Chapter 7

Alternating Current
Introduction
The electric mains supply in our homes and offices is a voltage that varies
like a sine function with time. Such a voltage is called alternating voltage (ac
voltage) and the current driven by it in a circuit is called the alternating
current (ac current)

Today, most of the electrical devices we use require ac voltage. This is

mainly because most of the electrical energy sold by power companies is
transmitted and distributed as alternating current. The main reason for
preferring use of ac voltage over dc voltage is that ac voltages can be easily
and efficiently converted from one voltage to the other by means of
transformers. Further, electrical energy can also be transmitted
economically over long distances.
Representation of ac current and voltage by rotating vectors —
phasors
In order to show phase relationship between voltage and current in an AC
circuit, we use the notion of phasors.
A phasor is a vector which rotates about the origin in anticlockwise
direction with angular speed ω.

▪ The length of each phasor represents the amplitude or peak value of

the voltage or current.
▪ The projection of each phasor on the vertical axis gives the
instantaneous value of the quantity that the phasor represents.
▪ The rotation angle of each phasor is equal to the phase of alternating
quantity at that instant t.
 ▪ The angle between two phasors will give you the phase difference
between the corresponding quantities.

AC Voltage Applied to a Resistor

Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop rule ,Σε (t) = 0

v m sin ωt- i R = 0
v m sin ωt= iR
v
i = m sin ωt
R
𝐯𝐦
𝐢 =𝐢 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 where 𝐢 𝐦 =
𝐑
i m is called amplitude of current

Graph of voltage and current across a pure resistor versus 𝛚𝐭

In a pure resistor, the voltage and current are in phase. The minima, zero
and maxima occur at the same.
Phasor diagram for the circuit
Power Dissipated in the Resistor
The ac current varies sinusoidally and has corresponding positive and
negative values during each cycle. Thus, the sum of the instantaneous
current values over one complete cycle is zero, and the average current is
zero.The fact that the average current is zero, however, does not mean that
the average power consumed is zero and that there is no dissipation of
electrical energy.
The instantaneous power dissipated in the resistor i
p = 𝑣𝑖
p = v m sin ωt im sin ωt
p = v m im sin2 ωt
Avearage power consumed over one complete cycle
p̅ = < v m im sin2 ωt >
p̅ = v m im < sin 2 ωt >
1
< sn 2 ωt > =
2
1
p̅ = v i
2 m m
vm im
P= ( ) ( 2)
√2 √
𝐏 = 𝐕𝐈
Where 𝐈 𝐨𝐫 𝐈𝐫𝐦𝐬 is called rms current and V 𝐨𝐫 𝐕𝐫𝐦𝐬 is called rms voltage.

The rms current ( Root Mean Square Current) or Effective

Current
1
To express AC power p̅ = vm im in the same form as dc power P = VI ,
2
a special value of current is defined and used. It is called, root mean square
(rms) or effective current and is denoted by 𝐈 𝐫𝐦𝐬 or I.
I= √⟨i2 ⟩
I= √ ⟨(im sin ωt)2 ⟩
I= i m √⟨sin2 ωt⟩
1
I=i m √
2
𝐢𝐦
𝐈= = 0.707 𝐢𝐦
√𝟐
The rms current is the equivalent dc current that would produce the same
average power loss as the alternating current.

Similarly ,rms voltage or Effective voltage

𝐯
V= 𝐕 𝐫𝐦𝐬 = 𝐦
√𝟐
𝐯𝐦
V= = 0.707 𝐯𝐦
√𝟐

Why a shock from 220V ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc?
The household line voltage of 220 V is an rms value.
V = 220V
Its peak voltage v m = √2 V
= 1.414 x 220 V
= 311 V
At some instant peak value of ac may reach upto 311V .So a shock from 220V
ac is more fatal than that from 220Vdc.

Example
A light bulb is rated at 100W for a 220 V supply. Find
(a) the resistance of the bulb
(b) the peak voltage of the source
(c) the rms current through the bulb.
AC Voltage Applied to an Inductor

Apply Kirchhoff’s Loop rule ,Σε (t) = 0

ⅆi
v m sin ωt- L =0
ⅆt
ⅆi
v m sin ωt= L
ⅆt
ⅆi v m sin ωt
=
ⅆt L
vm
di= sin ωt dt
L
vm
i= ∫ sin ωt dt
L
vm −cos ωt
i= x
L ω
vm
i=− cos ωt
ωL

i = −i m cos ωt
𝛑
𝐦 𝐯
𝐢 = 𝐢 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − 𝟐) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐋
In a pure inductor, the current lags the voltage by π/2 or one-quarter (1/4)
cycle.
Inductive Reactance (𝐗 𝐋 )
vm
The current amplitude, i m =
ωL
vm
im =
XL
The quantity ω L is analogous to the resistance and is called inductive
reactance, denoted by X L
𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚L =𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
▪ The dimension of inductive reactance is the same as that of resistance
and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
▪ The inductive reactance limits the current in a purely inductive circuit
in the same way as the resistance limits the current in a purely
resistive circuit.
 ▪ The inductive reactance is directly proportional to the inductance and
to the frequency of the current.
▪ For DC , f=0 and so 𝐗 𝐋 =0 i.e., an inductor offers an easy path to DC.
▪ The value of 𝐗 𝐋 increases as frequency is increased, hence offers a
resistive path to AC.

Graph of v and i versus ωt

𝐯 = 𝐯 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭
𝛑
𝐢 = 𝐢 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 − )
𝟐

Phasor diagram

The current lags the voltage by π/2 .

Power Dissipated in the Inductor

Instantaneous power p=iv
p= −i m cos ωt x vm sin ωt
p= −i m vm cos ωt sin ωt
im v m
p= − 2cos ωt sin ωt
2
im v m
p= − sin( 2ωt)
2
The average power over a complete cycle
im v m
p̅ = P = ⟨− sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
im v m
P=− ⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩ =0
P=0
The average power supplied to an inductor over one complete cycle
is zero.
Example
A pure inductor of 25.0 mH is connected to a source of 220 V. Find the
inductive reactance and rms current in the circuit if the frequency of the
source is 50 Hz.
Inductive reactance, 𝐗 𝐋 = 𝛚𝐋 = 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐋
= 2x 3.14x50x25x𝟏𝟎 −𝟑
= 7.85Ω
𝐕
The rms current in the circuit is, 𝐈 =
𝐗𝐋
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= = 28A
𝟕.𝟖𝟓

AC Voltage Applied to a Capacitor

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop rule Σε (t) = 0

q
v m sin ωt- = 0
C
q
v m sin ωt =
C
q = C v m sin ωt
ⅆ
i= (C vm sin ωt)
ⅆt
ⅆ
i=Cv m (sin ωt)
ⅆt
i = C v m ω cos ωt
i = ωC v m cos ωt
i = i m cos ωt
𝛑
𝐢 = 𝐢 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 (𝛚𝐭 + 𝟐) where 𝐢𝐦 = 𝛚𝐂 𝐯𝐦
𝝂𝒎
or 𝒊𝒎 = 𝟏
( 𝝎𝑪)

In a purely capacitive circuit, the current leads the voltage by π/2 or one-
quarter (1/4) cycle.
Capacitive Reactance
𝛎𝐦 𝛎𝐦
Current amplitude, 𝐢 𝐦 = 𝟏 =
( 𝛚𝐂) 𝐗𝐂
𝟏
The quantity ( ) is analogous to the resistance and is called capacitive
𝛚𝐂
reactance, denoted by 𝐗 𝐂
𝟏 𝟏
𝐗𝐂 = =
𝛚𝐂 𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂

▪ The dimension of capacitive reactance is the same as that of resistance

and its SI unit is ohm (Ω).
▪ The capacitive reactance limits the amplitude of the current in a purely
capacitive circuit in the same way as the resistance limits the current in
a purely resistive circuit.
▪ Capacitive reactance is inversely proportional to the frequency and the
capacitance.
▪ For DC , f=0 and hence X C = infinite i.e., the capacitor blocks DC.
▪ For AC, as the frequency increases, X C decreases and hence capacitor
allows AC to flow through it.

Graph of v and i versus ωt

v = v m sin ωt
π
i = i m sin (ωt + )
2

Phasor diagram
Power Dissipated in the Inductor
P=iv
p= −i m cos ωt x vm sin ωt
im v m
p= − sin( 2ωt)
2
The average power over a complete cycle
im v m
p̅ = P = ⟨− sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
im v m
P=− ⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩
2
⟨sin( 2ωt )⟩ =0
P=0
The average power supplied to a capacitor over one complete cycle is zero.

Example
A 15.0 μF capacitor is connected to a 220 V, 50 Hz source. Find the
capacitive reactance and the current (rms and peak) in the circuit. If the
frequency is doubled, what happens to the capacitive reactance and the
current?
𝟏
The capacitive reactance 𝐗 𝐂 =
𝛚𝐂
𝟏
=
𝟐𝛑𝐟𝐂
𝟏
= =212Ω
𝟐𝐱 𝟑.𝟏𝟒𝐱𝟓𝟎𝐱𝟏𝟓𝐱𝟏𝟎 −𝟔

𝐕
The rms current is , 𝐈 =
𝐗𝐂
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= =1.04A
𝟐𝟏𝟐

The peak current is 𝐢 𝐦 = √𝟐 𝐈

= 𝟏. 𝟒𝟏𝟒 x1.04 =1.47A

If the frequency is doubled, the capacitive reactance is halved , and

consequently, the current is doubled.
Example
A light bulb and an open coil inductor are connected to an ac source through
a key as shown in Figure.

The switch is closed and after sometime, an iron rod is inserted into the
interior of the inductor. The glow of the light bulb
(a)increases; (b) decreases; (c) is unchanged, as the iron rod is inserted.
Give your answer with reasons.

Solution:
As the iron rod is inserted, the magnetic field inside the coil magnetizes the
iron increasing the magnetic field inside it. Hence, the inductance of the coil
increases. Consequently, the inductive reactance of the coil increases. As a
result, a larger fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the inductor,
leaving less voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb
decreases.

Example
An electric bulb B and a parallel plate capacitor C are connected in series as
shown in figure.

The bulb glows with some brightness. How will the glow of the bulb affected
on introducing a dielectric slab between the plates of the capacitor? Give
reason in support of your answer
When a dielectric slabis introduced between the plates the capacitance
increases. Then capacitive reactance decreases. As a result, a smaller
fraction of the applied ac voltage appears across the capacitor, leaving large
voltage across the bulb. Therefore, the glow of the light bulb increases.
AC Voltage Applied to a Series LCR Circuit

Applying Kirchhoff’s Loop rule Σε (t) = 0

ⅆi q
v m sin ωt − iR − L − =0
ⅆt C
ⅆ𝐢 𝐪
𝐯𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 = 𝐢𝐑 + 𝐋 +
ⅆ𝐭 𝐂
Phasor-diagram solution
Since L,C and R are in series the ac current i in each element is the same.
Let the current be 𝐢 = 𝐢 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)
Further, let VR , VL , VC , and V represent the voltage phasors across the
resistor, inductor , capacitor and the source, respectively.
For resistor , 𝐕𝐑 and 𝐈 𝐚𝐫𝐞 𝐢𝐧 𝐩𝐡𝐚𝐬𝐞.
For inductor , 𝐕𝐋 𝐥𝐞𝐚ⅆ𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2.
For capacitor , 𝐕𝐂 𝐥𝐚𝐠𝐬 𝐈 𝐛𝐲 π/2.

𝐯 𝐦𝟐 = 𝐯𝐑 𝟐 + (𝐯𝐂 − 𝐯𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯 𝐦𝟐 = (𝐢𝐦 𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐢𝐦 𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐢𝐦 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯 𝐦𝟐 = 𝐢 𝐦𝟐 [(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 ]
𝐯𝐦𝟐
𝐢 𝐦𝟐 = (𝐑)𝟐 +(𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
√(𝐑)𝟐 +(𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗𝐋 )𝟐
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
𝐙
The quantity √(𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐 is analogous to resistance and is called
impedance Z in an ac circuit.

Impedance, 𝐙 = √ (𝐑)𝟐 + (𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 )𝟐
SI unit of Z is Ohm

The phase difference ϕ between voltage and current is ,

v −v
tanϕ = Cm Lm
v Rm
i m X C −im X L
tanϕ =
im R
X C −X L
tanϕ =
R
𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗𝐋
𝛟 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏 𝐑

Impedance diagram

The phase difference ϕ can be obtained using impedance diagram.

X C −X L
tanϕ =
R
𝐗 𝐂 −𝐗𝐋
𝛟 = 𝐭𝐚𝐧 −𝟏
𝐑

Example
A resistor of 200 Ω and a capacitor of 15.0 μF are connected in series to a
220 50 Hz ac source.
(a) Calculate the current in the circuit
(b)Calculate the voltage (rms) across the resistor and the capacitor.
Is the algebraic sum of these voltages more than the source voltage?
If yes, resolve the paradox.
a) R = 200Ω , C =15.0 μF =15x 𝟏𝟎 −𝟔 F , V = 220 V, 𝐟 =50Hz

Z = √ R2 + X C 2

1
Z = √R2 + ( )2
2πfC

1
Z = √2002 + ( −6 )2
2x3.14x50x15x 10

Z = √2002 + 212.32
𝐙 = 291.5Ω
The current in the circuit is
V
I=
Z
𝟐𝟐𝟎
𝐈= =0.755A
𝟐𝟗𝟏.𝟓

(b) The current is the same throughout the circuit.

VR = IR =0.755 Ax200 Ω =151V
VC = IX C =0.755 A x 212.3 Ω =160.3V
Algebraic sum of VR and VC =151V+160.3V=311.3V
This is more than source voltage and is not possible.
There is a phase difference of 90 0 betweenVR and VC . Therefore, the total
of these voltages must be obtained using the Pythagorean theorem.

V= √ 𝐕𝐑 𝟐 + 𝐕𝐂 𝟐 =√𝟏𝟓𝟏𝟐 + 𝟏𝟔𝟎. 𝟑𝟐 =220V

Resonance
A system oscillating with its natural frequency is driven by an energy source
at a frequency that is near the natural frequency, the amplitude of oscillation
is found to be large. This phenomenon is called resonance.
A familiar example of this phenomenon is a child on a swing. If the child
pulls on the rope at regular intervals and the frequency of the pulls is almost
the same as the frequency of swinging, the amplitude of the swinging will be
large.
Condition for resonance in an LCR circuit
For an LCR circuit the current amplitude is given by
v vm
i m = Zm = √(R)2 +(X 2
C −X L )

For resonance to happen impedance should be minimum and current

maximum. So the condition for resonance is,
𝐗 𝐂 = 𝐗𝐋

Impedance at resonance
Z = √ (R)2 + (X C − X L )2
Z = √(R)2 + 02
Z= R
Impedance is minimum at resonance.

Current Amplitude at Resonance

𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦 =
𝐙
𝐯𝐦
𝐢𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐦 = 𝐑
Current amplitude is maximum at resonance.

Resonant Frequency
The condition for resonance ,𝐗 𝐂 = 𝐗 𝐋
𝟏
=𝛚𝟎 L
𝛚𝟎 𝐂
𝟏
𝛚 𝟐𝟎 =
𝐋𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
𝛚 𝟎 is called Resonant frequency

Variation of 𝐢𝐦 with 𝛚
Example
Figure shows the variation of i m with ω in a RLC series circuit with
L = 1.00 mH, C = 1.00 nF for two values of R:
(i) R = 100 Ω and (ii) R = 200 Ω. For the source applied vm = 100 V.

For R = 100 Ω
𝐯𝐦 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢𝐦 = =
𝐑 𝟏𝟎𝟎
= 𝟏A

For R = 200 Ω
𝐯𝐦 𝟏𝟎𝟎
𝐢𝐦 = =
𝐑 𝟐𝟎𝟎
= 𝟎. 𝟓A

Tuning of a radio or TV
Resonant circuits have a variety of applications, for example, in the tuning
mechanism of a radio or a TV set. The antenna of a radio accepts signals of
dfferent frequencies from many broadcasting stations . But to hear one
particular radio station, we tune the radio. In tuning, we vary the
capacitance of a capacitor in the tuning circuit such that the resonant
frequency of the circuit becomes nearly equal to the frequency of the radio
signal received. When this happens, the amplitude of the current with the
frequency of the signal of the particular radio station in the circuit is
maximum.

Resonance phenomenon is exhibited by a circuit only if both L and C are

present .Only then do the voltages across L and C cancel each other.
We cannot have resonance in RL and RC circuit.

Bandwidth
𝐯𝐦
At resonant frequency 𝛚 𝟎 , current is maximum 𝐢 𝐦𝐚𝐱
𝐦 =
𝐑
For values of ω other than 𝛚 𝟎 the amplitude of the current is less than the
maximum value.
Let 𝛚𝟏 and 𝛚𝟐 be two frequencies on either side of 𝛚 𝟎 the current
1
amplitude is times its maximum value. At this value, the power dissipated
√2
by the circuit becomes half.
 𝛚𝟏 = 𝛚𝟎 + Δω
𝛚 𝟐 = 𝛚𝟎 – Δω
𝛚𝟏 - 𝛚𝟐 = 2Δω
The difference 𝛚𝟏 - 𝛚𝟐 = 2Δω is often called the bandwidth of the circuit.

Sharpness of resonance(S)
The Sharpness of resonance is given by
𝟎 𝛚
S=𝟐𝚫𝛚
The smaller the bandwidth, the sharper or narrower is the resonance and
the selectivity is high.

The expression for Δω is given by

𝐑
Δω=𝟐𝐋
ω0 𝛚𝟎
= 𝐑
2Δω ( )
𝐋

𝛚𝟎 𝛚𝟎 𝐋
𝟐𝚫𝛚
= 𝐑
--------(1)

Quality Factor(Q)
𝛚𝟎 𝐋
The ratio is also called Quality factor.
𝐑
𝛚𝟎 𝐋 𝟏
𝐐= 𝐑
𝐨𝐫 𝐐= 𝛚 -------(2)
𝟎 𝐂𝐑

From eq(1) and (2)

ω0
=Q
2Δω
𝐒 = 𝐐(𝐍𝐮𝐦𝐞𝐫𝐢𝐜𝐚𝐥𝐥𝐲)
Power In AC Circuit: The Power Factor
p= v i
p= 𝐯 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝐭 𝐢𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧(𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)
𝐯 𝐢
P= 𝐦 𝐦 ⟨𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ − 𝐜𝐨𝐬(𝟐𝛚𝐭 + ɸ)⟩
𝟐
𝐯𝐦 𝐢𝐦
P= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
𝟐
𝐯𝐦 𝐢𝐦
P= 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
√𝟐 √𝟐
P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
So, the average power dissipated depends not only on the voltage and
current but also on the cosine of the phase angle ɸ between them.
The quantity cosɸ is called the power factor.
Power factor can be obtained from impedance diagram.

𝐑
𝐜𝐨𝐬ɸ =
𝐙

Case (i) Resistive circuit:

ɸ = 0,
P= 𝐕 𝐈 cos 0=VI
There is maximum power dissipation.
Case (ii) Purely inductive or capacitive circuit:
ɸ = π/2
P = 𝐕 𝐈 cos π/2=0
No power is dissipated even though a current is flowing in the circuit.
This current is sometimes referred to as wattless current.
Case (iii) LCR series circuit:
X C −X L
ϕ = tan −1
R
P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 ɸ
So, ɸ may be non-zero and power may dissipate in a RL or RC or RCL
circuit. Even in such cases, power is dissipated only in the resistor.
Case (iv) Power dissipated at resonance in LCR circuit:
At resonance 𝐗 𝐂 − 𝐗 𝐋 = 0, and ɸ = 0.
P= 𝐕 𝐈 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝟎 =PV
That is, maximum power is dissipated in a circuit (through R) at resonance.
LC Oscillations
A capacitor and an inductor can store electrical and magnetic energy,
respectively. When a capacitor (initially charged) is connected to an
inductor, the charge on the capacitor and the current in the circuit produce
electrical oscillations similar to oscillations in mechanical systems.

According to Kirchhoff’s loop rule, Σε (t) = 0

𝐪 ⅆ𝐢
−𝐋 =𝟎
𝐂 ⅆ𝐭
ⅆ𝐪
i = – ( ) in the present case (as q decreases, i increases).
ⅆ𝐭
𝐪 ⅆ − ⅆ𝐪
− ( ) =𝟎
𝐋𝐂 ⅆ𝐭 ⅆ𝐭
𝐪 ⅆ𝟐 𝐪
+ =𝟎
𝐋𝐂 ⅆ𝐭𝟐
ⅆ𝟐 𝐪 𝟏
+ 𝐪=𝟎
ⅆ𝐭𝟐 𝐋𝐂

Comparing with the equation for a simple harmonic oscillator,

ⅆ𝟐 𝐱
+ 𝛚𝟐 𝐱 = 𝟎
ⅆ𝐭𝟐
𝟏
𝛚𝟐 =
𝐋𝐂
𝟏
𝛚𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
𝟏
The charge, oscillates with a natural frequency 𝛚 𝟎 =
√𝐋𝐂
and varies sinusoidally with time as 𝐪 = 𝐪 𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝟎 𝐭
ⅆ𝐪
𝐢=−
ⅆ𝐭
ⅆ
𝐢=− (𝐪𝐦 𝐜𝐨𝐬 𝛚𝟎 𝐭)
ⅆ𝐭

𝐢 = −𝐪 𝐦 𝐱 − 𝛚𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭
𝐢 = 𝐪 𝐦 𝛚𝟎 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭
𝐢 = 𝐢 𝐦 𝐬𝐢𝐧 𝛚𝟎 𝐭 where 𝐢 𝐦 = 𝐪 𝐦 𝛚𝟎
a)A capacitor with initial charge 𝐪 𝐦 connected to an ideal inductor. The
𝐪𝐦 𝟐
electrical energy stored in the charged capacitor is 𝐔 𝐄 = . Since, there is
𝟐𝐂
no current in the circuit, energy in the inductor is zero. 𝐔 𝐁 = 𝟎
b) When the switch is closed and the capacitor starts to discharge . As the
current increases, it sets up a magnetic field in the inductor and thereby,
some energy gets stored in the inductor in the form of magnetic energy.
𝐔𝐄 ≠ 𝟎 , 𝐔𝐁 ≠ 𝟎
c)As the current reaches its maximum value 𝐢 𝐦 , (at t = T/4) , all the energy
𝟏
is stored in the magnetic field, 𝐔 𝐁 = 𝐋𝐢𝐦 𝟐
𝟐

The capacitor now has no charge and hence no energy. 𝐔 𝐄 = 𝟎.

The maximum electrical energy equals the maximum magnetic energy.

d)The current now starts charging the capacitor, but with opposite polarity
as in initial state.
𝐔𝐄 ≠ 𝟎 , 𝐔𝐁 ≠ 𝟎
e)This process continues till the capacitor is fully charged (at t = T/2) ,all
the energy is stored in the electric field with a polarity opposite to its initial
state.
𝐪𝐦 𝟐
𝐔𝐄 = and 𝐔𝐁 = 𝟎.
𝟐𝐂

The whole process will now repeat itself till the system reverts to its
original state. Thus, the energy in the system oscillates between the
capacitor and the inductor.
Note that the above discussion of LC oscillations is not realistic for two
reasons:
(i) Every inductor has some resistance. The effect of this resistance is to
introduce a damping effect on the charge and current in the circuit and
the oscillations finally die away.
(ii) Even if the resistance were zero, the total energy of the system would
not remain constant. It is radiated away from the system in the form of
electromagnetic waves (discussed in the next chapter). In fact, radio
and TV transmitters depend on this radiation.
Transformer

A transformer consists of two sets of coils, insulated from each other. They
are wound on a soft-iron core, One of the coils called the primary coil has
NP turns. The other coil is called the secondary coil; it has N S turns. Often the
primary coil is the input coil and the secondary coil is the output coil of the
transformer.
Transformer works on the Principle of Mutual Induction
When an alternating voltage is applied to the primary, the resulting current
produces an alternating magnetic flux which links the secondary and
induces an emf in it.
The emf induced in the primary
ⅆϕ
ε P = −N P
ⅆt
If the primary coil has negligible resistance ε P = VP (input voltage)
ⅆϕ
V P = −N P ------------(1)
ⅆt
The emf induced in thesecondary
ⅆϕ
ε s = −N s
ⅆt
If the secondary coil has negligible resistance ε s = Vs (output voltage)
ⅆϕ
V s = −N s -----------------(2)
ⅆt
𝐞𝐪 (𝟏) 𝐕𝐬 𝐍
𝐞𝐪 (𝟐)
−−− 𝐕𝐏
= 𝐍 𝐬 ------------------- (3)
𝐏
For a step up transformer the number of turns in the secondary will be
greater than that in the primary( 𝐍 𝐬 > 𝐍𝐏 )

Thus for a step up transformer secondary voltage will be greater than

primary voltage,but the secondary current will be less than primary current.

For a step down transformer the number of turns in the secondary will be
less than that in the primary( 𝐍 𝐬 ˂ 𝐍𝐏 )

Thus for a step up transformer secondary voltage will be less than primary
voltage, but the secondary current will be greater than primary current.
Energy Losses in a Transformer
(i)Flux Leakage:
There is always some flux leakage; that is, not all of the flux due to primary
passes through the secondary due to poor design of the core or the air gaps
in the core. It can be reduced by winding the primary and secondary coils
one over the other.

(ii)Resistance of the windings :

The wire used for the windings has some resistance and so, energy is lost
due to heat produced in the wire(I 2 R). In high current, low voltage windings,
these are minimised by using thick wire.

(iii)Eddy currents loss:

The alternating magnetic flux induces eddy currents in the iron core and
causes heating. The effect is reduced by having a laminated core.

(iv)Hysteresis loss:
The magnetisation of the core is repeatedly reversed by the alternating
magnetic field. This produces hysteresis and energy is lost as heat. This can
be minimised by using a magnetic material which has a low hysteresis
loss(e.g- soft iron core).