CHAPTER 8

GLOBAL MIGRATION

Learning Objectives:

After studying this chapter, the student will be able to:

1. Understand the basic concept of migration, and theories of migration.
2. Distinguish the various types of migrants, their patterns and their
special needs.
3. Know the consequences of migration

11.1 Basic Concepts In Migration

As discussed in the previous chapter, migration is one of the processes that influence the
demographic structure of the country. To reiterate, migration pertains to the act or process of
crossing the boundary of a political or administrative unit for certain minimum period (Boyle et;
1998 as quoted by Dicolen, 2013). It comes from the Latin word “Migratio” which means
physical movements by people from one area to another, sometimes over long distances or in
large groups (Dicolen, 2013:55). The concept of migration usually involves the “detachment
from the organization of activities at one place and the movement of total round of activities to
another”, although admittedly, this is not always the primary consideration of migration.

Not all types of change in one’s residence are called migration. For a change of
residence to be considered migration, it must cross a certain political or administrative unit.
Otherwise, it is merely a movement. An example of the movement is when there is a change of
residence within the same barangay. Furthermore, such movement must also be for a well-
defined period, which may be as temporary as six months, or as permanent as a lifetime abode.
Hence, any brief change in residence, say for two months, is just merely a vacation, and not
migration.

An individual who moves from one area or region to another is called a migrant. He/She
is also known as emigrant from the point of view of the place of origin and an immigrant from the
point of view of the place of destination. Migrants may be permanent, long term or short term
according to the length of the stay in the place of destination. It is permanent if the migrant does
not return to his or her place of origin; long-term if the usual stay extends to more than 12
months; and short –term if it falls below 12 months.

Migration can also be classified according to choice. It is classified as voluntary if the

migrant decides to move by his choice. Most of these migrants are labor-related such as the
case of temporary labor migrants, who migrate for a limited period as guest-workers or overseas
contract workers from a few months to several years in order to take up employment and send
home money (Remittances); highly-skilled and business migrants, who are hired as managers,
executives, professionals, technicians and similar, who move with the internal labor markets of
transnational corporations and international organizations, or who seek employment through
international labor markets for scarce skills; irregular migrants, who enter a country, usually in
search of employments without the necessary documents and permits; and return migrants,
who return to their countries of origin after a period in another country.

There is also migration by involuntary choice. This includes refugees, people residing
outside of their country of Nationality, who is unable or Unwillingly to return because of a well-
founded fear of persecution on account of race, religion, nationality, membership in a particular
social group, or political opinion. It also includes asylum-seekers, or those people who moves
across borders seeking protection, but who may not fulfill the strict criteria laid down by the 1952
Convention. Further, this also includes the forced migrants, or those forced to move by
environmental catastrophes or development projects such as new factories, road or dams.

Finally, migration is generally classified into internal and international migration. Internal
migration refers to a move from one area (a province, district or municipality) to another within
one country. International migration on the other hand refers means crossing the frontiers which
separates one of the world’s approximately 200 states from another (Castles, 2000:169)

11.2 Reasons of Migration

11.2.1 Neo-Classical Theory

According to Neo-Classical theory, migration is usually associated with individual’s

efforts to maximize their income my moving from low-income to high wage economies (Borjas,
1989 as quoted by Castles, 2000:272). This is the most common reason for migration especially
the migration of one coming from a developing nation to a developed one with high proportion of
underemployment in the country of origin. The current pattern of migration is an empirical data
of this theory.

11.2.2 Labor Migration Theory

This theory is a new economic approach in explaining migration. It argues that migration
cannot simply be explained by income differences between two countries, but also by factors
such as chances of secure employment, availability of capital for entrepreneurial activity, and
the need to manage risk over long periods. Migration decisions are made not just by individuals
but most often represent family strategies to maximize income and survival chance (Hugo, 1994
as quoted by Castles, 2000:272) (

11.2.3 Migration System Theory

 This theory is argued as an outcome of collaboration of two countries where the
migration system is constituted by two or more countries which exchange migrants with each
other. In this system, it is necessary to examine both ends of the flow and study the linkages
(economic, cultural, political, military, etc.) Between the places concerned. Migratory
movements generally arise from the existence of prior links between sending and receiving
countries based on colonization, political influence, trade, investment, or cultural ties (ibid;
2000:272)

While this is the most prevailing reason for migration, this does not capture other
reasons of migration. As already mentioned, there are some reasons of migrations which are
not economic or income-related especially those who are driven away from their place
residence

11.2.4 Push-Pull Theory

The Most Popular theory explaining the causes of migration is one propounded by
Ravenstein (1889) known as the Push-Pull Theory. This theory states that some people move
because they are pushed out of their former location (push factors), or because they have been
pulled or attracted to some places elsewhere (pull Factor) Examples of the push factor are
scarcity of Job Opportunity, Poor medical care, death threats, poor housing, natural disasters,
famine, loss of wealth and discrimination. Pull Factors on the other hand are the opposite Better
Job Opportunities, Improved Living conditions, Political and/or Religious freedom, attractive
climates, better Education, ect. Ravenstein further opined that pull factors were more important
than the push factors because in most instances, people move in order to improve themselves
in material respects, but they would rather endure the conditions in their current residence
unless attached by the above-mention pull factors. To do this however, a potential migrant
usually weighs the cost-benefit of migration.

Most of movement or migration has been considered as an “implementing strategy” in

order to attain the goal of migration. The goal can be in terms of advancement in education,
better job, a nicer house, a more pleasant environment, etc. It is in this implementing strategy
that migration is selective and more apparent at a certain age of the life cycle because there is a
specific age-group of population that is more prone to migration (Weeks, 1986:179-180).

11.3 Trends in Migration

Based on the statistics provided by the International Organization for Migration, Mobility
of people is increasing over time, either internal or international, migration. In 2009, an
estimated 740 Million migration happen without crossing national borders. In 2015, there are
about 244 million people living in a country other than their country of birth. These figures
however remain a slim proportion of the world population, as these movements constitute only
around 12% of the world population (9% for internal migration and 3% for international
migration)
 In terms of international migration, the increase in mobility is notable for the past 4 ½
decades. In 1970, international migrants were estimated at 84 Million while in 1990 they
increase at around 153 million people

Migrants as a % of the world’s

Year Number of migrants
population
1970 84,460,125 2.3%
1975 90,368,010 2.3%
1980 101,983,149 2.3%
1985 113,206,691 2.3%
1990 152,563,212 2.9%
1995 160,801,752 2.8%
2000 172,703,309 2.8%
2005 191,269,100 2.9%
2010 221,714,243 3.2%
2015 246,700,236 3.3%

Europe and Asia catered around 75 million migrants each in the year 2015. This
constitutes 62% of the total global international migrants. In 2017, it is estimated that there were
around 80 Million international migrants residing in Asia, while 78 million Europe. North
America, on the other hand hosted around 54 million international migrants (58 million in 2017),
which constitute 22 % of the total international migrants, Africa 9 % (25 million in 2017), Latin
America and the Caribbean at 4 % (9.5 million in 2017), and Oceania at 3% (8.4 million in 2017)
(IOM, IOM 2018:18). In most countries of Europe, Northern America and Oceania, international
migrants compromised more than 10% of the total population of 2017.

For about 45 years until now, United States of America has been the main country of
destination for international migration. In 1970, there were around 12 million migrants to the
USA. In 2015, it quadrupled to 46.6 million migrants. Since 2005 onwards, Germany became
the second top destination for migrants, accommodating around 12 million migrants in 2015.
Some other top destination for migrants include Russian Federation, Saudi Arabia, United
Kingdom, UAE, Canada, France, Australia, and Spain

According to IOM’s World Migration Report 2015, nearly 1 in every 5 migrants in the
world lives in the top 20 largest cities which include Sydney, Auckland, Singapore, London,
Amsterdam, Frankfurt, and Paris.

Expectedly, migrant distribution is skewed to high-income countries. About 2/3 of

international migrants resided in high-income countries, around 157 million as of year 2015.
Around 77 million migrants resided in middle-income countries, while only 9 million migrants
resided in low-income countries (IOM, 2018:20). In 2017, these high income countries
accommodated nearly 165 million of the total number of international migrants worldwide.
According to region, the south to south migration (migration within developing countries)
continued to grow compared to South-North migration is estimated at 90.2 million, while the
south to north migration is calculated at 85.3 million
 In 2017, Asia and Europe were the regions of origin with the largest numbers of
international migrants – 106 million and 61 million, respectively. Latin American and the
Caribbean followed with 38 million and African with 36 million.

Between 2000 and 2017, African experienced the largest relative increase in the number
of international migrants who had originated in that region (+68%), followed by Asia (+62%),
Latin American and the Caribbean (+52%) and Ocean (+51%)

India has the largest number of person born in the country who are now living outside its
borders. The number of Indian-born persons residing aboard number 17 million in 2017, ahead
of the number of Mexican-Born persons living outside Mexico (13 million). The Russian
Federation, China, Bangladesh, Syrian Arab Republic, Pakistan and Ukraine also have large
migrant populations living abroad, ranging from6 to 11 million each (International Migration
Report, 2017)

Pattern of Migration

Statistics shows that the bulk of Migrants belong to the working population, i.e. those
belong to the ages 15-64. Based on the estimates of the International Organization for
Migration, 72% of the international migrants belong to the working population (IOM, 2018:17).
This is not surprising because as mentioned above, labor is the primary reason for migration. It
is also in the age group when Individual trend to separate from their parents, have their own
lives, and/or look for their own fortune.

11.4 Special Types of Migrants

Irregular Migrants

As defined above, irregular migrants, also known as undocumented or illegal migrants,

are those who enter a country, usually in search of employment, without the necessary
documents and permits (Castles, 2000:270). The is usually the case of Labor migration flows. It
is illegal because it does not go through the process of documentation from country of origin to
the country destination. There are countries, however, which tolerate this country of destination.
There are countries however, which tolerate this practice of migration because in a way, it
“allows Mobilization of labor in response to employer demands without social costs or measure
for protection of migrants (ibid)”. The evil side of this practice however, lies on the fact that most
of these irregular migrants are at a high risk of abuses committed by host country, without the
necessary protection from the sending country.

Migrant in Human Trafficking

Trafficking-in Persons, also known as “Human Trafficking”, is defined as the recruitment,

transportation, transfer, harboring or receipt of persons, by means of threats, force, coercion,
abduction, deception, abuse of power, etc. For the purpose of exploitation. The End-goal of
these exploitation can be in various manners. Examples are, Prostitution, Force Labor and
slavery, Sex tourism, sexual exploitation, debt bondages, or pornography. More recent additions
to the list are Force Marriages (How?), and Black Market Organ Harvesting.

Diaspora and Transnationalism

Typically, migratory chains are started by an external factor, such as recruitment or

military service, or by an initial movement of young people pioneers. Once a movement is
established, the migrants mainly follow ‘beaten paths’ (Stahl, 1993; Castles, 2000:272), and are
helped by relatives and the friends already in the area of immigration. Networks based on family
or on common place of origin help provide shelter, work, assistance with bureaucratic
procedures and support in personal difficulties.

Diaspora refers to “people, and often their descendants, from a specific country who are
living abroad” (IOM, 2018:20) It is used interchangeably with transnational communities, where
“migrants may establish and maintain connections with people in their home communities or
migrants in other countries”. The distinguishing characteristics of diasporas from other migrant
groups in the presence of strong cultural, historical, religious and affective ties with the country
or community of origin, or a sense of identity and belonging (Vertovec and Cohen, 1999, as
quoted by IOM, ibid; 304)

Refugees and Asylum Seekers

Refugee pertains to any person who, “Owing to well-founded fear of being persecuted
for reason of race, religion, nationality, membership of a particular social group or political
opinion, is outside the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is outside
the country of his nationality, and is unable or, owing to such fear, is unwilling to avail himself of
the protection of the country; or who, not having a nationality and being outside the country of
his former habitual residence as a result of such events, is unable to, owing to such fear is
unwilling to return to it (1951 UNCHR Convention Relating to the status of Refugees to be a
Refugee).

11.5 Consequences of Migration

Migration Brings forth multiple Benefits. On an Individual’s case it gives the migrant the
chance to work and enhance their skills and productivity, while giving them a sense of
accomplishment and a sense of purpose. In Familial side it increases the living standards of the
family and/or relatives. This is the usual migration strategy especially among Filipinos, they may
also send a petition to the country of destination’s government to allow his family to join them
there. On International Scale, this increases productivity as well as increase trade and other
relations between the nations.

The only few consequences of migrations, in both personal and familial standpoint, are
the likelihood of stress and/or disorganization of daily life. It may also strain Familial bonds
because of the distance between, even thou modern technology lessened the strain there are
some still there. On National Scale, the Home country would have lessened pool of workforces
while the country of destination gets an increase of work.

Video Link
Migration and Globalization
https://www.youtube.com/watch?v=l69CZFCPCp8

De, Ocampo F., Ramos, B., Llonora, R., Macaraeg, A., & David, M.E. (2018).
Introduction to Contemporary World. St. Andrew Publishing House.