Mechanical Vibration CHAPTER 2: Free Longitudinal Vibration Longitudinal vibration: If the particle of the shaft moves parallel to the axis of the shaff, then the vibration is longitudinal vibration 2.1 Modelling of Dynamic Systems Modelling of dynamic systems is the process of creating a mathematical representation of a ie. Dynamic systems are systems that change over time, and they can be found in many fields. Modelling Techniques There are many different modelling techniques that can be used to model dynamic systems. ‘Some of the most commoa techniques include: Ordinary differential equations (ODEs): ODEs are mathematical equations that describe how the rate of change of a system's variables depends on the current state of the system, ODEs are a powerful tool for modelling dynamic systems, and they can be used to model a wide variety of systems. Partial differential equations (PDEs): PDEs are similar to ODEs, but they describe the rate of change of a system's variables at different points in space, PDEs are more complex than ODEs, but they are necessary for modelling systems that have spatial dependence. State space models: State space models are a type of model that represents a system as a set of state variables and a set of input-output relationships. State space models are a powerful tool for modelling dynamic systems, and they are often used in control systems engineering Modelling Process ‘The modelling process for dynamic systems typically involves the following steps: ii, iii, Identify the objective of the model, What do you want the model to be able to do? Develop a conceptual model. A conceptual model is a qualitative description of the system and its behaviour. Develop a mathematical model. This involves writing down the equations that describe the relationships between the system's variables. KeyruS.Mechanical Vibration iv, Solve the mathematical model. This can be done analytically or numerically. v. Validate the model. This can be done by comparing the model's predictions to experimental data, 2.2 Undamped Free Longitudinal Vibration For the proper design of machine or machine parts which are subjected to vibration, it is essential to estimate their natural frequencies to avoid resonance. The natural frequency of free longitudinal undamped vibration can be found by applying Newton's second law to the free body diagram of the vibrating mass. Consider a spring with spring constant k in Figure 2.1 The spring is in unstrained position initially without carrying a mass. When a mass m is supported by the spring, due to the weight of the mass the spring tends to stretch a displacement of 6 (static deflection). TI leads for the system to obtain it equilibrium position. At this position, the spring force will be balanced by the weight. Further application of any force to displace (move by x) the mass results in an extra force in the spring which can return the mass to equilibrium position, & : Equilibrium, Fp = x5 kext) poston —t at W= me = m+ motion me of body ®) Spring in by Spring inc) FBD of tho) Displaced unstrained strained mass at equilibrium postion position position position Figure 2.1 Mass-Spring system at different position At equilibrium position, applying Newton’s second law to the FBD, mg kd =0 (2.1] Acceleration a of the mass is always towards the mean/equilibrium position and given in terms of displacement x a5 KeyruS. 2Mechanical Vibration ae At displaced position, applying Newton’s second law to the FBD, mg —K(x+6)=ma => mg —ke—kS = ma > ma+ke=0 since mg=kd sA22] Equation 2.2 is the governing equation of free undamped longitudinal vibration of SDOF system, From the fundamental equation of SHM, Comparing the two equations, seeef2.3] Where a is the circular frequency of the system Natural frequency fi is Since mg = kd, KeyruS. 3Mechanical Vibration Jt ALS le I if iE 0.4985 Hz The time period f, is 25] Since mg = kd, Example 2.1 Stiffness of a closely coiled spring is 9.2 N/mm. Find the natural frequency of longitudinal vibration of a mass of 17.5 kg hung from it, Given data; k=9.2N/ mm, m=17.5kg Required: f, ‘Solution; The natural frequency is A [EL 1 [925107 _ 5 g4ore 2aV\m ln 17.5 A shaft of 100 mo diameter and | m long is fixed at one end and the other end carries a fly Example 2.2 wheel of mass I fon. Taking young’s modulus for the shaft material es 200 GPa, find the natural frequency of longitudinal vibrations. KeyruS. 4Mechanical Vibration =0.lm,1= 1m, m= 1 tone = 1000 kg & E = 200 GPa Given data; d, Require 2 Solution; The static deflection (5) of a shaft of cross-sectional area d subjected to weight Wis — Mala 1000498 245.10%m AE AB pe 29 20010" 4 4 Then the natural frequency is 0.4985 0498599 gry v5 ¥6.245x10° Example 2.3 Spring-mass system has spring stiffness of k and a mass of m. It has the natural frequency of longitudinal vibration as 12 Hz. An extra 2 kg mass is coupled to m and the natural frequency reduces by 2 Hz. Find the value of k and m. Given data, f,, =12Hz ard fi =\0Hz Required; k=? and m=2 Solution; The first natural frequency ae 22 Vm Sn => k= 5684.89 Jk 19 m+2 => k= 3947.84(m+2) The second natural frequency fh ln Combining the two equations, => k—25,840N / mand = m — 4.545kg Example 2.4 Steel wire (E= 196 GPa) is of 2 mm diameter and is 30 m long. It is fixed at the upper end and KeyruS. 5Mechanical Vibration carries a mass m at its lower end. Find the value of the mass so that the natural frequency of longitudinal vibration is 4 Hz. Given data; d= 2mm =0002m, 1=30m, f,=4Hz and E=196 GPa Required; m=? ‘Solurton; The natural frequency is ees) Ve = 6 =0.01553m But the static deflection (4) of a shaft is WL _mgl__mgl____mx9.81%30 ee Ue 7 2.002" 196%10" = mee = 0.01553 a 19610" 4 = m=32.49%kg 2.3 Determination of Equivalent Stiffness of Springs So far, we have discussed a system having only one spring. But in practice springs in series and springs in parallel are mostly used. In order to find the natural frequency of such systems ess of dhe system. fast we nved to determine equivatent sti 2.2.1, Springs in Series Figure 2.2 shows springs in series. Each spring is subjected to the same load applied at the end of one spring. It can be noted that the total deflection of the assembly is the algebraic sum of the deflection of each spring, Figure 2.2 Springs in Series KeyruS.Mechanical Vibration 5=5 468, www pies Kk; 2.6] Therefore, the reciprocal of equivalent stiffiness of spring assembly in series is the sum of the reciprocal of individual stiffness of the springs. 2.2.2, Springs in Parallel Figure 2.3 shows springs in parallel. In this ease the deflection of each spring is the same. It can be noted that, the load applied on the assembly is shared by the two springs. m 7m Figure 2.3 Springs in Parallel W=W a, Sh S=hd+ks = hy =k +h, 2.7] Therefore, equivalent stiffness of spring assembly in parallel is the sum of individual stiffness of the springs. Example 2.5 Determine equivalent spring stiffiness and natural frequency of the vibration systems shown in Figure 2.4 (a) to (e). Whea a) The mass is suspended by the spring b) The mass is suspended at the bottom of two springs in series ©). The mass is fixed in between two springs 4d) The mass is fixed :0 the mid-point of a spring and €) The mass is suspended at the bottom of two springs in parallel Take k, =1S00N /m, k,=900N )m and m= 12 kg KeyruS. 7Mechanical Vibration (@), ki Figure 2.4 Spring Assemblies Given data; k, =1500N /m, k, =900N /m and m= 12 kg Required; k,, = and f, Solution; a) The mass is suspended by the spring = 1500N / m, thus ae cL [1500 = rene 24Vm 2nV 12 b)_ The mass is suspended at the bottom of two springs in series te eee k, 1500 900 62.5 m.thus i AL [ha 1/5625 1 ggon2 22Vm 2xV 12 ©) The mass is fixed in between two springs In this case the spring forces and the mass. lI be different but the deflections will be the same for the springs KS Hh +k oS ky =k tk, =k, = 2400N /m,thus Jo~sh fhe LPH asin 2aVm 22V 12 4) Spring stiffness is inversely proportional to the number of coils. Thus, the stiffness of spring on each side of the mass is 2k. Now k,, = 2k, + 2k, = 4k, KeyruS. 8Mechanical Vibration = k,, = 6000/ m, thus Fk, cL |B — 1/6000 _ 9 score 2nVm 22V 12 ©) The mass is suspended at the bottom of two springs in parallel ky =k +k, = k,, = 2400 /m,thus f, JT [kay _ 1 [2400 "“2nVim 2aV 12 Determine equivalent spring stiffiness and natural frequency of vibration of the system shown in Figure 2.5. Given that = 5000N /m, k, =k, =8000N /'m and m =25 kg. 2.25Hz Example 2.6 Figure 2.5 Given data; k, = 5000N /m, k, =k, =8000N /m and m= 25 kg =?and f,= Solution; Springs 2 and 3 are connected in parallel. Thus, their equivalent stiffness is ky, = ky +k; = 8000 +8000 = 16000N / m Now spring | and equivalent spring 23 are in series, equivalent stiffness of the overall assembly is 5000" 16000 1 fk fk [3809.52 ae as = 1.965He 2aVm dV 25 KeyruS.Mechanical Vibration Example 2.7 For the system shown in Figure 2.6, k, 00N /m, k,=1500N /m, k, =3000N /m and k,=2000N/m. ind the mass m such that the system has a natural frequency of 6.75 Hz. Figure 2.6 Given data; k,=k,=500N/m, k,=1S00N/m, k,=3000N/m, k,=2000N/m and f, =6.15Hz Required; m Solution; Springs 1, 2 ané 3 are connected in series. Thus, their equivalent stiffness is + a Kk, 500 500 1500 =214.286N/m Shs Springs 4 and 4 are connected in parallel. Thus, their equivalent stiffness is, yg =k +h, = 3000+ 2000 = S000! m Since the mass is in between spring 123 and spring 45. Thus, equivalent stiffness of the assembly is Kg = fas + hay = 214.286 + 5000 = 5214.286NV J m, thus Kk, ab fhe SEV m ky $214,286 m= 5 = 2h 286 (24 fF, (24*6.75) 899g KeyruS. 10Mechanical Vibration 2.4 Damped Free Longitudinal vi 23.1. Damping In actual practice there is always internal or external resistance, such as air and mechanical resistances, due to which the energy possessed by a vibrating body is gradually dissipated and the body finally comes to rest in its equilibrium position. At the start of the vibratory motion the amplitude of vibration is maximum which goes on decreasing and finally it is vanished completely. This diminishing of vibration with time is called damping. The rate of decreasing amplitude depends on the amount of damping. The device used for resistance of a vibratory motion is damper (dashpot). Usually, damping force is proportional to velocity across the damper. Dampers are used to control the amplitude of vibration so that failure due to resonance may be avoided. Damping can be achieved by any of the following types of damping. a) Viscous damping b) Coulomb or dry friction damping ©) Solid or structural damping and 4) Slip or interfacial damping Damping force is proportional to velocity across the damper. The proportionality constant is damping coefficient (c) which is damping force per unit velocity. Damping force = exvelociry= ex St t ramping force velocity =c= 2.8] Dampers in Series: When dampers are combined in series, the reciprocal of the equivalent damping coefficient is the sum of the reciprocal of the individual damping coefficients. +29] a ™ Figure 2.7 Dampers in Series combination KeyruS. iMechanical Vibration Dampers in Parallel: When dampers are combined in parallel, the equivalent damping coefficient is the algebraic sum of the individual damping coefficieats. $0,460 [2.10] Figure 2.8 Dampers in Parallel combination 2.3.2. Frequency of Damped vibration Consider a mass-spring-dashpot system in Figure 2.9. The mass is suspended by a spring and a dashpot is provided between the mass and fixed support. When the mass is forced to displace trom equilibrium position, a resistance force will be developed both in the spring and dashpot ‘The damping force is proportional to the velocity of the mass, The spring force due to static deflection will be balanced by the weight of the mass, so that both of these forces are avoided from the FBD of mass at displaced position. This is because at equilibrium position, the forces acting on the mass are only spring force and weight. As the velocity of mass is zero, the damping force will be zero. ‘ de nord at i EFF mation of bouly a) Strained b) Displaced ©) FBD of the mass at position position displaced position Figure 2.9 Mass-spring-dashpot system, At displaced position, applying Newton’s second law to the FBD, nol ee ma dt KeyruS. 12Mechanical Vibration mareX + ke=0 dt 2.11] Equation 2.11 which is second order linear ordinary differential equation is the governing equation of free damped longitudinal vibration, The characteristic equation of the governing equation is Now, the solution for the governing equation is the displacement equati which is x(t)= de% + Be «f=y=} “(ye eoaad le *t mde Win) =} Critical damping coefficient [2.12] Critical damping coefficient (c,) is the value of damping coefficient for which the radical term (<) = Jin the above equation is equal to zero. 2m m [2.13] Oreven ¢, 2k KeyruS. 13Mechanical Vibration Damping ratio or Damping factor (¢) Damping ratio is the ratio of actual damping coefficient to the critical damping coefficient, [2.14] From the values of the roots ese seceeeeeeeend2.15] Ife > ccorg > 1, then the system is said to be over-damped Ife = ccor ¢ = 1, then the system is said to be critically damped Ife 1) When ¢ > 1, the system is over-damped (large damping) and the solution of the system is given by Equation 2.15 as [eSp PsP, a x(t)=4el This system cannot vibrate due to over-damping, Since both the roots are negative, the magnitude of displacement approaches to zero bur it takes an infinite time to come to equilibrium position. This type of motion is known as aperiodic motion. Critically damped system (¢ = 1) When ¢ = 1, the system is critically-damped. In this ease the charceteristic equation has only one solution, 4 =—c, . Thus, the general solution for displacement equation becomes x(t)=(4+ Be" 2.16] This system also cannot vibrate and the displacement approaches to zero at infinity. Compared to over-damped system, the displacement of critically-damped system approaches to zero quickly KeyruS. 14