotated about its optical
center while a curved film is scanned by a slit.

1848- Abel Niepce de Saint Victor introduced a process of negatives on glass using albumen (egg white) as
binding medium.

1850 – Louis Desirie Blanquart Evard introduced a printing paper coated with albumen to achieve a glossy
surface.

1851- England. Frederick Scott Archer published a method of using collodion in place of albumen for negative
on glass, “wet plate”.
1853- England. JB Dancer makes the first model of a twin lens camera for stereo photography, suggested by
Sir David Brewster.

1858- France Nadar takes the first aerial photograph over Paris from a free balloon.

1861- First single lens reflex camera was patented by Thomas Sulton.
1861- Scotland. James Clerk Maxwell publishes research in color perception and the three color separation of
light. He also demonstrates additive color synthesis using hand colored materials in lantern slide projectors.

1880-The first twin-lens camera was produced by the British firm, R. & J. Beck.

Eastman George, an American inventor, manufactured a dry plate process in 1880, the roll film in 1884 and
made it available to market in 1889, and the Kodak camera in 1888, (6 ½ X 3 ½ X 3 ½) 3 ½ to infinity, 100
exposure.

1880- England. Sir William Abney discovers the use of hydroquinone as a developing agent.

1882. England Sir William Abney produces silver chloride gelatin emulsion for printing-out paper; it takes
more than ten years for this and similar materials to supplant albumen paper.

1884- US. Eastman negative paper is introduced, consisting of a light sensitive emulsion or paper which after
development is made transparent enough for printing by treating with hot castor oil.

1888- US John Carbutt begin the manufacture of celluloid base sheet film.

1890- full corrected lenses were introduced.

1895- The pocket camera was designed by Frank Brownell & called it “Brownie”.

1906- a plate was placed on the market that could reproduce all colors in equivalent shades of gray.

1907- Lummiere color process was introduced, a panchromatic film was used but with blue, green, and red filter.

1914- US Eastman Kodak Company introduce a two color subtractive process called Kodachrome.

1925- The German firm of Ernst Leitz brought our to market the popular camera, LIECA.

1928-The famous twin-lens reflex camera, the Rolleiflex was marketed by the German firm of Franke and
Heidecke.

1929- Germany. J. Ostermeier produce the first commercially acceptable self-contained flash bulb; an aluminu,
foil sealed in an oxygen-filled bulb.

1932- The first photoelectric exposure meter is produced by Weston Electric Instrument company.

1934- Holland. The first wire-filled bulb was introduced by Phillips.

1935- A gas discharge tube emitting white light is introduced for electronic flash photography.

1935- the color process came out together with the electronic flash.

1936, Germany. Agfacolor reversal films is introduced the first three monopack film in which subtractive dye-
formers are incorporated in each emulsion layer.

1947, US. Edwin H. Land introduce the Polaroid Camera- a one step photography with a self-processing black-
and-white film that yields a positive print by the diffusion transfer reversal method.

1960- Laser was invented making possible holograms (three dimensional pictures).

1988- The arrival of true digital cameras. The first true digital camera that recorded the image as a computerized
file was likely the Fuji DS-1P of 1988, which recorded to a 16 MB internal memory card that used a battery to
keep the data in memory. This camera was never marketed in the USA.

1992-The first commercially available digital camera was the Kodak DCS-100. It used a 1.3 megapixel sensor
and was priced at 13,000 dollars.

1995 -The first consumer camera with a Liquid Crystal Display (LCD) on the back was the Casio QV 10.

1996- The first camera to use compact flash was the Kodak DC-25 .

1999- The Nikon D1, a 2.74 mega pixel camera was the first digital SLR with a price of under 6,000 dollars. This
camera also used Nikon F-mount lenses which means that film based photographers could use the same lenses
they already own. In 2003, Canon introduced the 300D camera also known as digital rebel, a six (6) mega pixel
and the first DSLR priced lesser than 1,000 dollars to consumers.

Important Personalities in the Field of Photography

Aristotle
 ● A famous Greek philosopher who invented the first pinhole
camera that was later known as camera obscura( Italian work
for darkroom chamber) which literally translated to Darkened
fox.
● Artists or painters, in order to get an accurate perspective of
the natural scene and scales of their subjects they utilizes the
Camera Obscura.
● He was the one who succeeded in recording the principle that
the light entering through a small hole produces an inverted
image or figure.

Alhazen (965-1039)
● An Arabian scholar who found out that light entering a small
hole on the wall or shuttered window of a darkened room cast
an upside down picture of the scene outside onto the
opposite wall.
● He used this in observing the solar eclipse by entering a dark
room with a pinhole opening to avoid harming the eye.
● He was considered as the one who invented the camera.

Jean Baptiste Forta

● An artist and a scientist who, in his Pseudo Science Magic,

had made use of the Camera Obscura And replaced the hole
with a lens which made the image brighter and sharper.
● He was the first person who introduced the lens.

Johann Henrich Schulze

● A german scientist (Anatomist) discovered the silver Nitrate
when he exposed it to light turns to purple.
● He got interested in his finding and, that fair later, he
discovered that the evening action was not due to the heat but
light.
● He finally concluded that silver nitrate is sensitive to light and
capable of producing images.

Thomas Wedgewood (1802)

● He discovered that silver chloride is more sensitive than silver
nitrate and thus, more capable of recording and producing images.

Joseph Nicephore Niepce of France (1816)

● He experimented with combining photosensitive materials with
lithography to facilitate his endeavor in printmaking.
● In 1822, he claimed some success, achieving what he called
“POINTS DE VUE” Smart images made by the Camera Obscura with
 more than eight hours exposure.
● He took the world’s very first photograph called “Heliography”

Louise Jacques Mande Daguerre (1838-1839)

● A Parisian painter and theater designer who continued the efforts of

Niepce to perfect the photographic process.
● He invented the principle for the silver plate photograph and using the
Daguerre type that produces one kind of picture on metal which was
presented by French Scientific Academy.
● He invented the Daguerreotype in Paris.

Mathew B. Brady
● When the American Civil war broke out, he was able to preserve the
scene with the use of a camera.

William Henry Fox Talbot (1839)

● He is the Father of modern Photography

● He invented the Calotype, which produces a negative picture on a

paper, the lights on the image were recorded as darks, the darks as
lights.
● He presented it before the royal family in England.

John W. Herschel
● He coined the word photography.

● He then suggested negative and positive in the following years.

● He pointed out images with a solution of Hyposulfite of Soda (hypo or

sodium thiosulfate) which had been discovered in 1819.

Frederick Scott Archer

● He pioneered the wet Collodion process which took place of the

collotype known as colodian type process.

Daniel Barbaro

● He introduced the use of lenses in the camera.

Sir Isaac Newton (1666)

● An English Philosopher, Mathematician, and Physicist who
discovered and proved that the strongest light is white light.
 ● He defended his theory by allowing a white light (sunlight) to pass
through a prism thus refracting and reflecting the light into its
component parts.

Maxill (1863)
● He discovered the different effects with this application, when colored photography was
discovered.

Maddaox (1884)
● He successfully introduced the plate with gelatin.

● The roll film came and new brands of cameras with different lenses and mechanisms were placed
in the market.

George Eastman (1889)

● He introduced the use of roll film made of celluloid materials for use
by a portable camera.

Wilhelm Roengent (1895)

● He discovered X-ray Photography which later became the basis of
RADIOGRAPH used by the doctors in measuring the heartbeat and
to see the other structure of the body.

Edwin H. Land (1947)

● Introduced “polaroid” the one step photography.

Steve Sasson (1975)

⚫ An American Electrical Engineer who invented the digital camera.

FAQ
1.
1826- Nicephore takes the first permanent photograph, a landscape that required eight hours of
exposure.
1835- William Fox Talbot produces early permanent photographs through his own process.
1839- Louis Daguerre patents the daguerreotype.
1840- William Fox Talbot invented the positive/ negative process widely used in modern photography.
1871- The gelatin emulsion is invented by Richard Maddox.
1887- Celluloid film base introduced.
1898- Kodak introduced their Folding Pocket Kodak
1901- Kodak introduced the 120 film
1947- Edwin H. Land introduced the first polaroid instant image camera.
1957- First Asahi Pentax SLR introduced.
1959-AGFA introduces the first fully automatic camera, the Optima
1990- Kodak unveiled the DCS 100, the first commercially available digital cameras.
1994- The first digital cameras for the consumer-level market that worked with a home computer via a
serial cable were the Apple Quicktake 100 camera.
2. A photograph is the mechanical and chemical result of photography.
1. To produce a photograph, light is needed aside from sensitized materials.
2. Lights reflected or radiated by a subject must reach the sensitized materials while all other
lights must be excluded.
3. The exclusion of all unwanted and unnecessary lights is achieved by placing the sensitized
material inside a camera.
4. The amount of light on the sensitized material after exposure is not immediately visible to the
eyes.
5. To make the formed image visible, it must undergo the development process.
6. The visual effect that results from the chemical processing is dependent on the quantity and
quality of the exposing light.
7. More light will yield an opaque or black shade on the sensitized material after development.
8. Too little light will produce a transparent or white shade.
9. The varying shade of gray will finally form the complete image.

Lesson 3

Forensic science holds the branch of Forensic photography which encompasses documenting both
suspected and convicted criminals, and also the crime scenes, victims, and other evidence needed to
make a conviction. Although photography was widely acknowledged as the most accurate way to
depict and document people and objects, it was not until key developments in the late 19th century
that it came to be widely accepted as a forensic means of identification.Forensic photography resulted
from the modernization of criminal justice systems and the power of photographic realism.

IMPORTANCE OF FORENSIC PHOTOGRAPHY

1. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may

escape in the first phase of examination by the investigator but maybe
seen and recorded on the photograph.

2. Small objects but of great importance in a crime committed may

escape in the first phase of examination by the investigator but maybe
seen and recorded on the photograph.

3. Used as an aid by investigator to describe in court some of the details

of the crime scene they have investigated several months ago, the small
details and exact locations of objects.

4. To assist the investigators in using photographic equipment and techniques in their effort to solve
crimes.

Photography in Law Enforcement

Photography, in the law enforcement field, is a diversified subject. Perhaps the best way to describe
what is needed is to break the field into three groups (lab technicians, crime scene specialists, and
forensic photographers).

3 types of photographer in Law enforcement field

 3. Forensic
1. Lab Technician
Photographer

Is the darkroom expert. They are - is an expert in the photosciences

responsible for all film development, field. He has knowledge beyond the
both black & white and color. They basics of exposure and film
also produce black & white and color development. He is rarely called to a
enlargements, as well as 1:1. In crime scene unless special
2. Crime Scene photography is required, such as
addition, they are responsible for all
copy work and the logging and filing of Specialist (CSS) ultraviolet or Luminol photography.
all negatives.

Is trained in a variety of subjects, including

photography. Their mission is to cover all
crime scenes by photographing it, gathering
and packaging evidence, dusting and lifting of
fingerprints, making measurements, and
drawing the crime scene to scale. A CSS is
also required to photograph bodies at the
scene and at autopsies. They are non-sworn
and are not required to carry a firearm.

Objectives of Police Photography

1. To produce a pictorial record of everything pertaining to the crime.
2. To help in keeping the police officer’s memory accurately as possible as to where they find
things.
3. To help on securing and obtaining confession, disposition and information relating to the case.

Uses of Photography in Police Work

General Application of Photography in Police Work

1. Identification purposes
a. Prisoners, person subject of investigation
b. Unidentified cadavers (victims of crimes, traffic accidents, explosions, calamities etc.)
c. Missing persons
d. Lost of stolen properties
e. Identification of civilian (clearance for employment like PNP, NBI, VISA, Passport)
2. Recording and preserving evidences
a. Crime scene
b. Traffic accident
c. Object of evidences
d. Evidential traces (fingerprint, footprint, and toolmarks)
3. Discovering and proving of evidences not readily seen by the naked eye
a. Contrast control by lighting, use of filters, use of different films and papers.
b. Magnification or enlargement of tiny objects by the application of photomicrography and
photomacrography.
c. Use of invisible radiation like x-rays, ultraviolet rays and infra-red rays
4. Recording action of offender
a. Surveillance
b. Entrapment
c. Extra-judicial confession
d. Re-enactment of a crime
5. For court exhibits
a. Individual photographs
b. Slide projections
c. Comparison charts
d. Motion picture or video coverage/presentation
 6. For crime prevention
a. Visual presentation for lectures on traffic education, drug prevention seminars,
informational services, and others.
7. Public information
a. Photograph for press release, posters of wanted criminals, crime alerts, etc.
8. Police training
a. Prepared training films or video presentation of personnel indoctrination, police tactics,
investigative techniques, traffic control, civil disturbances controls, riots or prison
disorders, documentaries for pre-and post-briefings on police operations, etc.

Specific Application

Court presentation
Identification Crime scene photography photographs
photographs

Lesson 4
Title: PHOTOGRAPHIC RAYS – ITS NATURE AND CHARACTERISTICS

Light - is one of number of known form of radiant electromagnetic energy which travel in wave
motion. Actually, there are other theories that explains the behavior of light but for one purpose, the
wave theory is the only one considered. This form of energy travels at speed of about 186,000 miles
per second in air, but they differ in wavelength and frequency.

WAVELENGTH
Wavelength is the distance from crest (highest
point) to the wave of the next succeeding crest.

FREQUENCY
Frequency is the number of
waves passing in a given point in
one second.

Theories of light

1. Wavelength Theory (James Maxwell)

The wavelength of light is the most pertinent,
particularly in the design of lenses.
It is best illustrated by dropping of a stone in a pond of
still water.
The series of wave which travels outward from the
center point are just like light waves that travels in all
direction from a source with equal velocity.
 ⮚

2. Quantum Theory
In 1900 Max Plank theorized that light might be made
up of little bundles of energy named Quanta.
A quantum of light is called photon. When a photon
strikes a light sensitive surface, it gives energy of
electrons within a metal explain the photoelectric current.
It is used to explain X-radiation and photo electricity.

Four Photographic Rays

1. X-ray – radiation having a wavelength between 01 to 30

nanometer or milli-microns. They are produced by passing an
electric current through a special type of vacuum tube

2. Ultra-violet rays – radiation having a wavelength

from 30 to 400 milli-microns. It is used to photograph
fingerprints on multi-colored background, documents
that are altered chemically or over writings and
detection of secret writings.

3. Visible light rays or White light – rays having a

wavelength of 400 to 700 milli-microns
 4. Infrared rays- radiation having a wavelength of 700
to 1000 milli-microns. It is used in taking photographs
of obliterated writing, burnt or dirty documents or
blackout photography.

Lesson 5
Title: EFFECTS AND TYPES OF LIGHT

Effects of Light When it Hits an Object

When a light wave hits an object, what happens to it depends on the energy of the light wave, the
natural frequency at which electrons vibrate in the material and the strength with which the atoms in
the material hold on to their electrons. Based on these three factors, four different things can happen
when light hits an object:

4. The waves can be reflected or scattered off the object.

5. The waves can be absorbed by the object.
6. The waves can be refracted through the object.
7. The waves can pass through the object with no effect.

GENERAL TYPES OF LIGHT

9. Visible Light
⮚ Light with a wavelength of 400-700 nn
10. Invisible Light
⮚ Lights with shorter of longer wavelength

Visible light waves are the only electromagnetic

waves we can see. We see these waves as the
colors of the rainbow. Each color has a different
wavelength. Red has the longest wavelength
and violet has the shortest wavelength. When
all the waves are seen together, they make
white light.

When white light shines through a prism or

through water vapor like this rainbow, the
white light is broken apart into the colors of
the visible light spectrum.

What’s the difference between visible light and invisible light? It’s all in your head—specifically, in your
eyes. Whether a particular wavelength of light is visible or invisible depends solely on which wavelengths
your eyes can detect. If your eyes were tuned to different wavelengths, new wavelengths of light could
become visible—and some colors you can see now might become invisible.

White Light
 ⮚ When all the wavelengths between 400-700 nm are presented to the eye in nearly
equal quantity, we get the sensation or perception of colorless or white light.
⮚ If a narrow beam of white light is allowed to pass a prism it will bend the light of a
shorter wavelength more than those with longer wavelength thus speeding them out
into the visible spectrum. These are the colors of the rainbow.
⮚ Note: White light is the sum total of all colors of the rainbow while
Black is the absence of all colors.
⮚ If we will divide the wavelength of visible light into three, we will produce:

⮚ Blue

⮚ Green

⮚ Red

Primary and secondary colors of light

Lesson 6
Title: PROPERTIES AND THE SOURCE OF LIGHT
Properties of Light

1. Reflection- It is the deflection or bouncing back of light when it

hits a surface.
Regular
Happens when light hits a flat, smooth and
shiny surface.
Irregular of diffused
Occurs when light hits a
rough or uneven but glossy object.
 2. Refraction
The bending of light when passing
from one medium to another.

3. Diffraction
The bending of light when it hits a
sharp edge opaque object.

4. Rectilinear
The nature of light that normally
travels in straight line.

5. Interference
Color can be produce by interference of light
waves in thin film like in soap bubbles or a film of oil
floating in water.
The light reflected from the top surface of such a
film undergoes a reversal or phase but light reflected
from the bottom of the surface does not undergo this
type of change.

6. Absorption
The nature of light to be absorbed in
the process of dark surface.

7. Filtration
The character of light to be
altered from its colorless into visible state.

8. Polarization
The process by which the vibration of light are confined to
a definite plane, and the speed of light can be measured.

9. Fluorescence
These happen when molecules of the fluorescent
material absorb energy at one wavelength and radiate it
at another wavelength.

What are sources of light?

1. Natural
⮚ Coming from nature like the sun, moon, stars, other heavenly bodies, lightning, etc….

⮚ The intensity of the sunlight falling on open space varies depending on the weather
condition, time of the day, or even time of the year.
⮚ For more accurate exposure in daylight, only one characteristic is considered – the kind
of shadow casted by an object in open space.
a. Bright Sunlight
⮚ A lighting condition where objects in open space cast a deep and uniform or distinct
shadow.
 b. Hazy Sunlight
⮚ Objects in open space cast a transparent shadow.

c. Dull Sunlight - Objects in open space cast no shadow.

d. Cloudy Bright
● Objects in an open space cast no shadow but objects at far distance are clearly
visible.
e. Cloudy dull
● Objects in an open space cast no shadow and visibility of distant objects are
already limited.
2. Artificial
Light sources of this category are man-made and are divided into the continuous radiation and
short duration.
a. Continuous Radiation
● Those that can give continuous illumination.
b. Short Illumination (flash unit)
● It gives a brief flash of light produced by a burning metallic wire (flash bulb) or
an electrical discharge through a gas-filled tube (electronic flash).

Lesson 7
Title: BASIC PARTS AND FUNCTION OF CAMERA

CAMERA AND ITS ACCESSORIES

A camera is basically nothing more than a light tight box with a pinhole or a lens, shutter at one
end and a holder of sensitized material at the other. While there are various kinds of camera from the
simplest construction (Box-type) to the most complicated, all operate on the same principles. The
exposure of the sensitized material to light is controlled by the lens and its aperture, and the shutter
through its speed in opening and closing the lens to light.

EARLY FORMS OF CAMERA

1. Pinhole Camera – a camera of

simple design and construction
usually home-made consisting of a
box having a small aperture
functioning as lens at one end, the
image being projected on the film at
the other end.

FOCUSING SYSTEM FOR PINHOLE / A PINHOLE PHOTOGRAPH

2. Box Camera – a simple camera is little more

than a pinhole camera. It has a lens and shutter.
In the box camera, the pinhole is replaced by the
lens to enable the photographer gather more light
to be recorded.

3. Camera obscura (Lat. dark

chamber) was an optical device
used in drawing, and one of the
ancestral threads leading to the
invention of HYPERLINK
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otography" \o "Photography"
photography.
Main Kinds of Camera
1. Box Camera
2. View Camera
⮚ The biggest and the most sophisticated among the different types of camera.

⮚ A version of press cameras; they have removable lenses, can be focused by moving
either the front or the rear of the camera, and are equipped with long bellows.
⮚ The back can be moved or swung both vertical and horizontal axes and its lens board
raised, lowered or tipped.
⮚ This flexibility enables the photographer to control the image formed by the lens.

⮚ Practically useless for Candid or action photography.

⮚ Useful and effective in the reproduction of small objects.

3. Reflex Camera
a. Single Lens Reflex (SLR) Camera
⮚ The term “Single lens” means that only one is used for both viewing the scene and taking
photographs of it, thereby preventing parallax.It has a detachable lens and mostly used in
police photography.
⮚ Parallax

● The difference between what is seen through the viewfinder and what is exactly
recorded on the film.
b. Twin Lens Reflex Camera
⮚ Employs 2 separate lenses – one for viewing and one for focusing, and the second is
usually mounted under the first, transmitting the light to the focal plane recording.
⮚ The camera has permanently fixed lenses and an automatic parallax adjustment.

⮚ Its two lenses focus in unison so that the top screen shows the image sharpness and
framing as recorded on the film in the lower section.
4. Polaroid Still
⮚ This camera is restricted in its uses but ideal in instant photograph when there is no
requirement for enlargements.

5. Digital Camera- A digital camera (or digicam) is a camera that encodes digital images and
videos digitally and stores them for later reproduction.Most cameras sold today are digital,
[
and digital cameras are incorporated into many devices ranging from PDAs and mobile
phones (called camera phones) to vehicles.

Essential Parts of a Camera

 1. Body or Light Tight Box – suggest an enclosure devoid or
light. An enclosure, which would prevent light from exposing the
sensitized material inside the camera. This does not necessarily
mean that the box or enclosure to always light tight at all the time
because if it does, then no light could reach the sensitized
material during exposure. It means that before and after the
extraneous light, which is not necessary to form the final images.

2. Lens – the function of the lens is to

focus the light coming from the subject. It
is chiefly responsible for the sharpness
of the image formed through which light
passes during the exposure.

3. Shutter – is used to allow light to enter through the lens and reach the film for a predetermined interval
of time, which light is again blocked off from the film.

4. Holder of sensitized material – located at

the opposite side of the lens. Its function is to
hold firmly the sensitized material in its placed
during exposure to prevent the formation of a
multiple or blurred image of the subject.

5. View-finder – it is a means of determining

the field of view of the camera or the extent of
the coverage of the lens.

Lesson 8
Title: THE LENS, ITS TYPES AND DEFECTS

LENS
The basic function of a camera lens is to "gather" light rays from a
subject, form and focus those rays into an image, and project this image
onto film inside the camera. Optical glass can bend or change the
direction of light rays that pass through it. When a piece of glass is
shaped with concave or convex surfaces, light rays may be directed up,
down, or straight, depending on the configuration of the lenses.

⮚ A system of one or more pieces of glass bounded by spherical surfaces, the center of
which is at a common axis, termed the lens axis.
 ⮚ A mechanism or system which converges or diverges light passing through it to form an
image.

Two Main Types According to Shape:

Convergent/Positive/Convex Lens
It is always thicker at the center and thinner at
the sides.
Light passing through it are bended toward
each other on the other side of lens meeting at a
point.
It produce a real image on the opposite side of
the lens or where light is coming from.

b. Divergent/Negative/Concave Lens
It is always thinner at the center and thicker at
the sides.
Light passing through it are bended away from
each other as if coming from a point.
It produce a virtual image on the same side of
the lens or where light is coming from.

LENS CHARACTERISTICS
1. Focal length – is the distance measured from the optical center of the lens to the film plane
when the lens is set or focused at infinity position. As according to focal length, lenses may be
classified as:
a. Wide-angle lens – a lens with a focal length of less than the diagonal of its negative
material.
b. Normal lens – a lens with a focal length of approximately equal or more but not more
than twice the diagonal of its negative material.
c. Long or Telephoto lens – a lens with a focal length of more than twice the diagonal of
its negative material.
2. Relative aperture – the light gathering power of the lens is expressed in the F-number system.
It is otherwise called the relatives aperture. By increasing or decreasing the F-number
numerically, it is possible to:
a. control has the amount of light passing through the lens
b. control the depth of field
c. control the degree of sharpness due to the lens defects.
Depth of field – is the distance measured from the nearest to the farthest object in apparent
sharp focus when the lens is set or focused at a particular distance.
Hyper focal distance – is the nearest distance at which a lens is focused with a given
particular diaphragm opening which will give the maximum depth of field.
3. Focusing – is the setting of the proper distance in order to form a sharp image a lens of a
camera except those fixed focused requires focusing. A lens may be focused by any of the
following.
a. Focusing scale or scale bed – a scale is usually found at the lens barrel indicating
pre-settled distance in feet or in meters. To focus the lens of the camera, the distance
of the object to be photographed is measured, estimated, or calculated and the pointer
or maker on the lens barrel is adjusted to the corresponding number on the scale.
b. Range-finders – is a mechanism that measures the angle of the convergence of light
coming from a subject as seen from two apertures. There are two types of range-
finders:
1. Split-image through the rangefinder, the image of a straight line in the object appears
to be cut into halves and separated from each other when the lens is not in focus.
When the images of the lines are aligned, the lens is in focus.
2. Co-incident image – through the eyepiece, a single image is seen double when the
subject is out of focus. Make the image coincide and the lens is in focus.

DEFECTS OF LENSES
 Astigmatism - The inability of the lens to bring to focus both
vertical and horizontal lines on the same plane. Astigmatism
is caused by axial rays (not parallel to the lens axis). It will
appear that lines of equal density (darkness) are less dense
horizontally or vertically. Astigmatism is improved by
stopping down the lens (smaller lens opening, larger F
number).

2. Coma - Coma causes parallel oblique rays passing

through a lens to be imaged (focused) not as a point, but as a
comet shaped (oval) image. Coma can be improved by
stopping down the lens.

3. Curvature of Field - The plane of sharpest focus

becomes curved, not flat. It is caused by rays from the outer
limits of the subject plane coming to focus nearer to the lens
than the axial rays (image comes to focus in curved shape,
away from the CCD). This defect is not improved by stopping
down the lens.

4. Longitudinal Chromatic Aberration - The inability of a

lens to focus all colors (wavelengths) at the same plane on
the lens axis (shorter wavelengths come to focus in front of
the CCD, longer behind). This defect is not improved by
stopping down the lens. This is normally only noticeable in
long telephoto lenses. It is reduced by the use of special
glass elements, referred to as ED, ID, LD or Fluorite.

5. Lateral Chromatic Aberration - lateral displacement of

color images at the focal plane (CCD). Caused by different
sizes of images by produced by different colors even though
the image is all on the same plane (CCD). Produces color
fringing of red or blue. Not improved by stopping down.

6. Spherical Aberration - Inability of all rays to focus at the

same point. Marginal rays (at the edge) through the lens
come to focus closer to the lens than do paraxial rays (rays
parallel to the axis or center). This causes the focus to drift
as you stop down the lens. This may be part of the XL1
focusing problems. However, it's just my opinion.

7. Distortion - distortion causes the image of a straight line,

at the edges of the field (CCD) to bow in or out. Bowed in,
pincushion, bowed out barrel distortions. Produced by
variations of magnifications over the field of the lens,
particularly at the ends of its range (max wide angle, max
telephoto). It does
8. Flare not is
- Flare effect sharpness,
non-image onlylight.
forming shape of the
Reduces
image. Itcontrast
is not improved
and colorbysaturation.
stopping down.
Flare isVery common
caused in bright
by very
subject areas and produces internal reflections in the lens.
Stacking of filters can increase flare. Lens coatings by the
Mfg. keeps flare to a minimum. The use of a suitable hood
(not the stock hood) can also aid in reducing flare.
telephoto). It does not effect sharpness, only shape of the
image. It is not improved by stopping down. Very common
in extreme wide angles and lenses with WA adapters.
Lesson 9
Title: SHUTTER, EXPOSURE, FLASH PHOTOGRAPHY AND PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS
SHUTTER
A device that opens to uncover the film to make an exposure for an accurately timed intervals then
close automatically.
The action of the shutter is expressed in the different shutter speeds which corresponds to the length
of time or duration of the opening to the closing of the shutter.

The different shutter speeds:

B- for bulb or brief
1
2
4
8
15
30
60
125
250
500
1000

Two general types of shutter

Central Shutters – one that is

located near the lens (usually
between the elements of the lens). It
is made of metal leaves and its action
starts from the center toward the side
then closes back to the center.

Focal Plane Shutter – is located near the focal place or the

sensitized material. It is usually made of cloth curtain. Its action
starts on one side and closes on the opposite sides.
 EXPOSURE
Exposure is the action of recording radiant energy that produces a change on a material or
substances sensitive to such energy. In conventional photography materials, the action of exposing energy
reduces or breaks down the silver halide sufficiently to produce a latent (invisible) record of the pattern of
light intensity or in the case of printing material, a visible record.
Exposure – is the product of illumination and time. Exposure is computed by any of the following methods.

1. Use of light or exposure meter. The amount

of light coming from a source or the amount of
light being reflected by the subject is measured by
the light meter. Proper adjustment therefore
becomes simplified.

2. By taking into consideration exposure factors like; emulsion speed or film sensitivity, lightning
condition, kind of subject.

Example of Normal Exposure

Film Speed Lighting Condition
Bright sun Hazy sun Dull sun
ISO 100/21ͦ 1/125 f-11 f-8 f-5.6
ISO 200/24ͦ 1/250 f-11 f-8 f-5.6
1/125 f-11 f-11 f-8
ISO 400/27ͦ 1/500 f-11 f-f-8 f-5.6
1/250 f-f-16 f-11 f-8
1/125 f-22 f-16 f-11
The higher the F-number, the smaller the aperture.
Flash Photography
Brief flash of light produced by burning metal wires (flash bulb) or an electric discharge through
a gas-filled tube (electronic flash) is the most common supplemental light for still photography.
Types of Flash
1. Exposure with flash
a. Shutter speed- both electronic flash unit and flash bulb provides light in a relatively high
illumination level in a short period of time. Because it is important for the camera shutter to be open for
this brief period of time.
b. Lens opening- flash may be computed by the use of the “guide number” of a flash unit. A guide
number is usually dependent on the film speed and the light output. Electronic flash units guide
numbers are based on reflected light output of the unit based on the beam candlepower seconds
(BCPS) or effective candlepower seconds (ECPS). The guide numbers of the different film speeds and
the output of the electronic flash units is usually found on a reference table at the back of the flash
unit. Guide numbers are used to find the f-numbers at which the exposures should be make on the
following formula:
Guide number (GN) = f- number
Distance in feet
2. On- Camera flash- flash on camera or held close to the camera with a bracket provides a direct,
hard light. Because it puts the maximum level of light on the subjects, it creates a problem of the “red
eye” in a human subject, harsh shadow of subjects with a near background, and reflections from shiny
spots in the background.
3. Off-Camera flash- with this unit, the flash can be moved away from the camera at arm’s length or
more. When the flash unit is used in this manner, the photographer can improve the effectiveness of
the flash lighting like:
a. Multiple flash- more than one flash unit is used. One is concerned with the camera with
a flash cord while the other is attached to a “slave” unit.
b. Fill-in-flash- when you want to eliminate or add illumination to shadow areas or subject
so detail that otherwise will not appear clearly in the final picture.
c. Open flash- the shutter speed is set “B” and once the shutter is open, the flash is
activated or fired manually. Then the shutter is released or is closed.
d. Bounce flash- instead of the light going directly to the subject, it is bounced on light
colored ceilings or walls near the subject. This will give a softer effect on the subject,
and also diminish or reduce harsh shadow that will be casted by the subject.
2. Umbrella flash- a modified type of bounce flash by using an umbrella lined with silver, white,
blue or amber colored especially made for photography. The flash is mounted on the handle of
the umbrella aimed at its inside center. This inside center is then aimed toward the subject.
3. Ring flash- this is a round or circular flash unit usually placed around the outer end of the
camera lens. This is used for taking close-ups or macro photography especially in medical
photography.

PHOTOGRAPHIC FILTERS
⮚ Used to modify the amount of light that reaches the film.

⮚ These are discs of glass or negative which when placed in front of the camera lens,
stop or another color of light from passing through in striking the film.
⮚ These are usually used only for black and white photography and even then should not
be used for most in police photography.
⮚ Usually made of glass or gelatin materials placed in front or before the lens.

⮚ These are used to change the composition of available light before allowing it to strike
the film.
⮚ A transparent colored medium employed to regulate either the color or the intensity of
light used to expose the film.

Two types of filter used in photography

1. Optical filter- are made either of glass or acetate. Optical filters are used primarily to control
exposing energy (visible wavelength, ultraviolet, infrared rays) and the composition of working
illumination in areas where sensitized materials are handled.
2. Particle or solution filter- is used in special photographic procedures like in infrared luminescence.