DCA 101 PC Hardware & Operating SystemS

DCA101 MODULE 1
COMPUTER FUNDAMENTALS
Hardware and software
Computer Hardware:
Hardware refers to the physical components of a computer. Computer
Hardware is any part of the computer that we can touch these parts. These
are the primary electronic devices used to build up the computer. Examples of
hardware in a computer are the Processor, Memory Devices, Monitor, Printer,
Keyboard, Mouse, and the Central Processing Unit.
Computer Software:
Software is a collection of instructions, procedures, documentation that
performs different tasks on a computer system. we can say also Computer
Software is a programming code executed on a computer processor. The
code can be machine-level code or the code written for an operating system.
Examples of software are Ms Word, Excel, Power Point, Google Chrome,
Photoshop, MySQL etc.
Basic Parts of a Computer
 A computer consists of four main components namely, Input unit,
Memory unit, Central Procesing Unit (CPU) and Output unit. CPU consists of
Arithmetic & Logical Unit(ALU) and Control Unit(CU).

Input unit
Input units are used by the computer to read the data. The most
commonly used input devices are keyboards, mouse, joysticks,
microphones, etc.
Memory unit
The Memory unit can be referred to as the storage area in which can
store programs and data. The Memory unit can be categorized in two types
namely, primary memory and secondary memory.
Primary storage is the fastest memory that operates at electronic
speeds. The most common examples of primary memory are Random
Access Memory(RAM) and Read Only Memory(ROM). RAM is a volatile form
of memory, means when the computer is shut down, anything contained in
RAM is lost. ROM is as the non-volatile memory form of memory, means the
data is stored permanently irrespective of shut down.
The data and programs are stored permanantly in secondary storage
devices. The most common examples of secondary memory are magnetic
disks, magnetic tapes, and optical disks.

Central processing unit

Central Processing Unit commonly known as CPU can be referred as
an electronic circuitry within a computer that carries out the instructions given
by a computer program by performing the basic arithmetic, logical, control
and input/output (I/O) operations specified by the instructions.
It consists of Arithmetic and Logic Unit(ALU) and Control Unit(CU). Most
of all the arithmetic and logical operations of a computer are executed in the
ALU (Arithmetic and Logical Unit) of the processor. The Control Unit is a
component of a computer's central processing unit that coordinates the
operation of the processor. It tells the computer's memory, arithmetic/logic
unit and input and output devices how to respond to a program's instructions.

Output Unit
The primary function of the output unit is to send the processed results
to the user. These devices display information that has been held or
generated within a computer. The most common examples of an output
device are monitor and printer.
Input Devices

Input devices feed data and instructions into the computer. Input device
is defined as a device that provides communication between the user and the
computer. Different input devices are

1.Keyboard

Keyboard is the most common input device. Keyboard Allows the user
to input text data consisting of alphabets, numbers and other characters.
Detects the key pressed and generates the corresponding ASCII code which
can be recognised by the computer. Wired and wireless keyboards are
available. It has a keyboard layout called the QWERTY design.

2. Mouse

Mouse A small handheld device used to position the cursor or move the
pointer on the computer screen by rolling it over a mouse pad / flat surface.
Different types of mouse are ball, optical and laser mouse. Wireless mouse is
also available.

3. Light pen

Light pen is a pointing device shaped like a pen. Has the advantage of
‘drawing’ directly onto the screen. Used by engineers, artists, & fashion
designers for Computer Aided Designing (CAD) and drawing purposes.

4. Touch screen

Touch screen Allows the user to operate/make selections by simply

touching on the display screen. It can also be operated using stylus which
gives more precision.

5. Graphic Tablet

Graphic tablet Consists of an electronic writing area and a special ‘pen’

that works with it. Allows artists to create graphical images with actions similar
to traditional drawing tools.

6. Joystick

Joystick Used to playing video games, control training simulators and

robots. Has a vertical stick which can move in any direction and a button on
top that is used to select the option pointed by the cursor.
7. Microphone

Microphone is used to input sound to the computer. It accepts sound

which is analogue in nature as input and converts it to digital format.

8. Scanner

Scanner allows capturing of information, like pictures or text and

converting it into a digital format that can be edited using a computer. Quality
of the image depends on the resolution of the scanner. Optical Character
Recognition (OCR) software is used to recognise the text in an image
scanned and convert it into text, which can be edited by a text editor. Different
variants of scanners are flat bed, sheet feed and hand held scanner.

Output devices

Output devices presents information from a computer system. Output

generated by the out put device may be

Softcopy output are electronic output and are generated on the screen
in digital form.

Hardcopy outputs are permanent outputs which can be used at a later

date or when required.

Some output devices and their features are

1. Visual Display Display Unit (VDU)

Display devices include CRT monitors, LCD monitors, TFT monitors,

LED monitors, gas plasma monitors, Organic Light Emitting Diode (OLED)
Monitors, etc. Information shown on a display device is called soft copy. The
size of a monitor is measured diagonally across the screen, in inches.
(CRT – Cathode Ray Tube, LCD – Liquid Christal Display, TFT – Thin Film
Transister, LED – Light Emitting Diode)

2. LCD projector

An LCD projector is a type of video projector for displaying video,

images or computer data on a large screen or other flat surface. A beam of
high-intensity light which travels through thousands of shifting pixels in an
LCD is focused by a lens on the surface.
Pixel and Resolution

Pixels, or picture elements, are the smallest physical points on a

display, as well as the base components. Pixels are therefore the building
blocks of any image you see on your screen. Pixels and resolution are
directly correlated and a higher resolution equals a higher number of pixels
on a monitor screen.

Monitor resolution describes the visual dimensions of any given display.

Expressed in terms of width and height, monitor resolution is comprised of a
specific number of pixels.
In the case of a monitor with an industry-standard Full HD 1080p resolution,
this display has a resolution of 1920 x 1080. This means that the screen will
have a width of 1,920 pixels while the height of the screen will be 1,080
pixels. This results in a grand total of 2,073,600 pixels on-screen.

3. Printers

Printer Used to produce hardcopy output. The output printed on paper

is known as hardcopy. Based on the technology used, they are classified as
Impact and Non impact printers.

i. Impact Printers

Impact printers uses the printing mechanism where a hammer srikes

the paper through an inked ribbon in order to produce output. Example of an
impact printer is Dot Matrix Printer.

Dot-matrix printer uses impact mechanism. It use ellectromechanically

activated pins in the print head and inked ribbon to produce images by
impact. It can print carbon copies with less printing cost. The speed is
measured in number of characters printed per second (cps). These printers
are slow and noisy.

ii. Non impact printers

Non impact printers print head do no touch the paper while printing.

Examples are link jet printer, Laser printer, thermal printer, etc.

a. Inkjet printers are non-impact printers that form the image on the
page by spraying tiny droplets of ink from the print head. Ink jet printers are
inexpensive, but the cost of ink cartridges makes them costly to operate in the
long run.

b. Laser printers are non-impact printers that produce good quality

images. Monochrome and color laser printers are available. Color laser
printers use multiple color toner cartridges to produce color output and are
expensive. Laser printers are faster and their speed is rated in pages per
minute (ppm).

c. Thermal printer is a non-impact printer that produces a printed image

by selectively heating heat in sensitive thermal paper when it passes over the
thermal print head. The coating turns black in the areas where it is heated,
producing an image. It is popular as a portable printer.

4. Plotter

A plotter is an output device used to produce hardcopies of graphs and

designs on the paper. A plotter is typically used to print large-format graphs or
maps such as construction maps, engineering drawings and big posters.
Plotters are of two types: Drum plotters and Flatbed plotters.

5. 3D printer

A 3D printer is an output device used to print 3D objects. It can produce

different kinds of objects, in different materials, using the same printer. The
3D printing process turns the object to be printed, into thousands of tiny little
slices. It then prints it from the bottom to top, slice by slice. Those tiny layers
stick together to form a solid object.

6. Audio output

The audio output is the ability of the computer to produce device sound.
Speakers are the output devices that produces sound. It is connected to the
computer through audio ports.

Comparison of various printers are given below

Features Laser Printer Inkjet Printer Thermal Dot Matrix

Printer Printer
Printing Ink Powder Liquid Ink Heat sensitive Ink soaked
material used paper ribbon
How it prints It fuses the It sprays ink on Thermal paper Pins on the
power on the paper through is passed over print head are
paper through microscopic the thermal pushed
 heating nozzles print head against ribbon
on paper
Printing 20 pages per 6 pages per 150mm per 30-550 cps
speed minute(ppm) minute(ppm) second
Quality Good quality Good Poor Poor
Advantages Quiet, faster, Quiet, high printQuiet, fast, Printing cost is
high print quality, no warm smaller, lighter, Cheaper ,
quality up time, device consume less Carbon copy is
cost is less power and possible
portable
Dis Possible for Ink is expensive Requires Device is
advantages paper jams. and not water special expensive, not
Device and proof, nozzle is thermal quality fast, poor
tonner is possible to paper, Poor quality, makes
expensive clogging print quality. noice

Memory

Memory is a place where we can store data, instructions and results

temporarily or permanently. Memory can be classified into two - primary
memory and secondary memory. Primary memory can store data,
intermediate results and results of ongoing jobs temporarily. Secondary
memory can store data and information permanently. Different memory
measuring units are

Binary Digit = 1 bit (BInary digiT)

1 Nibble = 4 bits
1 Byte = 8 bits
1 KB(Kilo Byte) = 1024 Bytes (210)
1 MB (Mega Byte) = 1024 KB
1 GB (Giga Byte) = 1024 MB
1 TB (Tera Byte) = 1024 GB
1 PB (Peta Byte) = 1024 TB

1. Primary Memory
Primary memory is a semiconductor memory that is accessed directly
by the CPU. This include mainly three types of memory such as RAM, ROM
and cache memory.

I. Random Access Memory (RAM)

RAM refers to the main memory that microprocessor can read from and
write into. Data can be stores and retrieved at random from anywhere within
the RAM, no matter where the data is. The contents of RAM are lost when the
power of the computer is switched off. Therefore, RAM is called volatile
memory. The speed of the RAM is expressed in Mega Hertz(MHz). When a
computer is in use, its RAM contains
1. The Operating System Software
2. The application software currently used
3. Any data that is being processed.
.
II. Read Only Memory (ROM)
ROM can perform only read operations and its contents cannot be
easily altered. ROM is non-volatile; the contents are retained even after the
power is switched off. ROM is used in most computers to hold ‘boot up’
program known as Basic Input Output System(BIOS). This software runs
when the computer is switched on or boots up. It checks the computer’s
hardware and then loads the operating system. The types of ROM are

1. PROM (Programmable ROM)

Programmable ROM which can be programmed only once. ie. at the
time of manufacture.

2. EPROM (Erasable Programmable ROM)

EPROM can be rewritten using ultra violet radiation.

3. EEPROM(Electrically Erasable programmable ROM)

EEPROM can be rewritten electrically. eg. Flash memory

Comparison between RAM and ROM

RAM ROM
1 It is volatile, ie. Its contents are 1. It is non-volatile. i.e. its
lost when the power is off. contents are retained when the
2 It sores the operating system, device is powered off.
application programs and data 2. It stores the program required
when the computer is to boot the computer initially
functioning
3 It allows reading and writing 3. Usually allows reading only
4 It is faster than ROM 4. It is a slower memory

DDR RAM
Double Data Rate Synchronous Dynamic Random-Access Memory
(DDR SDRAM) is a double data rate (DDR) synchronous dynamic random-
access memory (SDRAM) class of memory integrated circuits used in
computers. DDR SDRAM, also retroactively called DDR1 SDRAM, has been
superseded by DDR2 SDRAM, DDR3 SDRAM, DDR4 SDRAM and DDR5
SDRAM. None of its successors are forward or backward compatible with
DDR1 SDRAM, meaning DDR2, DDR3, DDR4 and DDR5 memory modules
will not work in DDR1-equipped motherboards, and vice versa.
Compared to single data rate (SDR) SDRAM, the DDR SDRAM
interface makes higher transfer rates possible by more strict control of the
timing of the electrical data and clock signals. Implementations often have to
use schemes such as phase-locked loops and self-calibration to reach the
required timing accuracy. The interface uses double pumping (transferring
data on both the rising and falling edges of the clock signal) to double data
bus bandwidth without a corresponding increase in clock frequency. One
advantage of keeping the clock frequency down is that it reduces the signal
integrity requirements on the circuit board connecting the memory to the
controller. The name "double data rate" refers to the fact that a DDR SDRAM
with a certain clock frequency achieves nearly twice the bandwidth of a SDR
SDRAM running at the same clock frequency, due to this double pumping.
With data being transferred 64 bits at a time, DDR SDRAM gives a transfer
rate (in bytes/s) of (memory bus clock rate) × 2 (for dual rate) × 64 (number of
bits transferred) / 8 (number of bits/byte). Thus, with a bus frequency of 100
MHz, DDR SDRAM gives a maximum transfer rate of 1600 MB/s.
III. Cache memory
Cache memory is a small and very fast memory between the processor
and RAM(main memory). Frequently accessed data, instructions,
intermediate results, etc. Are stored in cache memory for quick access. The
processor reads data from cache memory if the copy of that data is available
otherwise from RAM. Cache is more expensive than RAM.

2. Secondary Memory

Secondary memory is also known as auxiliary memory. It stores

data permanently. Secondary memory is much larger in size than RAM, but
slower than RAM. The program and data in the secondary memory cannot be
accessed directly by the processor. It is also used for transferring data and
program from one computer to another. It can also act as backup. Different
types of secondary memory are

i. Magnetic storage device

Magnetic storage devices uses plastic tape or metal/plastic disks

coated with magnetic materials. Popular magnetic storage devices are
magnetic tape, hard disk etc.
a. Magnetic tape

It is a backup device that can store huge volume of data. It has a

recording medium consisting of a thin tape with a coating of fine magnetic
material. Data is stored in digital form using read/write head. The cost is less
compared to other magnetic store devices.

b. Hard Disk

It consists of metal disks coated with magnetic material concealed in

dust free container. Hard disks have very high storage capacity, high data
transfer rates and low access time. A read/write head magnetises the
magnetic surface to write data and can sense magnetic field to read data
from the disk.

Structure of
a Hard Disk

A hard disk drive (HDD), hard disk, hard drive, or fixed disk is an
electro-mechanical data storage device that stores and retrieves digital data
using magnetic storage and one or more rigid rapidly rotating platters coated
with magnetic material. The platters are paired with magnetic heads, usually
arranged on a moving actuator arm, which read and write data to the platter
surfaces. Data is accessed in a random-access manner, meaning that
individual blocks of data can be stored and retrieved in any order. HDDs are a
type of non-volatile storage, retaining stored data even when powered
off.Modern HDDs are typically in the form of a small rectangular box.

A typical HDD has two electric motors: a spindle motor that spins the
disks and an actuator (motor) that positions the read/write head assembly
across the spinning disks. The disk motor has an external rotor attached to
the disks; the stator windings are fixed in place. Opposite the actuator at the
end of the head support arm is the read-write head; thin printed-circuit cables
connect the read-write heads to amplifier electronics mounted at the pivot of
the actuator.

Sector, Track and Cylinder

In hard disks, data is recorded on concentric circles called tracks. A
track is that portion of a disk which passes under a single stationary head
during a disk rotation, a circular ring 1 bit wide.
A track is divided into segments calledsectors, which is the basic unit of
storage.
A cylinder is a group of all tracks in all platters which are at the same
position. A cylinder is comprised of the set of tracks described by all the
heads (on separate platters) at a single seek position. Each cylinder is
equidistant from the center of the disk.
Types of Hard Drives
We can divide the hard disk into four types - Parallel ATA, Serial ATA,
Small Computer System Interface, Solid State Drives. Following is the
information about them respectively.
Parallel ATA (PATA)
Parallel ATA (PATA) drives are one of the hard drive types. They are
also known as integrated drive electronics (IDE) or enhanced integrated drive
electronics (EIDE) drives. It is the first hard drive connected to a computer
using the PATA interface standard.
The PATA drive was developed by Western Digital in 1986. It provides a
driver with a common interface, which can be used on different devices
commonly at the time. PATA drives can provide data transfer rates up to 133
MB/s. In the master/slave configuration, two PATA drives can be connected
with one cable.
Serial ATA (SATA)
As one of the HDD types, Serial ATA (SATA) hard drives are still
considered to be the most common type of hard drives used today. It almost
supports all computer motherboards and operating systems. SATA drives are
usually one of two sizes: 3.5-inch hard drives for desktop computers and 2.7-
inch small hard drives for laptop computers.
The disk of the SATA drive rotates at different speeds according to the model
purchased. The speed can reach 10,000 RPM to increase data transmission.
Storage devices used in large servers can even reach 15,000 RPM. However,
higher RPM SATA drives are also more prone to failure. Actually, mechanical
failure is one of the main disadvantages of SATA drives.
Tip: To learn more detailed information about SATA, this post - What Is SATA
Hard Drive? SATA Hard Drive Recovery is what you need.
Small Computer System Interface (SCSI)
Small Computer System Interface is also one of the types of hard disk.
It was developed in the 1970s and was first called Shugart Associates
System Interface (SASI) after the company founded it. It uses a 50-pin flat
ribbon connector to connect hard drives and other peripherals to the
computer.
With standard interface technology, 7 to 15 devices are allowed to
connect to a single motherboard. Although it is generally believed that SCSI is
outdated, the SCSI can still be found in some low-end computers. Modern
SCSI cables can transfer data at up to 80 MB/s.
Solid-State Drives (SSD)
One of the hard drive types is the solid-state drive (SSD). Today, it is at
the forefront of storage technology development. It is a storage drive
composed entirely of memory chips, rather than rotating magnetic disks in
traditional hard disks.
ii. Optical Storage devices

Optical data storage medium which uses low-powered laser beam to

read and write data into it. It consists of an aluminium foil sandwiched
between two circular plastic disks. Data is written on a single continuous
spiral in the form of pits and lands. The laser beam reads this pits and lands
as 0s and 1s. Optical disks are very cheap. The main types of optical disks
are CD (Compact Disk)., DVD (Digital Versatile Disk) and Blue-ray DVD. CD
capable of storing up to 700MB, DVD can store data from 4.37GB to 17.48GB
and Blu-ray DVD can store from 25GB to 50GB of data.
iii. Semi conductor storage (Flash memory)

Flash drives use EEPROM chips for data storage. Flash memory is
faster and durable when compared to other type of secondary memory. The
drawback is that they are limited to a certain number of write cycles. The
different types of flash memories are USB flash drives and flash memory
cards.

USB flash drive

USB flash drive(flash memory) is a small external storage devices and

can be connected to a device through USB port. These are portable and
rewritable.

Flash memory cards

Flash memory cards are smaller version of flash memory which is used
within mobile phones, tablets, cameras etc.

Microprocessor

A microprocessor is a computer processor where the data processing

logic and control is included on a single integrated circuit, or a small number
of integrated circuits. The microprocessor is a multipurpose, clock-driven,
register-based, digital integrated circuit that accepts binary data as input,
processes it according to instructions stored in its memory, and provides
results (also in binary form) as output. Microprocessors contain both
combinational logic and sequential digital logic. Microprocessors operate on
numbers and symbols represented in the binary number system.

The word length of the processor in a computer refers to the maximum

number of bits it can take as input. It is the number of bits processed by a
computer CPU in a single pass.
 Clock speed means a faster CPU. However, many other factors come
into play. CPU processes many instructions (low-level calculations like
arithmetic) from different programs every second. The clock speed
measures the number of cycles your CPU executes per second, measured in
GHz (gigahertz).

Popular Processors of AMD and Intel

AMD (Advanced Micro Devices, Inc. )processors

K6
Athlon
Duron
Sempron
Turion
Phenom
Intel processors
8086
8088
80286 (286)
80386 (386)
80486 (486)
Pentium
Pentium II
Pentium III
Pentium 4
Core Duo
Core 2 Duo
Core i3
Core i5
Core i7
Core i9

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 DCA101 MODULE 2

WINDOWS
Operating System

An Operating System (OS) is a system software which is an interface

between a computer user and computer hardware. An operating system is a
software which performs all the basic tasks like file management, memory
management, process management, handling input and output, and
controlling peripheral devices such as disk drives and printers.
Some popular Operating Systems include Linux Operating System,
Windows Operating System, IOS, Android etc.
Functions of an Operation System
The operating system performs the following functions in a device.
1. Instruction
2. Input/output Management
3. Memory Management
4. File Management
5. Processor Management
6. Job Priority
7. Special Control Program
8. Scheduling of resources and jobs
9. Security
10. Monitoring activities
1. Instruction: The operating system establishes a mutual understanding
between the various instructions given by the user.
2. Input/output Management: This management involves coordinating
various input and output devices.
3. Memory Management: The operating system handles the responsibility of
storing any data, system programs, and user programs in memory. This
function of the operating system is called memory management.
4. File Management: The operating system is helpful in making changes in
the stored files and in replacing them.
5. Processor Management: The processor is the execution of a program
that accomplishes the specified work in that program.
6. Job Priority: It determines what action should be done first in a computer
system.
7. Special Control Program: The operating systems make automatic
changes to the task through specific control programs. These programs are
called Special Control Program.
8. Scheduling of resources and jobs: The operating system prepares the
list of tasks to be performed for the device of the computer system. The
operating system decides which device to use for which task. This action
becomes complicated when multiple tasks are to be performed
simultaneously in a computer system.
9. Security: Modern operating systems use a firewall for security. A firewall is
a security system that monitors every activity happening in the computer and
blocks that activity in case of any threat.
10. Monitoring activities: The operating system sends instant messages to
the user for any unexpected error in the input/output device. It also provides
security to the system when the operating system is used in systems
operated by multiple users. So that illegal users cannot get data from the
system.
User Interfaces
User Interface comprises of everything the user can use to interact with
the computer. It is basically the means by which the user and computer
system can interact using input and output devices. GUI and CUI are two
types of User Interfaces. GUI stands for Graphical User Interface while CUI
stands for Character User Interface.
GUI a type of user interface where user interacts with the computer
using graphics. Graphics include icons, navigation bars, images etc. Mouse
can be used while using this interface to interact with the graphics. It is a very
user-friendly interface and requires no expertise.
Eg: Windows, Linux have GUI.
CUI is a type of user interface where user interacts with computer
using only keyboard. To perform any action a command is required. CUI is
precursor of GUI and was used in most primitive computers. Most modern
computers use GUI and not CUI.
Eg: MS-DOS, Unix have CUI.
Architecture of an Operating System

Kernel
The kernel is the heart of the operating system. The term kernel often
refers to the operating system. The critical code of the kernel is stored in a
special memory area to protect it from other programs. It is a vital component
as it is the basis for the proper functioning of the entire system. The kernel
performs a variety of tasks including process management, managing
hardware devices and handling interrupts.

Shell
Shell is the interface between user and kernel. It is a command-line
interpreter and is the interface between the user and the kernel. The user can
enter commands to the shell. Then it interprets the commands to perform the
required task. Furthermore, it executes programs and shell scripts. A shell
script is a set of commands. The user should follow the standard syntax to
write commands to the shell.
Booting

Booting is the process of loading Operating System to the memory.

Bootstrap program

A bootstrap program is the first code that is executed when the

computer system is started. The entire operating system depends on the
bootstrap program to work correctly as it loads the operating system.
Steps of Booting
We can describe the boot process in six steps:
1. The Startup
It is the first step that involves switching the power ON. It supplies electricity
to the main components like BIOS and processor.
2. BIOS: Power On Self Test(POST)
It is an initial test performed by the BIOS. Further, this test performs an initial
check on the input/output devices, computer’s main memory, disk drives, etc.
Moreover, if any error occurs, the system produces a beep sound.
BIOS – Basic Input Output System
3. Loading of OS
In this step, the operating system is loaded into the main memory. The
operating system starts working and executes all the initial files and
instructions.
4. System Configuration
In this step, the drivers are loaded into the main memory. Drivers are
programs that help in the functioning of the peripheral devices.
5. Loading System Utilities
System utilities are basic functioning programs, for example, volume control,
antivirus, etc. In this step, system utilities are loaded into the memory.
6. User Authentication
If any password has been set up in the computer system, the system checks
for user authentication. Once the user enters the login Id and password
correctly the system finally starts.

POST

A power-on self-test (POST) is a set of routines performed by firmware

or software immediately after a computer is powered on, to determine if the
hardware is working as expected. The process would proceed further only if
the required hardware is working correctly, else the BIOS(Basic Input Output
Software) would issue an error message. POST sequence is executed
irrespective of the Operating System and is handled by the system BIOS.
Once the tests are passed the POST would generally notify the OS with
beeps while the number of beeps can vary from system to system. When
POST is successfully finalized, bootstrapping is enabled. Bootstrapping starts
the initialization of the OS.

DOS Internal Commands

These DOS commands are called internal commands because their
code is included in COMMAND.COM, the DOS and Windows 9x command
processor. Since COMMAND.COM is loaded into primary memory when DOS
or Windows 9x is booted, the internal commands are always in memory and
can be executed at any time without first being fetched from disk (secondary
memory).
This is in contrast to the disk-bound external commands, which reside
only in secondary memory until the moment they are commanded to launch.
Then they are loaded into primary memory by the operating system, but only
if it can find the program on disk.
The syntax for some frequently used internal commands follows.

TIME
Displays current time and allows it to be changed.
Syntax:
TIME

DATE
Displays current date and allows it to be changed.
Syntax:
DATE

CLS
Clears the screen.
Syntax:
CLS

DIR
Shows directory information of a diskette: name, size, and the date and time
stamp of files.
Syntax:
DIR [d:][path][switch]
Optional switches:
/p Display dir info and pauses display when the screen is full
 /w Display names and extensions only in five columns

To display a file directory listing for D:\DATA\LETTER\ANNUAL from

different current directories:
D:\DATA\LETTER\ANNUAL> DIR
D:\DATA> DIR LETTER\ANNUAL
C:\WINDOWS> DIR D:\DATA\LETTER\ANNUAL

COPY CON command

This command create a file in DOS.
Syntax

COPY CON <FILENAME>

Eg. COPY CON abc
This is a sample text file.
^Z

COPY
Copies a file. Name of copy may be the same as original, or different. Syntax:
COPY <existing file><new file name>
COPY ABC XYZ

COPY [d:][path][name.ext] [d:][path][name.ext]

Optional switches:
/v Verify, copies the file and compares it with the original
/b Binary file

To copy a file from D:\BATCH to the root of A: drive

A:\> COPY D:\BATCH\CL.BAT (from A: drive)
D:\BATCH> COPY CL.BAT A:\ (from D:\BATCH)
To copy a file from the root of C: to A: drive and change its name
A:\> COPY C:\MSDOS.SYS MSDOSSYS.BAK (from A:)
C:\> COPY MSDOS.SYS A:\MSDOSSYS.BAK (from the root of C:
)
To copy all of the files from the root of A: to D:\CCV\ENGCOMP
A:\> COPY *.* D:\CCV\ENGCOMP (from A:)
D:\CCV\ENGCOMP> COPY *.* A:\ (from D:\CCV\ENGCOMP)
TYPE
Displays the contents of a file.
Syntax:
TYPE [d:][path][name.ext]

To display the contents of the file MY.LET to the screen

A:\> TYPE MY.LET
To display the content of the file abc
TYPE ABC

DEL or ERASE
Deletes a file from disk.
Syntax:
DEL [d:][path][name.ext]

To delete one file:

A:\> DEL A:\MY.LET
To del all files in current directory
A:\> DEL *.*

REN
Renames a file.
Syntax:
REN [d:][path][name.ext] [d:][path][newname.ext]

To change the name of the file D:\LET\ANNUAL\99.DOC to 1999.DOC

D:\LET> REN ANNUAL\99.DOC 1999.DOC (from D:\LET)
D:\DATA> REN \LET\ANNUAL\99.DOC 1999.DOC (from
D:\DATA)
C:\WINDOWS> REN D:\LET\ANNUAL\99.DOC 1999.DOC (from
C:\WINDOWS)

MD or MKDIR
Makes (creates) a new directory.
Syntax:
 MD [d:][path][dirname]

To create a directory named HERMIT in the root of D: drive

D:\> MD HERMIT (from D:\)
C:\> MD D:\HERMIT (from C:\)

RD or RMDIR
Removes an existing directory (directory must be empty).
Syntax:
RD [d:][path][dirname]

To remove the HERMIT sub-directory:

D:\> RD HERMIT (from D:\)
C:\> RD D:\HERMIT (from C:\)

CD
Changes the current directory.
Syntax:
CD [path][dirname]

To make D:\HERMIT the current directory

D:\> CD HERMIT (from D:\)
D:\DATA> CD \HERMIT (from D:\DATA)
D:\DATA\SOURCE> CD \HERMIT (from D:\DATA\SOURCE)

Basic File and Folder Operations

Creating a New Folder or Subfolder
Folders are used to organize your documents. Each document you create
should be saved in a specific folder. To create a new folder or subfolder:
 Select the folder under which the new folder should reside. For
example, if you want to place a subfolder within My Documents, go to
this folder.
 Select File from the menu bar.
 Select New, then click on Folder. A blank folder icon will be created in
the selected location.
 Type the new folder name.
 Press the Enter key.
Renaming a File or Folder
To rename a file or folder:
 Select the file or folder you wish to rename.
 Right-click on the file or folder and select Rename. Backspace or delete
the original name and type in the new name.
 Press the Enter key.
Copying a File or Folder
Files and folders can be copied from one folder to another folder or even from
one disk drive to another drive. To copy a file from one folder to another
folder:
 Select the file or folder you wish to copy.
 Select Edit from the menu bar, and then select Copy.
 Select the new folder in which the copied file or folder should reside.
 Select Edit from the menu bar, and then select Paste. The file or folder
has been copied to the new folder. Keep in mind that the original file or
folder remains in its original location, and a new copy exists in the new
location.
Moving a File or Folder
Files and folders can be moved from one folder to another folder or even from
one disk drive to another drive. To move a file from one folder to another
folder:
 Select the file or folder you wish to move.
 Select Edit from the menu bar, and then select Cut.
 Select the new folder in which the moved file or folder should reside.
 Select Edit from the menu bar, and then select Paste. The file or folder
has been moved to the new folder.
Deleting a File or Folder
To delete a file or folder:
 Select the file or folder you wish to delete.
 Right-click on the file and select Delete.
 A Confirm File (or Folder) Delete box will be displayed. Click on yes .
 Note: When you delete a folder, all files and subfolders in the folder are
also deleted.
Displaying File Extensions
File extensions provide a way for the Windows operation system to identify
the file type. For example,
 Microsoft Word uses the file extension .doc.
 Microsoft Excel uses the file extension .xls.
 NotePad uses the file extension .txt.
 HTML documents use either the file extension .html or the file extension
.htm.
To display these file extensions follow the steps below:
 Select Tools from the menu bar and go to Folder Options.
 Select the View tab.
 To display the extensions, deselect Hide extensions for known file types
 Click on OK .

Share your network printer

In Windows 10, you can share your printer with many PCs on your
network. To share a printer from the PC that the printer is connected to (the
primary PC) with secondary PCs that the printer is not connected to, you
must set up sharing settings for the printer, connect the printer to the primary
PC (either wirelessly or by using a USB cable), and then turn on the printer.
Also make sure the primary PC is turned on, connected to the printer, and
connected to the network.
Note: When sharing a printer, make sure that sharing settings are set up on
the primary and secondary PCs. Also, make sure you know the name of the
primary PC. For more info, see the Set up Sharing settings and Find your PC
name sections at the end of this topic.
Send files with Share
If you have to share one or more files with another user inside the home
network, office, or across the world only one time, you can use the Share
feature, which comes built into File Explorer and most modern apps.
To share files using the Share feature on Windows 10, use these steps:
1. Open File Explorer.
2. Browse to the folder location with the files.
3. Select the files.
4. Click on the Share tab.
 Alternatively, you can right-click the selection and choose the Share
option in the context menu. Also, the Share option can be found in
many apps that you acquire from the Microsoft Store.
5. Click the Share button.

Share the printer on the primary PC

There are two ways to share your printer: using Settings or Control Panel.
Share your printer using Settings
1. Select the Start button, then select Settings>Devices>Printers &
scanners.
2. Choose the printer you want to share, then select Manage.
3. Select Printer Properties, then choose the Sharing tab.
4. On the Sharing tab, select Share this printer.
5. If you want, edit the share name of the printer. You'll use this name to
connect to the printer from a secondary PC.
Share your printer using Control Panel
1. In the search box on the taskbar, type control panel and then select
Control Panel.
2. Under Hardware and Sound, select View devices and printers.
3. Select and hold (or right-click) the printer you want to share, select
Printer properties, and then choose the Sharing tab.
4. On the Sharing tab, select Share this printer.
5. If you want, edit the share name of the printer. You'll use this name to
connect to the printer from a secondary PC.
Setting up multiple user accounts
If you wanted to, you could have a single account on your computer
that everyone could use. But having multiple accounts has some
advantages. If each user has his or her own account, then each person will
have his or her own desktop for organizing files and folders. Each person also
will be able to choose a specific desktop background, along with other
personalization features.
Standard vs. administrator accounts
Before you start making new user accounts, it's important to understand the
two types of accounts:
 Standard: Standard accounts are the basic accounts you use for
normal, everyday tasks. As a Standard user, you can do just about
anything you would need to do, such as running software or
personalizing your desktop.
 Administrator: Administrator accounts are special accounts that are
used for making certain changes to system settings or managing other
people's accounts. They have full access to every setting on the
computer. Every computer will have at least one Administrator account.

Create and Manage User Accounts and Privileges

Authenticating on Windows 10 takes on two primary methods: a
Microsoft Account or a Local Account. Each account can also be configured
with different login credentials, privileges, and preferences.
Adding, Configuring, and Changing Windows 10 Accounts
Whether it’s a work computer, a personal computer, or a family PC, any
given Windows 10 device may have multiple users with multiple levels of
responsibility. The wide range of options for configuring your Windows 10
accounts and privileges and permissions addresses this. Part of the purpose
is to protect your system and your personal information—you wouldn’t want a
guest to have a full administrative control of your Windows computer and its
security settings, etc. You can also set up accounts to protect users
themselves.
Create Additional Accounts
You’ll create your first Windows 10 account when you first set up and
configure a new Windows 10 PC.
If you want to add another user to your computer, you can do so by
opening Start > Settings > Accounts > Family & other people. Under Other
people, click Add someone else to this PC.

______________
 ​MODULE 3 - GNU/LINUX
​
​Linux OS
​
​ Linux is a family of open-source Unix-like operating systems based on
the Linux kernel, an operating system kernel first released on September 17,
1991, by Linus Torvalds.Linux is typically packaged in a Linux distribution.
​
​Free and open-source software (FOSS) is software that can be classified
as both free software and open-source software.[a] That is, anyone is freely
licensed to use, copy, study, and change the software in any way, and the
source code is openly shared so that people are encouraged to voluntarily
improve the design of the software.This is in contrast to proprietary software,
where the software is under restrictive copyright licensing and the source
code is usually hidden from the users.
FOSS maintains the software user's civil liberty rights (see the Four Essential
Freedoms). Other benefits of using FOSS can include decreased software
costs, increased security and stability protecting privacy, education, and
giving users more control over their own hardware. Free and open-source
operating systems such as Linux and descendants of BSD are widely utilized
today, powering millions of servers, desktops, smartphones (e.g., Android),
and other devices. Free-software licenses and open-source licenses are used
by many software packages. The free-software movement and the
open-source software movement are online social movements behind
widespread production and adoption of FOSS, with the former preferring
FLOSS term or simply free or free/libre term used.

​Linux Features
● Multiuser capability: Multiple users can access the same system
resources like memory, hard disk, etc. But they have to use different
terminals to operate.
● Multitasking: More than one function can be performed simultaneously
by dividing the CPU time intelligently.
● Portability: Portability doesn't mean it is smaller in file size or can be
carried in pen drives or memory cards. It means that it support different
types of hardware.
● Security: It provides security in three ways namely authenticating (by
assigning password and login ID), authorization (by assigning
 permission to read, write and execute) and encryption (converts file into
an unreadable format).
● Live CD/USB: Almost all Linux distros provide live CD/USB so that
users can run/try it without installing it.
● Graphical User Interface (X Window system): Linux is command line
based OS but it can be converted to GUI based by installing packages.
● Support's customized keyboard: As it is used worldwide, hence
supports different languages keyboards.
● Application support: It has its own software repository from where
users can download and install many applications.
● File System: Provides hierarchical file system in which files and
directories are arranged.
● Open Source: Linux code is freely available to all and is a community
based development project.
​Linux Distributions List
There are on an average six hundred Linux distributors providing
different features. Here some of the popular Linux distributions.

​1) Ubuntu
It came into existence in 2004 by Canonical and quickly became
popular. Canonical wants Ubuntu to be used as easy graphical Linux desktop
without the use of command line. It is the most well known Linux distribution.
Ubuntu is a next version of Debian and easy to use for newbies. It comes with
a lots of pre-installed apps and easy to use repositories libraries.
Earlier, Ubuntu uses GNOME2 desktop environment but now it has
developed its own unity desktop environment. It releases every six months
and currently working to expand to run on tablets and smartphones.

​2) Linux Mint

Mint is based on Ubuntu and uses its repository software so some
packages are common in both.
Earlier it was an alternative of Ubuntu because media codecs and
proprietary software are included in mint but was absent in Ubuntu. But now it
has its own popularity and it uses cinnamon and mate desktop instead of
Ubuntu's unity desktop environment.
​3) Debian
Debian has its existence since 1993 and releases its versions much
slowly then Ubuntu and mint.
This makes it one of the most stable Linux distributor.
Ubuntu is based on Debian and was founded to improve the core bits of
Debian more quickly and make it more user friendly. Every release name of
Debian is based on the name of the movie Toy Story.

​4) Red Hat Enterprise / CentOS

Red hat is a commercial Linux distributor. There products are red hat
enterprise Linux (RHEL) and Fedora which are freely available. RHEL is well
tested before release and supported till seven years after the release,
whereas, fedora provides faster update and without any support.
Red hat uses trademark law to prevent their software from being
redistributed. CentOS is a community project that uses red hat enterprise
Linux code but removes all its trademark and make it freely available. In other
words, it is a free version of RHEL and provide a stable platform for a long
time.

​5) Fedora
It is a project that mainly focuses on free software and provides latest
version of software. It doesn't make its own desktop environment but used
'upstream' software. By default it has GNOME3 desktop environment. It is
less stable but provides the latest stuff.
​The Linux Kernel
Every operating system (OS) has a kernel. The kernel is the layer of
the OS that bridges the hardware with the main programs that run on a
computer. The kernel is the core of the OS and is the first to load when the
computer boots up. It remains in the computer's memory throughout a
session. It is responsible for providing an interface for all applications,
controlling the hardware and allowing processes to get information from each
other.
​The Shell
The shell forms the layer between the user and the kernel so the user
can enter commands. It is the shell that acts as the go-between, accepting
the commands entered in the language recognizable by the user, and
translating them to binary language for the kernel.

​Linux Basic Commands

List of basic Linux commands:
​1. pwd command
Use the pwd command to find out the path of the current working directory
(folder) you’re in. The command will return an absolute (full) path, which is
basically a path of all the directories that starts with a forward slash (/). An
example of an absolute path is /home/username.
​2. ls command
The ls command is used to view the contents of a directory. By default, this
command will display the contents of your current working directory.
If you want to see the content of other directories, type ls and then the
directory’s path. For example, enter ls /home/username/Documents to view
the content of Documents.
There are variations you can use with the ls command:
● ls -R will list all the files in the sub-directories as well
● ls -a will show the hidden files
● ls -al will list the files and directories with detailed information like the
permissions, size, owner, etc.
​3. cat command
cat (short for concatenate) is one of the most frequently used commands in
Linux. It is used to list the contents of a file on the standard output (sdout). To
run this command, type cat followed by the file’s name and its extension. For
instance: cat file.txt.
Here are other ways to use the cat command:
● cat > filename creates a new file
● cat filename1 filename2>filename3 joins two files (1 and 2) and stores
the output of them in a new file (3)
● to convert a file to upper or lower case use, cat filename | tr a-z A-Z
>output.txt
​4. cd command
To navigate through the Linux files and directories, use the cd command. It
requires either the full path or the name of the directory, depending on the
current working directory that you’re in.
Let’s say you’re in /home/username/Documents and you want to go to
Photos, a subdirectory of Documents. To do so, simply type the following
command: cd Photos.
Another scenario is if you want to switch to a completely new directory, for
example,/home/username/Movies. In this case, you have to type cd
followed by the directory’s absolute path: cd /home/username/Movies.
There are some shortcuts to help you navigate quickly:
● cd .. (with two dots) to move one directory up
● cd to go straight to the home folder
● cd- (with a hyphen) to move to your previous directory

On a side note, Linux’s shell is case sensitive. So, you have to type the
name’s directory exactly as it is.

​5. cp command
Use the cp command to copy files from the current directory to a different
directory. For instance, the command cp scenery.jpg
/home/username/Pictures would create a copy of scenery.jpg (from your
current directory) into the Pictures directory.
​6. mv command
The primary use of the mv command is to move files, although it can also be
used to rename files.
The arguments in mv are similar to the cp command. You need to type mv,
the file’s name, and the destination’s directory. For example: mv file.txt
/home/username/Documents.
To rename files, the Linux command is mv oldname.ext newname.ext
​
​7. rm command
The rm command is used to delete directories and the contents within them.
If you only want to delete the directory — as an alternative to rmdir — use rm
-r.
Note: Be very careful with this command and double-check which directory
you are in. This will delete everything and there is no undo.
​
​8. echo command
This command is used to move some data into a file. For example, if you
want to add the text, “Hello, my name is John” into a file called name.txt, you
would type echo Hello, my name is John >> name.txt
​
​9. mkdir command
Use mkdir command to make a new directory — if you type mkdir Music it
will create a directory called Music.
There are extra mkdir commands as well:
● To generate a new directory inside another directory, use this Linux
basic command mkdir Music/Newfile
● use the p (parents) option to create a directory in between two existing
directories. For example, mkdir -p Music/2020/Newfile will create the
new “2020” file.
​
​10. rmdir command
If you need to delete a directory, use the rmdir command. However, rmdir
only allows you to delete empty directories.
​11. man command
man command in Linux is used to display the user manual of any
command that we can run on the terminal.
Syntax :
$man [OPTION]... [COMMAND NAME]...
Eg. man ls
12. who command
who is a command-line utility that prints a list of currently logged in users.
The name of the logged user.
● The user’s terminal.
● The time when the user logged in.
● The hostname or IP address from where the user is logged in. To force
Ips, use the --ips option.
Eg. who
who am i

Create a folder in Linux using GUI

From the Files file browser:

● To make a directory -- right-click and select New Folder.
● To make a file -- right-click and select New Document -> Empty
Document.
● Type the name of the folder and press create button
Delete a folder in Linux using GUI
● To delete all of the above -- the easy to delete anything is to click it once
and send it to the Trash by pressing the Delete key

​How to Create a New User in Linux

To create a new user account, invoke the useradd/adduser command
followed by the name of the user.
For example to create a new user named username you would run:
sudo useradd username

To be able to log in as the newly created user, you need to set the user
password. To do that run the passwd command followed by the username:
sudo passwd username
Linux Directory Structure

Dir Description
The directory called “root.” It is the starting point for the file system
/ hierarchy. Note that this is not related to the root, or superuser,
account.
/bin Binaries and other executable programs.
/etc System configuration files.
/home Home directories.
/opt Optional or third party software.
/tmp Temporary space, typically cleared on reboot.
/usr User related programs.
/var Variable data, most notably log files.

The Linux directory structure is like a tree. The base of the Linux file
system hierarchy begins at the root. Directories branch off the root, but
everything starts at root.
The directory separator in Linux is the forward slash (/). When talking
about directories and speaking directory paths, “forward slash” is abbreviated
to “slash.” Often the root of the file system is referred to as “slash” since the
full path to it is /. If you hear someone say “look in slash” or “that file is in
slash,” they are referring to the root directory.
The /bin directory is where you will find binary or executable files.
Programs are written in source code which is human readable text. Source
code is then compiled into machine readable binaries. They are called
binaries because machine code is a series of zeros and ones. The import
thing to know is that commands, programs, and applications that you can use
are sometimes located in /bin.
Configuration files live in the /etc directory. Configuration files control
how the operating system or applications behave. For example, there is a file
in /etc that tells the operating system whether to boot into a text mode or a
graphical mode.
User home directories are located in /home. If your account name is
“pat” your home directory will be /home/pat. Linux systems can and often do
have multiple user accounts. Home directories allow each user to separate
their data from the other users on the system. The pat directory is knows as a
subdirectory. A subdirectory is simply a directory that resides inside another
directory.
The /opt directory houses optional or third party software. Software that
is not bundled with the operating system will often been installed in /opt. For
example, the Google Earth application is not part of the standard Linux
operating system and gets installed in the /opt/google/earth directory.
Temporary space is allocated in /tmp. Most Linux distributions clear the
contents of /tmp at boot time. Be aware that if you put files in /tmp and the
Linux system reboots, your files will more than likely be gone. The /tmp
directory is a great place to store temporary files, but do not put anything in
/tmp that you want to keep long term.
The /usr directory is called “user.” You will find user related binary
programs and executables in the /usr/bin directory.
Variable data such as log files reside in /var. Specifically, the /var/log
directory contains logs generated by the operating system and other
applications.
Difference between Linux and Windows
Linux:
Linux could be a free and open supply OS supported operating system
standards. It provides programming interface still as programme compatible
with operating system primarily based systems and provides giant selection
applications. A UNIX operating system system additionally contains several
severally developed parts, leading to UNIX operating system that is totally
compatible and free from proprietary code.
Windows:
Windows may be a commissioned OS within which ASCII text file is
inaccessible. it’s designed for the people with the angle of getting no
programming information and for business and alternative industrial users. it’s
terribly straightforward and simple to use.
The distinction between Linux and Windows package is that Linux is
completely freed from price whereas windows is marketable package and is
expensive. Associate operating system could be a program meant to regulate
the pc or computer hardware Associate behave as an treater between user
and hardware.
Linux is a open supply package wherever users will access the ASCII
text file and might improve the code victimisation the system. On the opposite
hand, in windows, users can’t access ASCII text file, and it’s a authorized OS.
Difference between Linux and windows:
S.N
Linux Windows
O
Linux is a open source operating While windows are the not the open
1.
system. source operating system.
2. Linux is free of cost. While it is costly.
While it’s file name is
3. It’s file name case-sensitive.
case-insensitive.
4. In linux, monolithic kernel is used. While in this, micro kernel is used.
Linux is more efficient in
5. While windows are less efficient.
comparison of windows.
There is forward slash is used for While there is back slash is used for
6.
Separating the directories. Separating the directories.
Linux provides more security than While it provides less security than
7.
windows. linux.
Linux is widely used in hacking While windows does not provide
8.
purpose based systems. much efficiency in hacking.
​
​Differences Between Micro kernel and Monolithic Kernel
Some of the differences between microkernel and monolithic kernel are given
as follows −
● The micro kernel is much smaller in size as compared to the monolithic
kernel.
● The micro kernel is easily extensible whereas this is quite complicated
for the monolithic kernel.
● The execution of the microkernel is slower as compared to the
monolithic kernel.
● Much more code is required to write a microkernel than the monolithic
kernel.
● Examples of Microkernel are QNX, Symbian, L4 Linux etc. Monolithic
Kernel examples areLinux, BSD etc.
 Module 4 – PC Hardware

​Computer Hardware Components

Computer Hardware is the physical part of a computer, as distinguished
from the computer software that executes or runs on the hardware. The
hardware of a computer is infrequently changed, while software and data are
modified frequently. The term soft refers to readily created, modified, or
erased. These are unlike the physical components within the computer which
are hard.

​Motherboard
The motherboard is the body or mainframe of the computer, through
which all other components interface. It is the central circuit board making up
a complex electronic system. A motherboard provides the electrical
connections by which the other components of the system communicate. The
mother board includes many components such as: central processing unit
(CPU), random access memory (RAM), firmware, and internal and external
buses.
​
1. CPU slot: To install the CPU, just slide it straight down into the slot.
Special notches in the slot make it impossible to install them incorrectly. So
remember if it does not go easily, it is probably not correct. Be sure to plug in
the CPU fan's power.
​
The Central Processing Unit (CPU; sometimes just called processor) is
a machine that can execute computer programs. It is sometimes referred to
as the brain of the computer.

2. RAM slots: Random-Access Memory (RAM) stores programs and data

currently being used by the CPU. RAM is measured in units called bytes.
RAM has been packaged in many different ways. The most current package
is called a 168-pin DIMM (Dual Inline Memory module). Different slots for
different types of RAM are DDR, DDR2,DDR3,DDR4.
3. PCI slot: Intel introduced the Peripheral component interconnect bus
protocol. The PCI bus is used to connect I/O devices (such as NIC or RAID
controllers) to the main logic of the computer. PCI bus has replaced the ISA
bus.

4. AGP slot: If you have a modern motherboard, you will almost certainly
notice a single connector that looks like a PCI slot, but is slightly shorter and
usually brown. You also probably have a video card inserted into this slot.
This is an Advanced Graphics Port (AGP) slot.
5. IDE controller: Industry standards define two common types of hard
drives: EIDE and SCSI. Majority of the PCs use EIDE drives. SCSI drives
show up in high end PCs such as network servers or graphical workstations.
The EIDEdrive connects to the hard drive via a 2-inch-wide, 40-pin ribbon
cable, which in turn connects to the motherboard. IDE controller is
responsible for controlling the hard drive

​Switched-Mode Power Supply (SMPS)

A switched-mode power supply (SMPS) is an electronic circuit that
converts power using switching devices that are turned on and off at high
frequencies, and storage components such as inductors or capacitors to
supply power when the switching device is in its non-conduction state.
Switching power supplies have high efficiency and are widely used in a
variety of electronic equipment, including computers and other sensitive
equipment requiring stable and efficient power supply.
A switched-mode power supply is also known as a switch-mode power supply
or switching-mode power supply.

​Computer Ports
A port is a connection or a jack provided on a computer to connect
external or peripheral devices to the computer, for example, you will need a
port on your device to connect a keyboard, mouse, pen-drives, etc. So, it acts
as an interface or a point of attachment between computer and external
devices. It is also called a communication port, as it is the point where you
plug in a peripheral device to allow data transfer or communication between
the device and computer. Generally, they are four to six in number and
present on the back or sides of the computer.
Based on the type of protocol used for communication, computer ports can be
of two types: Serial Ports and Parallel Ports.

​Serial Port:

This type of ports provides an interface to connect to peripheral devices

using a serial protocol. In this port, the rate of transmission of data is one bit
at a time through a single communication line.

​Parallel Port:
As the name suggests, a parallel port is an interface that allows
communication or data transfer between a computer and a device in a
parallel manner through more than one communication line. For example, a
printer port is a parallel port.

​Examples of Computer Ports:

​1) Personal System/2(PS/2):
As the name suggests, it was introduced with IBM's Personal
Systems/2 series of computers. These connectors are colour coded, e.g.,
green was for mouse, and purple was for the keyboard. Besides this, it is a
DIN connector with six pins. At present, it is superseded by USB ports.
​2) VGA Port:
This port is commonly found in computers, projectors, and high
definition TVs. It is a D-sub connector called DR-15 as it has 15 pins, which
are arranged in 3 rows with five pins in each row. It was most often used to
connect CPU with CRT monitors. Still, most of the LCD and LED monitors
come with VGA ports. However, these ports don't assure high picture quality
as VGA can carry only analogue video signals up to a resolution of 648X480.
As the demand and emphasis on video quality kept growing, the VGA
ports were gradually replaced by more advanced ports that can assure high
video quality such as HDMI and Display Ports.
​3) HDMI port:
HDMI (High Definition Media Interface) is a digital interface developed
to connect high definition devices such as digital cameras, gaming consoles,
etc., to computers and TVs with HDMI ports. Besides this, it can carry
uncompressed video and uncompressed or compressed audio signals. The
advanced version of HDMI, such as 2.0, can transfer video signals of up to a
resolution of 4096x2160.
​4) USB:
USB (Universal Serial Bus) port is very versatile in use; It can be used
for various purposes, such as to transfer data, to connect peripheral devices,
and even as an interface for charging devices such as smartphones, digital
cameras, etc. Today, it has replaced PS/2 connectors, game ports, serial and
parallel ports, etc.
It is a four-pin connector and has many versions that include USB 1.1,
USB 2.0 and USB 3.0, and USB 3.1. Version 3.0 is a common standard that
supports a data transfer rate of upto 400 MBps. Version 3.1 allows a data rate
of upto 10 Gbps.

​5) Ethernet Port(RJ-45)

It is an Ethernet style network port found on the computer and other

devices such as routers, switches, etc. This port allows your computer to
interact or communicate with other computers and networking devices where
Ethernet networking is required.
Its full form is Registered Jack 45. It is also known as Ethernet port,
network jack, or RJ45 jack. It has eight pins; accordingly, the RJ45 cable
comprises eight separate wires of different colours. Besides this, it looks like
a telephone jack; however, it is slightly wider than that.
​6) 3.5 mm Audio Jack:

It is a small round connector, port, or an audio jack commonly found on

laptops, computers, phones, etc. It is designed to connect to wired
headphones and speakers. In other words, it accepts a pin-shaped plug from
a headphone, earphone, etc. The measurement "3.5 mm" denotes the
diameter of the connector.
However, in older devices, there were two audio jacks, one for mic and
another one for headphone. Besides this, they have a 2.5 mm jack or port for
phone headphones.

​Device drivers: Installation and configuration

​ o install hardware devices on Windows servers, admins must install the
T
appropriate device drivers first. Here are some guidelines for installing,
configuring and troubleshooting device drivers.

System administrators frequently have to install hardware devices such

as disk controllers and network cards on their Windows servers. To do so,
they must install the appropriate device drivers on the server first.
Here are some guidelines for installing, configuring and troubleshooting
device drivers, which provide the necessary interface between the application
programs and the actual hardware, on Windows 2000 server system.
Methods of installing device drivers
Admins can install device drivers on a server in four ways.
1. Running the Setup. Device drivers are automatically installed for all
detected devices during installation of Windows 2000 system on the
server computer
2. Starting the computer. Whenever the server is started, new devices
are detected and their device drivers are automatically installed
3. Scanning for new hardware. Add/Remove Hardware Wizard can be
used to perform the hardware-detection process and desired device
driver installation
4. Manual installation. You can use the Add/Remove Hardware Wizard to
specify the device you want to install, or you can right-click the .INF file
that comes with the driver and choose Install.
Note: You must have administrative privileges on the server to install device
drivers

​Differences Between Internet, Ethernet, Wi-Fi, Bluetooth, Cellular

What are the differences between wired and wireless connectivity
technologies that encompass Internet, Ethernet, WiFi, Bluetooth and
Cellular? The main difference between these would be that they are various
different forms of wired and wireless connectivity technologies. Read features
of each technology below, to fully understand the differences between them.

​Internet.
Internet means a lot of different things to different people, but its strict
definition is an international system of multi-connected computer networks
allowing computers in various locations to interact with each other in real
time, uploading or downloading data and other information to and from
various servers.
The most obvious and well-known use of the Internet is when people
access websites using a desktop or laptop computer, cell phone, or tablet.
Other lesser-known uses include controlling devices remotely such as pumps,
fans, lights and checking or monitoring bins, tanks and cameras.
In order to connect to the Internet, an ISP (Internet service provider)
needs to provide an Internet connection package. Alternatively, a modem or
cell phone with an included data package can be all that is required in order
to connect to the Internet.

​Ethernet.
Ethernet is a system of direct connections between devices that are
located close to one another, such as in the same building. Most commonly
used to connect computers to printers, Wi-Fi access points, or cameras,
ethernet can also be used to directly carry the Internet to compatible devices.
Ethernet is also what is used to connect your Wi-Fi network directly to the
Internet.
That being said, ethernet does not need an Internet connection in order to do
its job. When local devices are connected through a LAN (Local Area
Network), these devices can communicate through the ethernet itself, without
needing an Internet connection.
An ethernet connection can be by way of cables or wires up to 100 metres in
length or can be wireless. Hubs or bridges can be used to extend the range of
your ethernet services, sometimes by up to several kilometres.

​Wi-Fi.
WiFi allows for wireless connections between many devices. Wi-Fi has
become so popular since its inception that WiFi communication is a standard
feature in the majority of modern technological devices, making it increasingly
easy to connect these devices to a network.
In order for a Wi-Fi connection to deliver Internet services, it must have
an ethernet connection to an ISP, or via a modem or cell phone with an
Internet data package. In many instances, the connection between ethernet
and Wi-Fi is not an obvious one, solely because it happens out of sight, within
the router or modem itself.
Small handheld devices such as tablets and cell phones typically have
a Wi-Fi range of up to 50 metres. Larger devices, devices that run on external
power, or devices that include an antenna, can have a Wi-Fi range of up to
200 metres.

​Bluetooth.
A form of wireless connection used to exchange data between mobile
and fixed devices over short distances, Bluetooth is a common form of
connection between devices located no more than 10 metres apart, and
where data rates are relatively low. Bluetooth has a surprisingly small power
requirement, meaning that its effect on a device's battery life is less than
using Wi-Fi or an ethernet connection.

​Cellular.
A cell phone or a cellular modem provides a wireless connection to the
Internet by using cellular towers coupled with a data plan. Depending on the
terrain and atmospheric conditions, cellular signals can boast a range of more
than 30 kilometres.

​Modem
Modem is a device that enables a computer to send or receive data
over telephone or cable lines. The data stored on the computer is digital
whereas a telephone line or cable wire can transmit only analog data.
The main function of the modem is to convert digital signal into analog
and vice versa. Modem is a combination of two devices − modulator and
demodulator. The modulator converts digital data into analog data when the
data is being sent by the computer. The demodulator converts analog data
signals into digital data when it is being received by the computer.
Sample Computer Specification

Manufacturer Cabinet type: Dell, Compaq, HP or other good

brands
Operating Windows XP, Windows Vista,
system: Windows 7
Processor Manufacturer: Intel or AMD Processor
Type: Intel Core Duo Processor
Speed: 2.0GHZ
Bus Speed: 1000MHZ
Motherboard Form Factor: ATX, Micro-ATX
Chipset: Intel 945G Express
No of PCI 4
Slots:
Peripheral USB 2.0 (2),
Connectors headphone/speaker out
(Front):
Peripheral USB 2.0 (5), VGA out, Ethernet
Connectors (Rj-45), Stereo Line-in,
(Back): Microphone, Speaker/Line out,
Serial and Parallel ports
Storage Drives Hard Drive 500GB/1TB
Capacity:
Hard Drive SATA, 7200RPM
Interface:
Memory Memory Type: DDR4 SDRAM
Installed 4GB
memory:
Upgradable: Up to 8GB
CD/DVD Drives Optical Drive DVD-RW
Type:
CD Read 52x and so on
Speed:
DVD Read 8x, 16x and so on
Speed:
Monitor (Display) LCD or CRT Screen
Screen type:
Resolution: 1280 X 1024 or more
 Refresh Rate: 60HZ or more
Diagonal size: 17” or more
Video Card Type: Intel Graphics Media
Accelerator
Interface Integrated
Type:
Video card 256MB
memory:
Sound Card Type: Integrated Digital Audio
Interface Integrated
Type:
Keyboard USB Enhanced QWERTY
keyboard
Mouse USB Optical 2-Button Scroll mouse
Speakers Built in Speaker, Integrated sound speaker
Power Supply
Module 5 - OS Installation

System configuration

System configuration mainly refers to the specification

of a given computer system, from its hardware components
to the software and various processes that are run within
that system. It refers to what types and models of devices are
installed and what specific software is being used to run the
various parts of the computer system. By extension, system
configuration also refers to the specific operating system
settings that have been set by default automatically or
manually by a given program or the user.

A computer system, particularly the operating system,

dictates a set of default settings and configuration when the
system first comes online. These settings dictate the normal
function and features that make the system run in a stable
manner. To this end, operating systems have their own
configuration utilities to allow administrators or users to
change the configuration of the system. For Microsoft
Windows, this is called the Microsoft System Configuration
Utility or "msconfig."

Hard Disk Partitioning

The hard drive is an important part of computer parts, a

storage device that provides always saving data even after
the power supply interrupted. A partition is an area of a hard
disk that can be formatted and assigned a drive letter, (The
terms volume and partition are often used interchangeably).
The system partition is typically labeled with the letter C.
Letters A and B are reserved for removable drives or floppy
disk drives. Some computers have hard disks that are
partitioned as a single partition, then the whole hard disk is
represented by the letter C.

How do you create more partitions?

To create a partition or more partitions on a hard disk,

you must be logged in as an administrator, and there must be
either:

·unallocated disk space(unformatted space that is not part of

an existing partition or volume)

OR

·free space within an extended partition on the hard disk.

If there is no unallocated disk space, you can create

some by shrinking an existing partition to create unallocated
space. A boot partition is a partition that contains the files for
the Windows operating system (OS folder). If you want to
install a second operating system on your computer (called a
dual-boot or multi-boot configuration), you need to create
another partition on the hard disk, and then install the
additional operating system on the new partition. Your hard
disk would then have one system partition and two boot
partitions.

A system partition is a primary partition that contains

the hardware-related files and the Boot folder (the boot
loader, a piece of software responsible for booting the OS.),
these tell the computer where to look to start Windows. With
Disk Management, you can create a maximum of three
primary partitions on a hard disk. If you are installing
different versions of Windows, you must install the earliest
version first. If you don't do this, your computer may become
inoperable. If we want to use the hard drive we must divide it
(at least to the one partition) and formatting these partitions.

In fact there are three types of partitioning:

· The essential Primary

· Extended

· Logical

The total data storage space of a PC HDD can

contain at most four primary partitions, or alternatively three
primary partitions and an extended partition. The Primary
and Extended are the basic divisions (partitions) of the hard
disk, later this extended can be divided into any number of
logical partitions.

Primary Partition: The primary partition contains the used

operating system (such as Windows) in addition to any files
or other data (such as My documents, Program files), a
primary partition is in which an Operating System can be
installed, hard disk may contain a maximum of 4 3 primary
partitions, primary partition must be formatted with
appropriate file system before install the operating system,
only primary partition can be set as active.

Extended Partition: Extended partition cannot be used

directly unless partition it to multiple logical drives. We can
consider the extended section as the container that contains
several logical partitions, and cannot use the extended
section for data storing, but it must be divided into a number
of logical partitions that are used for data storing.

Logical Partition: Logical partitions cannot exist unless

within the extended partition, and logical partitions can
contain ordinary files and data, logical drive cannot be set as
active. You can use several programs to partition your hard
drive, such as the Fdisk and partition magic.

Formatting

Formatting a system refers to disk formatting which is

the configuring process of a data storage media such as a
hard disk drive, floppy disk or flash drive for initial usage.
Any existing files on the drive would be erased with disk
formatting. Disk formatting is usually done before initial
installation or before installation of a new operating system.
Disk formatting is also done if there is a requirement for
additional storage in the computer.

Disk formatting can be performed on both magnetic

platter hard drives and solid-state drives. The formatting
comprises low-level formatting, partitioning and high-level
formatting. Low-level formatting aids in preparing the
physical structure on the storage media. The partitioning
process involves the division of the hard drive into logical
volumes for data storage. High-level formatting helps in
creating the file system format within the logical volume or
within the disk partition. Disk formatting is usually done with
the help of a disk formatting utility.
While preparing the hard drive for initial use, disk formatting
checks for errors in the drive. It can scan and repair bad
sectors. Another benefit associated with disk formatting is
its capability to erase bad applications and remove
sophisticated viruses.

Disk formatting is an action which must be done with

caution. As it deletes data and removes programs installed,
backup of the necessary data or applications are required.
Disk formatting takes time. Frequent disk formatting can
gradually decrease the life of a hard drive.

CMOS setup

CMOS (complementary metal-oxide-semiconductor) is

the term usually used to describe the small amount of
memory on a computer motherboard that stores the BIOS
settings. Some of these BIOS settings include the system
time and date as well as hardware settings.

Every computer provides a way to enter the BIOS or CMOS

setup,usually by pressing F1,F2,F10,Del or Esc key
depending upon the manufacturer.This interface allows you
to configure the basic settings of your computer.

Once in CMOS setup, the method for changing the settings

often depends on the BIOS manufacturer. You may use the
arrow keys and the Enter to select categories and change
their values. Some manufacturers may allow you to press
the Page up and Page down keys to change the values.

Boot Loader
A boot loader is a type of program that loads and starts the
boot time tasks and processes of an operating system or the
computer system. It enables loading the operating system
within the computer memory when a computer is started or
booted up.Boot loader is also known as a boot manager or
bootstrap loader.

A boot loader primarily manages and executes the boot

sequence of a computer system. A boot loader program is
typically started after the computer or the BIOS have finished
performing the initial power and hardware device checks and
tests. It fetches the OS kernel from the hard disk or any
specified boot device within the boot sequence, into the main
memory. A boot loader is associated with only a single
operating system. An operating system can also have
multiple boot loader programs classified as primary and
secondary boot loaders, where a secondary boot loader
might be larger and more capable than the primary boot
loader.

Software Installation

Installation (or setup) of a computer program (including

device drivers and plugins), is the act of making the program
ready for execution. Installation refers to the particular
configuration of a software or hardware with a view to
making it usable with the computer. A soft or digital copy of
the piece of software (program) is needed to install it. There
 are different processes of installing a piece of software .
Because the process varies for each program and each
computer, programs (including operating systems) often
come with an installer, a specialised program responsible for
doing whatever is needed for the installation. Installation
may be part of a larger software deployment process.
An installation program or installer is a computer program
that installs files, such as applications, drivers, or other
software, onto a computer. Some installers are specifically m
ade to install the files they contain; other installers are
general-purpose and work by reading the contents of the
software package to be installed.

They exist both as "standalone installer" and "web installer",

where the former allows for offline installation as it contains
all installation files, whereas the latter needs to download
files necessary for installation from the web at the time of
installation.

Configuring Display in Windows 10

Most of the advanced display settings from previous versions of

Windows are now available on the Display settings page.

▪ Select Start > Settings > System > Display.

▪ If you want to change the size of your text and apps, choose an
option from the drop-down menu under Scale and layout. Learn
how to change just your text size in Make Windows easier to see.
▪ To change your screen resolution, use the drop-down menu
under Display resolution. Note: You should use the
 Recommended resolution. If you change the resolution, content
might appear blurry or pixelated.
▪ To adjust your color calibration, search "calibrate display color" in
the Settings search box and follow the directions.
▪ If you don't see a setting you're looking for, try searching for it in
the search box on the taskbar.

Configuring Audio and Microphone in Windows10

1. Look in the lower right corner of your screen for the sound icon and
right click on it.

2. In the menu that appears left click on Sounds

3. The Sound Menu will appear

4. In the Sound menu, you can see on the Playback Tab, the Speakers
are the Default Device. The Speakers in this case are the local
computer speakers. In addition, other Headphones\Headsets you may
have connected in the past display as Disconnected or not plugged in.
In this picture, you can see that the Speakers are the default device, by
the green checkmark next to them.

5. Now in the Sound Menu click on the Recording Tab. You will see
that the Internal Microphone is the default device.
6. Tosetup the Playback\Recording device, plug your
Headphones\Headset into your laptop Headphone\Microphone port.
Once they are connected, you will then see your Headphones\Headset
displayed in the Playback\Recording tabs as connected and the
default device.
Configuring display in Ubuntu

Change the resolution or orientation of the screen

You can change how big things appear on the screen by
changing the screen resolution. You can change which way up
things appear (for example, if you have a rotating display) by
changing the rotation.
1. Open the Activities overview and start typing Displays.
2. Click Displays to open the panel.
3. If you have multiple displays and they are not mirrored, you
can have different settings on each display. Select a display
in the preview area.
4. Select the orientation, resolution or scale, and refresh rate.
5. Click Apply. The new settings will be applied for 20 seconds
before reverting back. That way, if you cannot see anything
with the new settings, your old settings will be automatically
restored. If you are happy with the new settings, click Keep
Changes.

Orientation
On some devices, you can physically rotate the screen in many
directions. Click Orientation in the panel and choose
from Landscape, Portrait Right, Portrait Left, or Landscape
(flipped).
If your device rotates the screen automatically, you can lock the
current rotation using the button at the bottom of the system
menu. To unlock, press the button again

Resolution
The resolution is the number of pixels (dots on the screen) in
each direction that can be displayed. Each resolution has
an aspect ratio, the ratio of the width to the height. Wide-screen
displays use a 16∶9 aspect ratio, while traditional displays use
4∶3. If you choose a resolution that does not match the aspect
ratio of your display, the screen will be letterboxed to avoid
distortion, by adding black bars to the top and bottom or both
sides of the screen.
You can choose the resolution you prefer from
the Resolution drop-down list. If you choose one that is not right
for your screen it may look fuzzy or pixelated.

Native Resolution
The native resolution of a laptop screen or LCD monitor is the one
that works best: the pixels in the video signal will line up precisely
with the pixels on the screen. When the screen is required to
show other resolutions, interpolation is necessary to represent the
pixels, causing a loss of image quality.

Refresh Rate
The refresh rate is the number of times per second the screen
image is drawn, or refreshed.
Scale
The scale setting increases the size of objects shown on the
screen to match the density of your display, making them easier
to read. Choose 100% or 200%.
Instructions to Install Ubuntu Linux along with Windows

Back Up Your Existing Data!

This is highly recommended that you should take backup of your entire data before starting with the
installation process.

Obtaining System Installation Media

Download latest Desktop version of Ubuntu from this link: http://www.ubuntu.com/download/desktop

Booting the Installation System

There are several ways to boot the installation system. Some of the very popular ways are , Booting from a
CD ROM, Booting from a USB memory stick, and Booting from TFTP.

Here we will learn how to boot the installation system using a CD ROM.
Before booting the installation system, one needs to change the boot order and set CD-ROM as the first boot
device.

Changing the Boot Order of a Computers

1. As your computer starts, press the DEL, ESC, F1, F2, F8 or F10 during the initial startup screen.
Depending on the BIOS manufacturer, a menu may appear. However, consult the hardware
documentation for the exact keystrokes.

2. Find the Boot option in the setup utility. Its location depends on your BIOS.
Select the Boot option from the menu, you can now see the options: Hard Drive, CD-ROM Drive,
Removable Devices Disk etc.
3. Change the boot sequence setting so that the CD-ROM is first. See the list of “Item Specific Help” in
the right side of the window and find keys which are used to toggle the boot sequence.
 4. Insert the Ubuntu Disk in CD/DVD drive.
5. Save your changes. Instructions on the screen tell you how to save the changes on your computer.
The computer will restart with the changed settings.
Machine should boot from the CD ROM, Wait for the CD to load...

In a few minutes the installation wizard will be started. Select your language and click the "Install Ubuntu"
button to continue...
Optionally, you can choose to download updates while installing and/or install third party software, such as
MP3 support. Be aware, though, that if you select those options, the entire installation process will be
longer!

Since we are going to create partitions manually, select Something else, then click Continue. Keep in mind
that even if you do not want to create partitions manually, it is better to select the same option as indicated
here. This would ensure that the installer will not overwrite your Windows , which will destroy your data.
The assumption here is that sdb will be used just for Ubuntu 12.04, and that there is no valuable data on it.

Where are you?

Select your location and Click the "Continue" button .
 Keyboard layout
Select your keyboard layout and UK (English) and Click on “Continue” button

Who are you?

Fill in the fields with your real name, the name of the computer (automatically generated, but can be
overwritten), username, and the password.
Also at this step, there's an option called "Log in automatically." If you check it, you will automatically be
logged in to the Ubuntu desktop without giving the password.
Option "Encrypt my home folder," will encrypt your home folder. Click on the "Continue" button to continue.

Now Ubuntu 12.04 LTS (Precise Pangolin) operating system will be installed.
 It will take approximately 10-12 minutes (depending on computer's speed), a pop-up window will appear,
notifying you that the installation is complete, and you'll need to restart the computer in order to use the
newly installed Ubuntu operating system. Click the "Restart Now" button.

Please remove the CD and press the "Enter" key to reboot. The computer will be restarted. In a few seconds,
you should see Windows 7′s boot menu with two entries listed – Windows 7 and Ubuntu 12.04 (LTS). Then
you may choose to boot into Windows 7 or Ubuntu 12.04 using the UP/Down arrow key.
Please select Ubuntu 12.04 (LTS) and press Enter to boot the machine in Ubuntu 12.04 Linux.

Here you can see the users on the machine, Click on the user name and enter the password and press Enter
key to login.
We have successfully installed and logged into Ubuntu 12.04 LTS.
Case Study - OS installation [Windows]

Windows 11 or Windows 10

To perform Windows installation, first you have to make

Windows installation media ready. Once it is done ,all you
need to do is boot from the disc or USB thumb drive to begin
setup.

1. Check the requirements

To create a Windows 11 bootable USB drive, you’ll need a

flash drive that is at least 8GB in size. However, a larger flash
might be a better choice in case anything goes wrong.

Requirements for Windows 11:-

• If you want to know if your PC is ready, check out the

Windows 11 specifications first.

• The requirements are as low as using a 1 GHz processor

and a minimum 4 GB of RAM
• CPU: Compatible 64-bit processor

• RAM: 4GB

• Storage: 64GB

• TPM: TPM 2.0

You need to check and make sure that your PC can handle
this OS. Now that everything is ready, you just need the
proper software to create a bootable drive.

1.Create Bootable Windows 11 USB using Rufus

Download and install the Rufus software from the official

website. Ensure you download the correct architecture
(x64-bit or x32-bit). After doing so, run the software on your
PC.
Now ensure you have Windows 11 ISO image ready with you.
Also, insert the USB Drive into your PC.

Now, under the Device option, select the USB flash drive
which you want to make bootable.

Click on the Select button right beside the Device selection,

and then head over to the location where you have saved the
file of Windows 11. Select the ISO file for installing Windows.
Next, Ensure that the Partition scheme is set to GPT, and
Target System is set to UEFI.

Now click on Start to start the process of creating a bootable

USB. After you click on Start, you will get the data loss
warning. Click on OK to continue with the process.

Wait for the process to complete. After the process has been
completed you will be notified about it. After doing so you
will have the bootable USB of Windows 11.
Now copy all the files of the Windows 11 from the ISO to the
USB drive to make it bootable. You will have to extract the
file contents from the ISO file of the Windows 11 that you
have downloaded. You can do so with the help of a file
extractor that supports ISO extension

2. Use Media Creation Tool

1. Connect your USB flash drive to the PC.

2. Go to the Windows 11 download

Click Download now.

3. Once the software is downloaded, run it.

4. Accept the terms of service.

5. Make sure you have the correct edition selected. Click
Next to proceed.

6. Now select USB flash drive and click Next.

7. Pick your flash drive and choose Next.
8. Wait for the process to finish.

Once your computer is set to boot from the USB drive, you
should see this option.We can choose the desired one.

Windows 11 (left), Windows 10 (right) boot screens.

The Windows logo will appear on screen, this might be here

for a while, as long as you see the indicator, everything
should be ok.

Select your Language, Time and Keyboard method then click

next.

Click Install now.

Wait while Setup starts. Accept the license terms and click
Next.

Click Custom
Select the Primary Partition then click Next

You will receive the warning window as follows:

The partition you selected might contain files from a
previous Windows Installation. If it does, these files and
folders will be moved to a folder named Windows.old. You
will be able to access the information in Windows.old, but
you will be able to use your previous version of Windows.

Click OK.

Wait while Windows installs.

When this phase of setup is complete, Windows will
automatically restart and reboot into setup again.

Windows will detect and install your hardware. After this is

complete, Windows will restart one last time.
Now a page showing “The Out of Box Experience “ will
appear , where you get to configure detailed settings in
Windows, which includes creating a user account, privacy,
sync PC settings and install modern applications.

For Windows 11, follow the steps to complete the Out of Box
Experience:

Windows will check if there is an active Internet connection.

If it does not find one, you will be presented with the
following screen.
Create a Local Account and click Next

Wait while Windows finalizes your settings.

Continue to wait while Windows installs modern

applications.

When setup is complete you can retrieve any personal files

from the Windows.old

Browse to C:\ Local Disk and open the Windows.old folder.

Recover personal files from the Windows.old Folder such as
Documents Pictures and Windows Live Mail Emails in
Windows 10.

Windows 7

To learn how to change your BIOS options to boot from the

DVD drive, see the following tutorial:

https://www.groovypost.com/howto/bios-uefi-setup-guide-bo
ot-from-cd-dvd-usb-drive-sd-card/

Once your computer is set to boot from the DVD, you should
see this option.

Windows 7 is loading files…

Select a language, a time, a currency, and a keyboard or
another input method, and then click Next.
Click Install Now
Wait while temporary files are loaded.
Click Custom (Advanced)
When the setup menu appears, select the custom (advanced)
option, select the disk partition where you would like to
install Windows 7. Click Next.
You will receive the above warning:

The partition you selected might contain files from a

previous Windows Installation. If it does, these files and
folders will be moved to a folder named Windows.old. You
will be able to access the information in Windows.old, but
you will be able to use your previous version of Windows.

Click OK .

Setup will now start the installation. During the installation,

your machine will be restarted several times.
You can then recover your personal files from the
Windows.old folder and reinstall all your applications and
drivers.

Recover personal files from the Windows.old Folder such as

Documents Pictures and Windows Live Mail Emails in
Windows.

Windows 8 :

Once your computer is set to boot from the DVD, The

Windows 8 logo will appear on screen, this might be here for
a while, as long as your see the indicator, everything should
be ok.
You should now arrive at this screen, select your time and
currency format then click Next.
Click Install Now .

Wait while setup starts up.

Enter your product key when prompted.
Accept the End User License agreement and click Next.
Click Custom install Windows only (advanced)
Select the system drive where Windows 8 is installed.
You will receive the following warning:

The partition you selected might contain files from a

previous Windows Installation. If it does, these files and
folders will be moved to a folder named Windows.old. You
will be able to access the information in Windows.old, but
you will be able to use your previous version of Windows.

(At all cost, do NOT click anything named Format or Delete or

Partition). So even doing a custom install, your personal files
are still preserved. Click OK.
Setup will now start the installation. During the installation,
your machine will be restarted several times.

When the installation is complete, you can complete the Out

of Box experience such as selecting your computer, create a
username, password, your time zone. You can then proceed
to download the latest updates for Windows and reinstall
your applications and drivers.