GEOSPATIAL

POSITIONING SYSTEMS
FOR
BACHELOR OF ENGINEERING IN GEOSPATIAL
ENGINEERING
AND
BARCHELOR OF TECHNOLOGY IN SURVEY TECHNOLOGY
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1. INTRODUCTION
1.1. Review of basic trigonometric calculations

Trigonometric Formula Review

Summary of trigonometric functions:

1.2. Coordinates, Bearings and Distances

Most of the calculations in plane surveying (assumes a flat earth) can involve coordinates and these
coordinates will be denoted by E (eastings) and N (northings). Bearings will be measured by the
clockwise angle from the North direction from 0° to 360°. Note the difference to the mathematical
system of x and y with angles measured anti-clockwise from the x direction (see figure below).
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Join Computation:

Given the coordinates of two points, find the bearing and distance of the line between
them.

It should be noted that as tan X = tan (180° + X) the equations for β will give two values for β, i.e. it will
give the bearing PQ and the bearing QP.

The length d could also be calculated from the formulae:

Provided β has already been calculated. This provides a check of formula for β and d above.

Using Calculator

Join Example
Join Example 1:
Given S = (36 894.00, 45 321.00) and T = (37 375.904, 45 357.047)
then ∆E = 37 375.904 - 36 894.00 and ∆N = 45 357.047 - 45 321.00
so βST = 85°43'20" and dST = 483.25

Join Example 2:
Given S = (36 894.00, 45 321.00) and U = (36 657.868, 45 302.566)
then ∆E = 36 657.868 - 36 894.00 and ∆N = 45 302.566 - 45 321.00
so βSU = 265°32'10" and dSU = 236.85
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Polar/Radiant Computations:

Given the coordinates of a point and the bearing and distance of a line, find the
coordinates of the new point.

When dealing with computations involving a surveyed line PQ, the triangle used
in the calculation is the right-angled triangle, which the line makes with the
northing line through P and the easting line through Q. The orientation of the triangle will depend on
which quadrant the line PQ is in. The length of the line is always taken as positive but the
trigonometrical functions of the bearing may be either positive or negative.

Let the length of the line be d and the bearing β. The convention we adopt is that the line PQ means
from P to Q and for the differences in coordinates you take 'to' site minus 'from' site.

Difference in Northings ∆N = NQ - NP = dPQ cos βPQ

Difference in Eastings ∆E = EQ - EP = dPQ sin βPQ
The coordinates of Q are given by EQ = EP 8 + dPQ sin βPQ and NQ = NP + dPQ cosβPQ
Using Calculator

Polar Example
Example:
Given P = (177 413.0, 446 111.0), βPQ = 12°30'15" and dPQ = 6235.42
then
EQ = EP + dPQ sin βPQ = 177 413.0 + 6235.42 sin(12°30'15") = 178 763.04
NQ = NP + dPQ cos βPQ = 446 111.0 + 6235.42 cos(12°30'15") = 452 198.52
so Q = (178 763.04, 452 198. 52)

If βPR = 125°33'46" and dPR = 2345.63

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then ER = EP + dPR sin βPR = 177 413.0 + 2345.63 sin(125°33'46") = 179

321.12
and NR = NP + dPR cos βPR = 446 111.0 + 2345.63 cos(125°33'46") = 444
746.79
so R = (179 321.12, 444 746.79)
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2. GEODETIC OBSERVATIONS

Geodetic observations entails determination of horizontal and vertical position of points as well as
gravity filed of points on the earth’s surface. Altimetry or heights of points are measurements in 1D
while horizontal or planimetric position of points are in 2D. A combination of Vertical and horizontal
measurements form the 3D measurements. A combination of horizontal, vertical and time
measurements form a 4D measurements.

The separation of the horizontal and vertical positioning was due to the fact that different instruments
were used in the determination of each component. Additional the reference surfaces used in each
components are different i.e,

Ellipsoid-Horizontal
Geiod-Veritcal.

Technological developments in the field of geospatial sciences have led to more precise
instrumentation and improved models for computations leading to modern 3D and 4D networks.

2D Coordinates

3D Coordinates
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2.1. Principles of Surveying

When carrying geodetic or survey measurements the following principles are key:

1. Working from “whole to the part”.

2. Reliability control (independent checks to both measurements and processing (computations)
are needed and use of tested computer programs is made.
3. Economy: cost considerations are important. “Be accurate as possible, but not more than
required”
2.2. Datum Defects

In providing horizontal control for a large area e.g a country, the Earth’s surface is covered by a
network of points that are arranged in such a way that neighbouring points build a triangle. Consider
a horizontal survey network consisting of three points as shown below.

Angles P1, P2 and P3 have been precisely observed using an appropriate theodolite. Measurements
of angles provide information about the shape of the network. If none of the points is known in
position (x, y),then the following can happen to the 2-D network:

 Translate in x – direction
 Translate in y- direction
 Rotate about a vertical axis
 Take any size

In the above case, w e say that the network has four free datum parameters or datum defects namely;

 Two translation in X and Y directions

 One rotation
 A scale.
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It is normally not possible to compute the position of points if there are datum defects present in the
network. One is required to remove these defects. The presence of defects is because most surveying
observations do not provide information concerning the coordinate system e.g., the coordinate
system origin, while the computation models have the coordinates as parameters. For the above
example, one can remove the defects as follows:

 Fix x and y coordinates of one point to control the translation defects or;
 Fix bearing of one line to prevent a rotation or;
 Measure the length of at least one observation line within the network to control scale.

Note that presence of datum defects depends on which observations have been made for a particular
network. For example, a network whereby distances are measured will not have a scale defect.
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3. TERRESTRIAL OBSERVATION

Terrestrial surveying is also referred to as field or ground-based surveying. It can be defined as the art
and science of taking measurements on or near the surface of the earth. Data acquisition is based on
the collection of geospatial data. Measurements are collected using equipment at ground level of
obtain the position an object.

Terrestrial surveying techniques involve the measurement of :

Distance
Angle
Azimuth
Height

Either of the following methods can determine Distance, Angle, Azimuth and Heights:

 Intersection
 Trilateration
 Triangulation
 Traversing
 Levelling
 Global positioning System
3.1. Intersection

Intersections are a method of finding the coordinates of a point from the directions or distances
to it from two or more known points. In this course, we consider two observations from two
points to determine 2D coordinates. The directions to the point can be specified either by angles
(α) or by bearings (β).

3.1.1. Intersection by Angles

Given: Coordinates of A and B, angles at A and B

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Beware there are two possible answers to intersection by angles. C can be on either side of the
line AB as in the diagram at right. In real applications, we often have more information to help us
decide which answer is the correct one.
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3.1.2. Intersection by Bearings

Given: Coordinates of A and B, bearings βAC and βBC

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Method 3
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3.2. Trilateration

Trilateration, or intersection by distances, is a method of fixing the coordinates of a point using

distances from two or more control points. Note that the distances can be measured in either direction
from e.g. from A to C or from C to A.

3.2.1. Intersection by 1 Bearing and 1 Distance

One example of an intersection by a bearing and a distance occurs when a line of known bearing
intersects with a circular curve i.e. a distance from a point. It is common in cadastral lot calculations
with circular arc curved boundaries.

Intersection of bearing β from A and distance R from B can lie in two places, either C or D. One solution
method is based on transforming (rotation, no scale) the vector AB to the bearing AD follows. It is an
efficient method that has no sin-1 or divisions.

dAP=(EB-EA )sinβAD+(NB-NA)cosβAD
dBP=(EB-EA )cosβAD-(NB-NA)sinβAD
dCP = dDP = √(R2-dBP2)

Then calculate the coordinates of C or D by radiation from A using β and dAC = dAP -dCP or dAD = dAP+dDP
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Another method is to solve for the distance AC by sine rule on triangle ABC. But beware sin-1 has two
answers i.e. in the first and second quadrants.

3.2.2. Intersection of two coordinated Lines

If line AC intersects line BD at a point P and coordinates of A B C D are known, find the coordinates of
P

3.2.3. Intersection of Perpendicular Lines

Find coordinates of a point P that is the shortest distance from point C to the line A Coordinates of A
B C are known. Line CP is perpendicular to line AB.
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3.3. Resection

A three-point resection is a method of determining the coordinates

of a point (P) from direction (or angle) observations taken from that
point to three points (A, B, C) that have known coordinates.
Historically, Snellius found a solution around 1615. Applications
include surveys where no distances are available or possible, where
marks with known coordinates can be seen and it is desired to set up not over a survey mark, on
industrial or construction sites where marks on the ground get destroyed or lost but coordinated wall
marks remain, and in a coordinated cadastre. It is an alternative to traversing if many control points
can be seen. Sometimes it is called “free stationing” and many modern total station survey
instruments do the calculations “on board” the instrument. Resection involves the observation of
known points from an unknown point, sometimes distance and zenith angle observations are also
included (but we leave that for a later course).

In these notes, we choose any point as A then label the points clockwise from A to B to C, just as a
theodolite measures directions from P. From direction observations, the angles (α) can be calculated.
Note that we do not know the bearings from P to the points A B or C. If we knew the bearings, we
would only need two targets (e.g. A and B) and could calculate P by intersection of bearings. Similarly,
if we have the distances from P we only need two targets (e.g. A and B) and could calculate P by
intersection of distances.

The minimum number of directions required for a solution is 3. This gives a unique solution of the
point’s coordinates. The solution of resection problems with more than three target points is covered
in a later course. There are varieties of problems similar to resections, sometimes called free
stationing, where an instrument is placed in a new (uncoordinated) position and directions or
distances to known coordinated points. Many modern instruments can do the calculations on-board.
One example case is where an instrument at P observes directions to A and B and distances to A and
B. Thus, two distances and an included angle are observed and the distance between A and B can be
calculated from their coordinates. Then the triangle can be solved by the sine rule, bearings calculated
from the angles, then coordinates by radiation.

3.3.1. Tienstsa’s Method (Method of Barycentre Coordinates)

Stations are labelled A, B, C from left to right and clockwise.

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1. Angles α1 and α2 are observed or calculated from the direction observations taken at P. α1 =
dirPB –dirPA and α2 = dirPC –dirPB. Calculate the third angle at P, α3 : α3= 360° – (α1 + α2) or
α3 = dirPA –dirPC.
2. Calculate the angles in the triangle ABC from their coordinates, via the bearings of the lines
joining A, B and C as shown in figure. A = β AC - β AB B = β BA - β BC C = β CB - β CA
3. Calculate the “weights” (remember cot = 1/tan = cos/sin):

w A = 1/(cot A - cotα 2 ) wB = 1/(cot B - cotα 3 ) wC = 1/(cot C - cotα 1 )

Calculate the bearings βPA, βPM and βPB from the final coordinates of P. Calculate α1 and α2 from these
bearings and compare with given angles or directions.
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3.3.2. Collin’s Point Method

The Collins’ point method is an elegant method that reduces the

resection problem into two intersections by creating an intermediate
point. The intermediate point can be on either side of the control
points depending on the geometry, as shown below. Here we start
with the case where the sum of the two angles (α1+α2) is < 180°.
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3.4. Triangulation

Triangulation originates from the Latin word tres angulus (tres - three; angulus - angle). It is a method
of surveying in which the position of a new point is determined from the mathematical solution of the
triangle where one of the vertices is the new point (unknown) and other two points of known position.
Figure below shows survey points P1 and P2 as known points while P3 is a new point whose
coordinates need to be determined.

A triangulation network consists of a series of interconnected triangles with the length of at least one
triangle being measured. This base line length is called the base line. The angles of the triangles are
precisely measured using a theodolite. The angles provide for the shape of the triangle. The vertices
of the triangle are known as triangulation points (TP) or stations. Since the solution of each triangle
depends on the length and azimuth of the preceding triangle, errors tend to accumulate as the
network progresses. The errors in azimuth are controlled by use of Laplace stations. The errors in scale
are controlled by measuring base lines at appropriate intervals.
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The resulting system of horizontal control (point coordinates)from triangulation serves as a framework
to which cadastral, topographical, engineering, hydrographical, GIS maps etc. are referred. Before the
advent of space-based positioning methods, e.g., Global Positioning Service (GPS), triangulation
methods were used for surveys of high accuracy and those covering large areas (e.g. a country) and
particularly when the terrain was rugged. In Kenya, the main existing horizontal control framework
(surveys) were carried out by means of triangulation. Apart from using triangulation for nationwide
surveys, triangulation combined with distance measurements, is commonly used in establishment of
local networks requiring high accuracy, e.g., deformation monitoring networks.

3.4.1. Objective of Triangulation

The main objective of triangulation or trilateration surveys is to provide a number of stations whose
relative and absolute positions, horizontal as well as vertical, are accurately established. More detailed
location or engineering survey are then carried out from these stations.

The triangulation surveys are carried out

 to establish accurate control for plane and geodetic surveys of large areas, by terrestrial
methods,
 to establish accurate control for photogrammetric surveys of large areas,
 to assist in the determination of the size and shape of the earth by making observations for
latitude, longitude and gravity, and
 to determine accurate locations of points in engineering works such as :
 Fixing centre line and abutments of long bridges over large rivers.
 Fixing centre line, terminal points, and shafts for long tunnels.
 Transferring the control points across wide sea channels, large water bodies, etc.
 Detection of crustal movements, etc.
 Finding the direction of the movement of clouds.
3.4.2. Classification of Triangulation system

Based on the extent and purpose of the survey, and consequently on the degree of accuracy desired,
triangulation surveys are classified as first-order or primary, second-order or secondary, and third-
order or tertiary. First-order triangulation is used to determine the shape and size of the earth or to
cover a vast area like a whole country with control points to which a second-order triangulation system
can be connected. A second-order triangulation system consists of a network within a first-order
triangulation. It is used to cover areas of the order of a region, small country, or province. A third-
order triangulation is a framework fixed within and connected to a second-order triangulation system.
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It serves the purpose of furnishing the immediate control for detailed engineering and location
surveys.
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3.4.3. Carrying out Triangulation Survey (Field Work)
Measurement of Horizontal and Vertical Angle in Triangulation
Horizontal Measurement
Vertical measurement
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Triangulation Diagram
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Join Computations
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First approximation of Stations using observed bearings

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Final Bearing Computations

Final Coordinate Computation

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Final Coordinate Computation

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3.5. Traversing

A traverse is a series of consecutive lines whose ends have been marked in the field and whose lengths
and directions have been determined from observations. In traditional surveying by ground methods,
traversing, the act of marking the lines, that is, establishing traverse stations and making the necessary
observations is one of the most basic and widely practiced means of determining the relative locations
of points. The points defining the ends of the traverse lines are called the traverse stations.

Traverse survey is a method of establishing control points, their positions being determined by
measuring the distances between the traverse stations that serve as control points and the angles
subtended at the various stations by their adjacent stations.

3.5.1. Types of Traverse

There are two kinds of traverses: closed and open. Two categories of closed traverses exist: polygon
and link. In the polygon traverse, as shown in Figure 3.5.1a, the lines return to the starting point, thus
forming a closed figure that is both geometrically and mathematically closed. Link traverses finish
upon another station that should have a positional accuracy equal to or greater than that of the
starting point. The link type (geometrically open, mathematically closed), as illustrated in Figure
3.5.1b, must have a closing reference direction, for example, line Closed traverses provide checks on
the observed angles and distances, which is an extremely important consideration. They are used
extensively in control, construction, property, and topographic surveys.

If the distance between stations C and E in Figure 3.5.1a were observed, the resultant set of
observations would become what is called a network. A network involves the interconnection of
stations within the survey to create additional redundant observations. Networks offer more
geometric checks than closed traverses. For instance, in Figure 3.5.1, after computing coordinates on
stations C and E using elementary procedures, the observed distance CE can be compared against a
value obtained by inversing the coordinates.

An open traverse (geometrically and mathematically open) (Figure 3.5.2) consists of a series of lines
that are connected but do not return to the starting point or close upon a point of equal or greater
order accuracy. Open traverses should be avoided because they offer no means of checking for
observational errors and mistakes. If they must be used, observations should be repeated carefully to
guard against mistakes.
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Figure 3.5.1 Closed Traverse

Figure 3.5.2: Open Traverse

3.5.2. Purpose of Traverse

 To determine the positions of existing cadastral boundary marks.
 To establish the position of boundary lines.
 To determine the area encompassed within the confines of a boundary.
 To determine the position of arbitrary points from which data may be obtained for
preparing various types of maps, i.e. to establish control for mapping.
 To establish ground control for photogrammetric mapping.
 To establish control for locating railroads, highways and other construction work.
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3.5.3. Observation of Traverse Angles, Directions and Lenghts

The methods used in observing angles or directions of traverse lines vary andinclude:

a) Interior angles
b) Angles to the right
c) Deflection angles
d) Azimuths
a. Traverse by Interior Angles

Interior-angle traverses are used for many types of work, but they are especially convenient for
property surveys. Although interior angles could be observed either clockwise or counter clockwise,
to reduce mistakes in reading, recording, and computing, they should always be turned clockwise from
the backsight station to the foresight station. See Figure 3.5.1a.

b. Traverse by Angles to the Right

Angles observed clockwise from a backsight on the “rearward” traverse station to a foresight on the
“forward” traverse station [see Figures 3.5.1(a) and (b)] are called angles to the right. According to
this definition, to avoid ambiguity in angle-to-the right designations, the “sense” of the forward
traverse direction must be established. This is normally done by consecutive numbering or lettering
of traverse stations so that they increase in the forward direction. Depending on the direction of the
traversing, angles to the right may be interior or exterior angles in a polygon traverse. If the direction
of traversing is counter-clockwise around the figure, then clockwise interior angles will be observed.
However, if the direction of traversing is clockwise, then exterior angles will be observed. Data
collectors generally follow this convention when traversing.

c. Traverse by deflection Angles

Route surveys are commonly run by deflection angles observed to the right or left from the lines
extended, as indicated in Figure 3.5.2. A deflection angle is not complete without a designation R or
L, and, of course, it cannot exceed 180°. Each angle should be doubled or quadrupled, and an average
value determined. The angles should be observed an equal number of times in face left and face right
to reduce instrumental errors. Deflection angles can be obtained by subtracting 180° from angles to
the right. Positive values so obtained denote right deflection angles; negative ones are left.

d. Traverse by Azimuths

With total station instruments, traverses can be run using azimuths. This process permits reading
azimuths of all lines directly and thus eliminates the need to calculate them. In Figure 3.5.3, azimuths
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are observed clockwise from the north end of the meridian through the angle points. The instrument
is oriented at each setup by sighting on the previous station with either the back azimuth on the circle
(if angles to the right are turned) or the azimuth (if deflection angles are turned). Then the forward
station is sighted. The resulting reading on the horizontal circle will be the forward line’s azimuth.

Figure 3.5.3: Azimuth Traverse

e. Traverse Lengths

The length of each traverse line (also called a course) must be observed, and this is usually done by
the simplest and most economical method capable of satisfying the required precision of a given
project. Their speed, convenience, and accuracy makes the EDM component of a total station
instrument the most often used, although taping or other methods could be employed. A distinct
advantage of traversing with total station instruments is that both angles and distances can be
observed with a single setup at each station. Averages of distances observed both forward and back
will provide increased accuracy, and the repeat readings afford a check on the observations.

3.5.4. Sources of Errors and Mistakes in Traversing

Some sources of errors in running a traverse include:

1. Poor selection of stations, resulting in bad sighting conditions caused by

i. alternate sun and shadow
ii. visibility of only the rod’s top
iii. line of sight passing too close to the ground
iv. lines that are too short
v. Sighting into the sun.
2. Errors in observations of angles and distances.
3. Failure to observe angles an equal number of times direct and reversed.
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Mistakes from running a traverse can originate from;

1. Occupying or sighting on the wrong station.

2. Incorrect orientation.
3. Confusing angles to the right and left.
4. Mistakes in note taking.
5. Misidentification of the sighted station.
3.5.5. Traverse Computations

In a traverse, we need to calculate the coordinates of each station from observed angles and distances,
e.g. closed-line traverse. To calculate bearings from traverse angles:

 add angles to known bearings

 can add or subtract 360° to/from any
bearing
 to reverse bearing + or - 180°

Computational steps:

1. Apply corrections to the linear (distance)

measurements (e.g. temperature &
pressure for EDM, possibly map grid
corrections too to fit with coordinates on
a map projection).
2. Compute the angular misclosure of the traverse and the adjusted bearing of each line.
3. Calculate the coordinates of the stations, and the linear misclosure (in coordinates) of the
traverse.
4. If misclosure is small, enough then adjust the traverse to obtain the final coordinates. If
misclosure is not small enough then investigate to find the error.

3.5.5.1. Angular Misclosure

Loop traverse with n points

If no errors in angles then:
Σ interior angles = (n-2) ⋅180°
Σ outer angles = (n+2) ⋅180°
Misclosure = Σ internal angles - (n-2) ⋅180°
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Closed-line traverse
Σ angles + ∆β = (n-2) ⋅180° (in this figure: n = 7!)
Where ∆β = starting bearing – closing bearing
Misclosure = Σ angles + ∆β - (n-2) ⋅180°

3.5.5.2. Distribution of Angular Misclosure

3.5.5.3. Linear Misclosure

Because of errors in the observed traverse angles and distances, if one were to begin at point A of a
closed-polygon traverse and progressively follow each course for its observed distance along its
preliminary bearing or azimuth, one would finally return not to point A, but to some other nearby
point A’. Point A’ would be removed from A in an east-west direction by the departure misclosure
and in a north-south direction by the latitude misclosure. The distance between A and A’ is termed
the linear misclosure of the traverse. It is calculated from the following formula:

The relative precision of a traverse is expressed by a fraction that has the linear misclosure as its
numerator and the traverse perimeter or total length as its denominator, or

The fraction that results from the above Equation is then reduced to reciprocal form, and the
denominator rounded to the same number of significant figures as the numerator.
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Example

3.5.5.4. Departure and Latitudes

After balancing the angles and calculating preliminary azimuths (or bearings), traverse closure is
checked by computing the departure and latitude of each line. As illustrated in 3.5.4, the departure of
a course is its orthographic projection on the east-
west axis of the survey and is equal to the length of
the course multiplied by the sine of its azimuth (or
bearing) angle. Departures are sometimes called
eastings or westings.

The latitude of a course is its orthographic projection

on the north-south axis of the survey, and is equal to
the course length multiplied by the cosine of its
azimuth (or bearing) angle. Latitude is also called
northing or southing.

In equation form, the departure and latitude of a line are

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Figure 3.5.4. Departures and Latitudes

Where L is the horizontal length and the azimuth of the course. Departures and latitudes are merely
changes in the X and Y components of a line in a rectangular grid system, sometimes referred to as ΔX
and ΔY. In traverse calculations, east departures and north latitudes are considered plus; west
departures and south latitudes, minus. Azimuths (from north) used in computing departures and
latitudes range from 0 to 360°, and the algebraic signs of sine and cosine functions automatically
produce the proper algebraic signs of the departures and latitudes. Thus, a line with an azimuth of
126°55’ 17’’ has a positive departure and negative latitude (the sine at the azimuth is plus and the
cosine minus); a course of 284°35’ 20’’ azimuth has a negative departure and positive latitude. In using
bearings for computing departures and latitudes, the angles are always between 0 and 90°; hence
their sines and cosines are invariably positive. Proper algebraic signs of departures and latitudes must
therefore be assigned on the basis of the bearing angle directions, so a NE bearing has a plus departure
and latitude, a SW bearing gets a minus departure and latitude, and so on. Because computers and
hand calculators automatically affix correct algebraic signs to departures and latitudes through the
use of azimuth angle sines and cosines, it is more convenient to use azimuths than bearings for
traverse computations.
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3.5.5.5. Distribution of Disclosure

Bowditch Method

Bowditch’s method causes the already adjusted bearings to be altered to a much greater extent than
does the Transit method (particularly for N-S and E-W lines). The Transit method alters distances more
than Bowditch. The Bowditch method has traditionally been more popular in NSW. A Least Squares
adjustment is a much better way to adjust a traverse, but is taught in a following course not in this
course.

Examples

Example 1:

A traverse was observed from B40 to B45 (which have known coordinates) as shown in the figure
below. The angles were derived from mean of FL and FR
directions and reduced to zero on the backsight. The distances
have been corrected for slope, atmosphere etc and are the mean
of forward and backward observations.
Observations:
Angle From - To Dist m
B40 94° 10’ 00” B40 – 1 103.402
1 178 19 00 1–2 157.225
2 118 21 45 2–3 143.369
3 194 42 25 3–4 169.087
4 158 07 30 4 – B40 176.743
B45 89 03 55
Given Data

Coordinates (E, N) Bearings from coordinates

B40: 406.347, 423.509 B40 – TS1: 10° 12’ 35”
B45: 992.415, 713.229 B45 – TS15: 302° 57’ 43”
1. Adjust the observed angles
2. Determine the traverse bearings
3. Adjust the traverse
4. Compute the Final coordinates of the stations
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Solution:
Adjusting Angles:

• ∆β (starting brg – closing brg) = 67° 14’ 52” Note: bearings from terminal to
target control
station.

• For a loop traverse, ∆β is zero.

• Angular misclose mα = Σ angles - (n-2) ⋅180° with n = number

of angles.
= 832° 44’ 35” + 67° 14’ 52” – (7-2) * 180° here n=7 (6
traverse stations +
∆β)
= 899° 59’ 27” - 900° mα = -33”

• Correction to angles = -mα / n = +5.5”

• Bearings from corrected angles: β i = β i-1 + α i ± 180°

Angle Adjustment Bearings Calculation
Pt Angle Corr Adj Angle Line Bearing
B40 94 10 00 5.5’’ 94 10 05.5 TS1-B40 190 12 35 Known
1 178 19 00 5.5’’ 178 19 05.5 B40-1 104 22 41
2 118 21 45 5.5’’ 118 21 50.5 1-2 102 41 46
3 194 42 25 5.5’’ 194 42 30.5 2-3 41 03 36
4 158 07 30 5.5’’ 158 07 35.5 3-4 55 46 07
B45 89 03 55 5.5’’ 89 04 0.05 4-B45 33 53 42
Misc -33’’ 33’’ B45-TS15 302 57 43 Known
Adjusted Traverse and Final Coordinate
 39

Example 2:

Adjust the angles, bearings and determine the final coordinates of A, B, C and D
 40

3.6. Height (Vertical) Determination

Leveling is the general term applied to any of the various processes by which elevations of points or
differences in elevation are determined. It is a vital operation in producing necessary data for
mapping, engineering design, and construction. Leveling results are used to (1) design highways,
railroads, canals, sewers, water supply systems, and other facilities having grade lines that best
conform to existing topography; (2) lay out construction projects according to planned elevations; (3)
calculate volumes of earthwork and other materials; (4) investigate drainage characteristics of an area;
(5) develop maps showing general ground configurations; and (6) study earth subsidence and crustal
motion.

3.6.1. Definition of terms

Basic terms in leveling are defined in this section, some of which are illustrated in
Figure 3.6.1

Vertical line. A line that follows the local direction of gravity as indicated by a plumb line.

Level surface. A curved surface that at every point is perpendicular to the local plumb line (the
direction in which gravity acts). Level surfaces are approximately spheroidal in shape. A body of still
water is the closest example of a level surface. Within local areas, level surfaces at different heights
are considered concentric. Level surfaces are also known as equipotential surfaces since, for a
particular surface, the potential of gravity is equal at every point on the surface.

Level line. A line in a level surface—therefore, a curved line.

 41

Horizontal plane. A plane perpendicular to the local direction of gravity. In plane surveying, it is a
plane perpendicular to the local vertical line.

Horizontal line. A line in a horizontal plane. In plane surveying, it is a line perpendicular to the local
vertical.

Vertical datum. Any level surface to which elevations are referenced. This is the surface that is
arbitrarily assigned an elevation of zero. This level surface is also known as a reference datum since
points using this datum have heights relative to this surface.

Elevation. The distance measured along a vertical line from a vertical datum to a point or object.

Geoid. A particular level surface that serves as a datum for all elevations and astronomical
observations.

Mean sea level (MSL). The average height for the surface of the seas for all stages of tide over a 19-
year period.

Tidal datum. The vertical datum used in coastal areas for establishing property boundaries of lands
bordering waters subject to tides. A tidal datum also provides the basis for locating fishing and oil
drilling rights in tidal waters, and the limits of swamp and overflowed lands. Various definitions have
been used in different areas for a tidal datum, but the one most commonly employed is the mean high
water (MHW) line. Others applied include mean higher high water (MHHW), mean low water

(MLW), and mean lower low water (MLLW). Interpretations of a tidal datum, and the methods by
which they are determined, have been, and continue to be, the subject of numerous court cases.

Benchmark (BM). A relatively permanent object, natural or artificial, having a marked point whose
elevation above or below a reference datum is known or assumed.

Leveling. The process of finding elevations of points or their differences in elevation.

Vertical control. A series of benchmarks or other points of known elevation established throughout
an area, also termed basic control or level control. The basic vertical control for the United States was
derived from first- and second-order leveling. Less precise third-order leveling has been used to fill
gaps between second-order benchmarks, as well as for many other specific projects.

3.6.2. Methods of Height Determination

a. Differential Leveling

The differential leveling is a method of determining height difference by using a level and a vertical
staff. Over short distances this method is easy and yield accurate results. However, practical
applications have shown that this method is tedious and tiresome when observations are mode on
 42

irregular terrain, thus yield errors. Preventive measures must be taken to eliminate or reduce the
instrumental errors and the ambient conditions.

In this method, differential technique is applied. Determination of Orthometric heights of new points
is through reduced level which can be found by either height of collimation or Rise and Fall methods.
Observations must begin from a point of known elevation known as the benchmark. The surveyor first
reads the staff at the benchmark (Back sight) and then the Foresight. This procedure can be illustrated
in the following diagram:

In differential leveling high accuracy is required. This can be achieved through assessment of the
quality of levelling which could be made by calculating the misclosure for a line of levels. This is
determined by comparing the reduced level of the closing bench mark with the level obtained for it
by calculation from the staff readings.

The allowable misclosure for a line of levels is given by:

𝜀 = 𝑚√𝑛

Where, ε is the allowable error, m is a constant and n is the number of instrument positions used. The
value most often used for m is 5mm.

b. Trigonometric

The difference in elevation between two points can be determined by measuring (1) the inclined or
horizontal distance between them and (2) the zenith angle or the altitude angle to one point from the
 43

other. Thus, in Figure 3.6.1, if slope distance S and zenith angle z or altitude angle between C and D
are observed, then V, the elevation difference between C and D, is

Figure 3.6.1: Trigonometric Heighting

Alternatively, if horizontal distance H between C and D is measured, then V is

The difference in elevation between points A and B in Figure 3.6.1 is given by

Where hi is the height of the instrument above point A and r the reading on the rod held at B when
zenith angle ȥ or altitude angle α is read.

c. GPS/Leveling

GPS/Levelling is the most recent and advanced method that can be used in the determination of
heights. Three-dimensional coordinates or coordinate differences can be obtained by GPS in the
geocentric Cartesian coordinate system. The Cartesian coordinates are transformed to geodetic
 44

latitude (φ), geodetic longitude (γ), and ellipsoidal heights (h) according to selected reference
ellipsoid, such as WGS84.

The ellipsoidal heights obtained by GPS are not directly used for practical surveying. The ellipsoidal
height has to be transformed to orthometric height, which is distance measured along the plumb line
between the geoid and a point on the Earth’s surface and taken positive upward from the geoid.
However geoid heights of all points have to be computed before computing orthometric heights.

A better approach of determining orthometric height in the satellite era is the use of global
geopotential models. Using GPS, an absolute height above a properly geocentric ellipsoid can be
obtained and geopotential heights (from which orthometric height above sea level could be derived)
can be obtained by inserting the coordinates given by the satellite positioning (φ, γ, h ) into a global
model of the Earth’s potential.

Some factors contribute to the accuracy of a local geoid model are:

Distribution and number of reference stations (GPS/Levelling stations): These points must be
distributed homogeneously to the coverage area of the model and have to be chosen to figure
out the changes of geoid surface.
The accuracy of GPS derived ellipsoidal heights and the leveling derived Orthometric heights.
Characteristics of the geoid surface in the area.
Used method while modeling the geoid (researcher showed that there is no unique model
that works properly for realizing the geoid surface of different areas).

3.6.3. Differential Leveling Booking and Reduction

Before discussing the booking and methods of reducing levels, the following terms associated with

differential levelling must be understood.

Height of instrument (H.I.) or height of collimation: For any set up of the level, the elevation of the
line of sight is the height of instrument. (H.I. = hA + SA ).

Back sight (B.S.): It is the first reading taken on the staff after setting up the level usually to determine
the height of instrument. It is usually made to some form of a bench mark (B.M.) or to the points
whose elevations have already been determined. When the instrument position has to be changed,
the first sight taken in the next section is also a back sight.

Fore sight (F.S.): It is the last reading from an instrument position on to a staff held at a point. It is
thus the last reading taken within a section of levels before shifting the instrument to the next section,
and also the last reading taken over the whole series of levels.
 45

Change point (C.P.) or turning point: A change point or turning point is the point where both the fore
sight and back sight are made on a staff held at that point. A change point is required before moving
the level from one section to another section. By taking the fore sight the elevation of the change
point is determined and by taking the back sight the height of instrument is determined. The change
points relate the various sections by making fore sight and back sight at the same point.

Intermediate sight (I.S.): The term ‘intermediate sight’ covers all sightings and consequent staff
readings made between back sight and fore sight within each section. Thus, intermediate sight station
is neither the change point nor the last point.

Balancing of sights: When the distances of the stations where back sight and fore sight are taken from
the instrument station, are kept approximately equal, it is known as balancing of sights. Balancing of
sights minimizes the effect of instrumental and other errors.

Reduced level (R.L.): Reduced level of a point is its height or depth above or below the assumed
datum. It is the elevation of the point.

Rise and fall: The difference of level between two consecutive points indicates a rise or a fall between
the two points.

For booking and reducing the levels of points, there are two systems, namely the height of instrument
or height of collimation method and rise and fall method. The columns for booking the readings in a
level book are same for both the methods but for reducing the levels, the number of additional
columns depends upon the method of reducing the levels. Note that except for the change point, each
staff reading is written on a separate line so that each staff position has its unique reduced level. This
remains true at the change point since the staff does not move and the back sight from a forward
instrument station is taken at the same staff position where the fore sight has been taken from the
backward instrument station.

a. Height of Instrument/Collimation Method

In reducing the levels for various points by the height of instrument method, the height of instrument
(H.I.) for the each section highlighted by different shades, is determined by adding the elevation of
the point to the back sight reading taken at that point. The H.I. remains unchanged for all the staff
readings taken within that section and therefore, the levels of all the points lying in that section are
reduced by subtracting the corresponding staff readings, i.e., I.S. or F.S., from the H.I. of that section.
 46

b. Rise and Fall Method

In the rise and fall method, the rises and the falls are found out for the points lying within each section.
Adding or subtracting the rise or fall to or from the reduced level of the backward station obtains the
level for a forward station. In Table 3.2, r and f indicate the rise and the fall, respectively, assumed
between the consecutive points.

The arithmetic involved in reduction of the levels is used as check on the computations. The following
rules are used in the two methods of reduction of levels.

(a) For the height of instrument method

(i) Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Last R.L. – First R.L.

(ii) Σ [H.I. × (No. of I.S.’s + 1)] – Σ I.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ R.L. – First R.L.

(b) For the rise and fall method

Σ B.S. – Σ F.S. = Σ Rise – Σ Fall = Last R.L. – First R.L.

 47

Example 1

The following readings were taken with a level and 4 m staff. Draw up a level book page and
reduce the levels by the Height of Instrument/Height of Collimation and Rise & Fall method.

0.578 B.M.(= 58.250 m), 0.933, 1.768, 2.450, (2.005 and 0.567) C.P., 1.888, 1.181, (3.679

and 0.612) C.P., 0.705, 1.810.

Solution.

The first reading being on a B.M., is a back sight. As the fifth station is a change point, 2.005 is fore
sight reading and 0.567 is back sight reading. All the readings between the first and fifth readings are
intermediate sight-readings. Similarly, the eighth station being a change point, 3.679 is fore sight
reading, 0.612 is back sight reading, and 1.888, 1.181 are intermediate sight readings. The last reading
1.810 is fore sight and 0.705 is intermediate sight-readings. All the readings have been entered in their
respective columns in the following table and the levels have been reduced by height of instrument
method. In the following computations, the values of B.S., I.S., H.I., etc., for a particular station have
been indicated by its number or name.
 48

Example 2

The following consecutive readings were taken with a level on continuously sloping ground at a
common interval of 20 m. The last station has an elevation of 155.272 m. Rule out a page of level book
and enter the readings. Calculate

(i) The reduced levels of the points by rise and fall method, and

(ii) the gradient of the line joining the first and last points.

0.420, 1.115, 2.265, 2.900, 3.615, 0.535, 1.470, 2.815, 3.505, 4.445, 0.605, 1.925, 2.885.

Solution:

Since the readings have been taken along a line on a continuously sloping ground, any sudden large
change in the reading such as in the sixth reading compared to the fifth reading and in the eleventh
reading compared to the tenth reading, indicates the change in the instrument position. Therefore,
the sixth and eleventh readings are the back sights and fifth and tenth readings are the fore sights.
The first and the last readings are the back sight and fore sight, respectively, and all remaining readings
are intermediate sights.

The last point being of known elevation, the computation of the levels is to be done from last point to
the first point. The falls are added to and the rises are subtracted from the known elevations. The
computation of levels is explained below and the results have been presented in the following table.
 49

Example 3

A page of level book is reproduced below in which some readings marked as (×), are missing. Complete
the page with all arithmetic checks.
 50

3.7. Satellite Positioning

GNSS (Global Navigation Satellite System)

A global navigation satellite system is made up a network of satellites that transmit ranging signals
used for positioning and navigation anywhere around the globe as well as air or sea.

Examples of such satellite systems include;

a) Global Positioning System (GPS)-US

b) GLObal NAvigation Satellite System (GLONASS)-Russian
c) GALILEO system (upcoming)-European
d) COMPASS (Beidou “Big Dipper”)-China

Global Navigation Satellite Systems (GNSS) were initially developed in the early seventies to improve
global positioning and navigation from space. The Global Positioning System (GPS) was the first system
to launch an operational prototype satellite in February of 1978. Shortly after, the number of GPS
satellites in orbit increased to four but this was the absolute minimum to obtain a “fix”. More satellites
would be needed if continuous global coverage was expected. GNSS constellations are constantly
being expanded and upgraded but many of the initial designs and integrated systems on the original
satellite are still found on newer satellites in the current GPS constellation. The first commercial GPS
receivers were on the market in 1982. The receivers were large, bulky, expensive and could only track
four satellites simultaneously. The satellites to track had to be selected manually on the receiver.

Today, modern receivers are much more sophisticated and can track GPS and GLONASS satellites
simultaneously on more than 50 channels. Some of the latest receiver models can also track Galileo
signals. Everything from satellite tracking to coordinate determination are computed automatically in
real time. At the same time costs of new receivers continue to decrease.
3.7.1. GNSS Components

The GNSS consist of three main satellite technologies: GPS, GLONASS and Galileo. Each of them
consists mainly of three segments:

a) space segment,
b) control segment and
c) user segment.

These segments are almost similar in the three satellite technologies, which are all together make up
the GNSS. As of today, the complete satellite technology is the GPS technology and and most of the
 51

existing worldwide applications are related to the GPS technology. The GNSS technology will become
clearer after the operation of Galileo and the reconstruction of GLONASS in the next few years.

3.7.1.1. Global Positioning System

The Navigation Satellite Timing and Ranging (NAVSTAR) Global Positioning System (GPS) was
developed by the United States Department of Defense (DoD) to provide worldwide positioning and
timing capabilities for the military. The system was initially designed to provide two types of services.
The first is the precise positioning service (PPS) and is for military use while the second is the standard
positioning service (SPS) and is intended for use by everyone.

Different components of the GPS system fall into three main groups.

a. Space segment

The SPACE segment consists of 24 operational satellites built by Rockwell Inter- national, Lockheed
Martin and Boeing. Four atomic clocks on each satellite continuously compute and transmit the exact
time (GPS time) and position of the satellite in a digital signal. The satellites are also placed, in equal
numbers, in six orbital planes, each inclined at 55° from the Earth’s equator. Each satellite moves in a
near circular orbit (semi-major axis 26,660 km) and completes two orbital revolutions in one sidereal
day; orbital periods of approximately 11 hours 58 minutes (half a sidereal day). The inclination of the
orbits and the high altitude (~20,000 km) of the GPS satellites permit more to be seen simultaneously
from virtually anywhere on Earth. Satellite visibility is also optimized by monitoring and routinely
adjusting the positions of all satellites in each orbital plane. The categories are Block I, Block II, Block
IIR (R for replenishment) and Block IIA (A for advanced) and a further follow-on category Block IIF has
also been planned (ICD-GPS, 2003).
 52

b. The Control segment

The second major component of the GPS system is the CONTROL segment. This currently consists of
eleven monitoring stations where each station monitors and accumulates the range to each visible
satellite before passing the information on to the Master Control Station (MCS) at Schriever AFB in
Colorado. The MCS is responsible for computing the orbit of each satellite and to update the
navigation or broadcast message with parameters that describe each satellite’s orbit. The broadcast
message is then sent to each satellite via an up-link from one of three ground antennas located in
Ascension Island, Diego Garcia and Kwajalein.
 53

GPS Control System

c. User segment

The third component of the GPS system is the USER segment. This primarily consists of GPS antennas
and receivers that provide position, navigation and timing information to the users. The number of
applications for GPS continues to rise and over the last decade, there has been a dramatic increase in
the number and type of receivers which have been developed and sold for civilian and military uses.
 54

GPS receivers

The main GPS segments

3.7.1.2. GLONASS

The Global Navigation Satellite System (GLONASS – GLObal’naya Navigatsionnaya Sputnikovaya

Sistema) is managed by the Russian Space Forces for the Russian Federation Government. All
operational components of the GLONASS system are operated by the Coordination Scientific
Information Center (KNITs) which is a part of the Ministry of Defense of the Russian Federation. Initial
GLONASS development began in 1976 in the former Soviet Union and was designed to be an
alternative to the GPS system offered by the United States. There have been several generations of
satellites in the GLONASS constellation. The two most recent, which are known as GLONASS-M and
GLONASS-K, have an estimated operational life span of 7 and 12 years respectively. All satellites have
atomic clocks and provide real time position and velocity determination once a receiver has locked on
and remains in signal tracking mode. During the early operational stages, the horizontal positional
accuracy varied between 50–70 meters while the vertical accuracy was closer to 70 meters.

a. Space segment

The space segment of GLONASS consists of 24 satellite slots in three orbital planes separated by 120°
and inclined at 64.8° with respect to the equator. The eight satellite slots in each plane, numbered 1–8
for plane one, 9–16 for plane two etc., have a separation of 45°, a near circular orbit with a period of 11
hours and 15 minutes, and have an altitude of 19,100 km above the Earth. The spatial arrangement of
 55

the satellites in the three planes is such that only one crosses the equator at a time and therefore a
minimum of five can be seen at any time, from any location on Earth. Any specific GLONASS satellite
will therefore pass over the same spot on Earth every eight sidereal days while each GPS satellite passes
over the same spot once every sidereal day.

b. Control segment

The GLONASS control segment has two primary divisions. The first is the Ground Control Center
located in Moscow and the second are the telemetry and tracking stations located at St. Petersburg,
Eniseisk, Ternopol and Komsomolsk-na-Amure. The GLONASS operating authorities also have active
expansion plans which include additional monitoring and tracking stations in Australia, Cuba and
South America to enhance the accuracy, reliability and integrity of the system.

As of January 2010, the GLONASS system consists of 19 operational satellites with two additional
satellites listed as “in maintenance“. The Russian territory has complete coverage with 19 satellites

but for 100% global coverage with five or more satellites in view, 24 satellites need to be operational.

3.7.1.3. GALILEO

GALILEO is Europe’s initiative for a state-of-the-art global navigation satellite system, providing a
highly accurate, guaranteed global positioning service under civilian control. Galileo will be not too
different from the other GNSS parts (modernized GPs and Glonass). It will provide autonomous
navigation and positioning services, but at the same time will be interoperable with the two other
global satellite navigation systems; the GPS and GLONASS. A user will be able to take a position with
the same receiver from any of the satellites in any combination. By providing dual frequencies as
standard, however, GALILEO will deliver real-time positioning accuracy down to the meter range. It
will guarantee availability of the service under all, but the most extreme circumstances and will inform
users within seconds of a failure of any satellite. This will make it appropriate for applications where
safety is vital, such as running trains, guiding cars and landing aircraft.

The combined use of GALILEO and other GNSS systems can offer much improved performance for all
kinds of users worldwide. GALILEO is expected to be in operation by the year 2008. The first satellite
of Galileo system (GIOVE A) has already been lunched in 27th December 2005.

Galileo segments

Galileo segments are almost similar to GPS, but with some modification. The main extension of Galileo
compared to GPS is the implementation of a global/ regional segment for integrity monitoring. The
objective is to assist the safety critical aircraft navigation and locate and guide railway trains.
 56

a. Space Segment

The Galileo system is being designed with several major operational segments. The first or global
segment will contain 30 Medium Earth Orbit (MEO) satellites, 27 operational and three spare, in three
orbital planes inclined at 56˚. In-plane satellites will be positioned at 40˚ intervals, have an altitude of
23,222 km and will be maneuvered via velocity changes so orbit period fluctuations are kept to an
absolute minimum. The orbits were also chosen to minimize gravitational resonances and to provide
high visibility of the satellites. Each satellite will transmit up to 10 navigation timing and data signals,
some of which will contain clock and ephemeris information to enable worldwide positioning,
navigation, timing and integrity monitoring services.

b. Ground Segment

The ground control segment will be made up of five up-link stations located around the world and will
be responsible for the telemetry, tracking and command (TTC) tasks for communicating with the
satellites on a regular basis. Two additional control centers located in Oberpfaffenhofen, Germany and
Rome, Italy will be responsible for analyzing and initiating spacecraft control functions via the five TTC
stations. Orbit maintenance and systems monitoring activities will also be performed at the two
European control centers. A larger global network of up to 30 tracking stations will be used to
continuously monitor all satellite navigation signals in a redundant fashion. Another significant
component of the Galileo infrastructure is the regional segment which will consist of numerous
agencies within and outside Europe that will offer integrity services independent of the Galileo system.
The integrity services, known as External Region Integrity Systems (ERIS), will also be a part of a
checking system used to legally monitor products, services and guarantees offered by Galileo.
 57

GALILEO System Architecture

The Galileo ground segment is responsible for managing the constellation of navigation satellites,
controlling core functions of the navigation mission such as orbit determination of satellites, and clock
synchronization, and determining and disseminating (via the MEO satellites) the integrity information,
such as the warning alerts within time-to-alarm requirements, at global level. The Global ground
segment will also provide interfaces with service centers. The Ground Control Segment will consist of
about 12-15 reference stations, 5 up-link stations and two control centers. The ground segment also
will include 16-20 monitor stations, three up-link stations for integrity data and two central stations
for integrity computations.

c. User Segment

The user segment consists of different types of user receivers, with different capabilities related to
the different GALILEO signals in order to fulfill the various GALILEO services.

3.7.1.4. COMPASS

The United States, Russia and the European Community are not the only countries to enter the global
navigation and positioning race. China is also developing an independent system to operate on a
worldwide basis. Their initial system is known as Beidou-1 and consists of four geostationary satellites
positioned primarily over Asia.
 58

Two satellites were launched in late 2000, a third in 2003 and the fourth in 2007. The experimental
constellation provides limited coverage that ranges from 70° E to 140° E and from 5° N to 55° N.
However two of the satellites are not usable and the status of a third is unclear. China’s new system
known as Compass or Beidou-2 will have a constellation of 35 satellites, will provide worldwide
positioning and navigation capabilities and will offer two levels of service. Five satellites will be
geostationary so the system is backward compatible with Beidou-1 while the remaining satellites will
reside in medium Earth orbits. The transmitting signals will be based on code division multiple access
(CDMA) technology and will use frequencies from the E1, E2, E5B and E6 bands.

As of early 2009 two Compass satellites have been launched. Compass-M1 was placed in orbit for
testing of signals from the E2, E5B and E6 bands and to validate a number of service systems. A third
Compass satellite was later launched on January 17th of 2010. Implementation of a regional version
of the Compass GNSS system with 12 satellites is currently underway and is scheduled to be complete
by 2012. Funding to complete and operate the 35 satellite constellation by 2020 has been assured.

3.7.2. Satellite Orbits

The German astronomer Johannes Kepler (1571–1630) established three laws defining the movement
of planets around the sun, which also apply to the movement of satellites around the Earth.

Law of Ellipse

Satellites move around the Earth in elliptical orbits, with the centre of mass of the Earth situated at
one of the focal points. The implications of this law are that a satellite will at times be closer to or
further away from the Earth’s surface depending upon which part of its orbit it is in. GPS satellite orbits
are nearly circular and so have very small eccentricity.
 59

Law of Equal Area

The radius vector from the Earth’s centre to the satellite sweeps out equal areas at equal time
intervals. Therefore, a satellite’s speed is not a constant. The speed will be a minimum when the
satellite is at apogee; at it’s furthest from the centre of the Earth and a maximum when it is at perigee,
the point of closest approach.

The Period Law

The orbital elements

Whilst a and e, the semi-major axis and the eccentricity, define the shape of the ellipse its orientation
in space must be specified by three angles defined with respect to a space-fixed reference coordinate
system.
 60

Having defined the orbit in space, the satellite is located relative to the point of perigee using the angle
f, called the ‘true anomaly’ at the time of interest.

The line joining perigee and apogee is called the ‘line of apsides’ and is the X-axis of the orbital space
coordinate system. The Y-axis is in the mean orbital plane at right angles to the X-axis. The Z-axis is
normal to the orbital plane and will be used to represent small perturbations from the mean orbit.
The XYZ space coordinate system has its origin at G. It can be seen from Figure 9.8 that the space
coordinates of the satellite at time t are:

3.7.3. Basic Principle of Satellite Positioning

61
 62

Whilst the use of pseudo-range is sufficient for navigational purposes and constitutes the fundamental
approach for which the system was designed, a much more accurate measurement of range is
required for positioning in engineering surveying. Measuring phase difference by means of the carrier
wave in a manner analogous to EDM measurement does this. As observational resolution is about 1%
of the signal wavelength λ, the following table shows the reason for using the carrier waves; this is
referred to as the carrier phase observable.

Carrier phase is the difference between the incoming satellite carrier signal and the phase of the
constant frequency signal generated by the receiver. It should be noted that the satellite carrier signal
when it arrives at the receiver is different from that initially transmitted, because of the relative
velocity between transmitter and receiver; this is the well-known Doppler effect. The carrier phase
therefore changes according to the continuously integrated Doppler shift of the incoming signal. This
observable is biased by the unknown offset between the satellite and receiver clocks and represents
the difference in range to the satellite at different times or epochs. The carrier phase movement,
although analogous to EDM measurement, is a one-way measuring system, and thus the number of
whole wavelengths (N) at lock-on is missing; this is referred to as the integer or phase ambiguity. The
value of N can be obtained from GPS network adjustment or from double differencing or eliminated
by triple differencing.

3.7.4. GPS Signals Measurements

Satellite receivers in determining distances to satellites employ two fundamental methods: code
ranging and carrier phase-shift measurements.

A. Code Ranging Measurement

The code ranging (also called code matching) method of determining the time it takes the signals to travel from
satellites to receivers. With the travel times known, the corresponding distances to the satellites can then be
calculated by:
 63

With one range known, the receiver would lie on a sphere. If the
range were determined from two satellites, the results would be two
intersecting spheres. Thus, two ranges from two satellites would
place the receiver somewhere on this circle. Now if the range for a
third satellite is added, this range would add an additional sphere,
which when intersected with one of the other two spheres would
produce another circle of intersection. A “seed position” is used to quickly eliminate one of these two
intersections.

For observations taken on three satellites, the system of equations that could be used to determine the position
of a receiver at station.

However, in order to obtain a valid time observation, the systematic error (known as bias) in the
clocks, and the refraction of the wave as it passes through the Earth’s atmosphere, must also be
considered. In this example, the receiver clock bias is the same for all three ranges since the same
receiver is observing each range. With the introduction of a fourth satellite range, the receiver clock
bias can be mathematically determined. This solution procedure allows the receiver to have a less
accurate (and less expensive) clock. Algebraically, the system of equations used to solve for the
position of the receiver and clock bias are:
 64

B. Carrier Phase-Shift measurements

Better accuracy in measuring ranges to satellites can be obtained by observing phase-shifts of the
satellite signals. In this approach, the phase-shift in the signal that occurs from the instant it is
transmitted by the satellite until it is received at the ground station, is observed. This procedure, which
is similar to that used by EDM instruments, yields the fractional cycle of the signal from satellite to
receiver. However, it does not account for the number of full wavelengths or cycles that occurred as
the signal travelled between the satellite and receiver. This number is called the integer ambiguity or
simply ambiguity. Unlike EDM instruments, the satellites utilize one-way communication, but because
the satellites are moving and thus their ranges are constantly changing, the ambiguity cannot be
determined by simply transmitting additional frequencies. There are different techniques used to
determine the ambiguity. All of these techniques require that additional observations be obtained.

3.7.5. Errors in GPS Observation

1. Receiver Clock Error

This error is a result of the receiver clock not being compatible and in the same time system as the
satellite clock. Range measurement (pseudo-range) is thus contaminated. As the speed of light is
approximately 300 000 km s−1, then an error of 0.01 s results in a range error of about 3000 km. As
already shown this error can be evaluated using four satellites or cancelled using differencing
software.

2. Satellite Clock Error

Excessive temperature variations in the satellite may result in variation of the satellite clock from GPS
time. Careful monitoring allows the amount of drift to be assessed and included in the broadcast
message and therefore substantially eliminated if the user is using the same data. Differential
procedures eliminate

this error.
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3. Satellite Ephemeris Error

Orbital data has already been discussed in detail with reference to Broadcast and Precise Ephemeris.
Errors are still present and influence baseline measurement in the ratio:

δb/b = δS/Rs
where
δb = error in baseline b
δS = error in satellite orbit
Rs = satellite range
The specification for GPS is that orbital errors should not exceed 3.7 m, but this is not always possible.
Error in the range of 10–20 m may occur using the Broadcast Ephemeris. Thus, for an orbital error of
10 m on a 10 km baseline with a range of 20 000 km, the error in the baseline would be 5 mm. This
error is substantially eliminated over moderate length baselines using differential techniques.

4. Atmospheric Refraction

Atmospheric refraction error is usually dealt with in two parts, namely ionospheric and tropospheric.
The effects are substantially reduced by DGPS compared with single-point positioning. Comparable
figures are:

If refraction were identical at each end of a small baseline, then the total effect would be cancelled
when using DGPS.

The ionosphere is the region of the atmosphere from 50 to 1000 km in altitude in which ultraviolet
radiation has ionized a fraction of the gas molecules, thereby releasing free electrons. GPS signals are
slowed down and refracted from their true path when passing through this medium. The effect on
range measurement can vary from 5 to 150 m. As the ionospheric effect is frequency dependent,
carrier wave measurement using the different L-band frequencies, i.e. L1 and L2, can be processed to
eliminate substantially the ionospheric error. If the ionosphere were of constant thickness and
electron density, then DGPS, as already mentioned, would eliminate its effect. This, unfortunately, is
not so and residual effects remain. Positional and temporal variation in the electron density makes
complete elimination over longer baselines impossible and may require complex software modelling.

Ionospheric refraction effects vary with the solar cycle. The cycle lasts about 11 years and was at a
minimum in 2005 and will be at a maximum in 2011 therefore users will find increasing difficulty with
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GPS work during that period. After 2011 of course the situation will improve until about 2016 when
the cycle will start again. Observations by night, when the observer is not facing the sun, are less
affected.

The troposphere is even more variable than the ionosphere and is not frequency dependent. However,
being closer to the ground, the temperature, pressure and humidity at the receiver can be easily
measured and the integrated effect along the line of sight through the troposphere to the satellite
modelled. If conditions are identical at each end of a baseline, then its effect is completely eliminated.
Over longer baselines measurements can be taken and used in an appropriate model to reduce the
error by as much as 95%.

5. Multipath Error

This is caused by the satellite signals being

reflected off local surfaces such as buildings or
the ground, resulting in a time delay and
consequently a greater apparent range to the
satellite. At the frequencies used in GPS they can
be of considerable amplitude, due to the fact that
the antenna must be designed to track several
satellites and cannot therefore be more
directional.

6. Dilution of Precision

The quality of an instantaneous positioning solution is largely a function of two parameters; the quality
of an individual pseudo-range to a satellite and the geometry of the relative position of observer and
satellites. This situation has its parallels in trilateration in terms of the quality of the EDM in use and
the positions of the known and unknown control stations. Dilution of Precision (DOP) is the concept
whereby the problem of geometry is analysed and a numerical parameter is derived to describe the
quality of the geometric relationship between the user’s equipment and the chosen satellites.

Depending upon the user’s application, there are several interrelated DOP statistics; Geometrical,
Position, Horizontal, Vertical and Time Dilutions of Precision. In each case the DOP statistics are the
amplification factor, which, when multiplied by the pseudo-range measurement error, give the error
of the computed position or time, etc. These statistics are only a function of the effect of satellite and
user geometry.
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The reader is probably a surveyor and therefore most interested in three-dimensional position and
hence the PDOP of the satellites. A sailor navigating on the relatively flat sea would be more interested
in HDOP, since they will already have sufficient information about their height. If a particular user
were using the GPS for time transfer, their interest would only be in TDOP, since they will not need to
know where they are.

We will consider the surveyor’s PDOP, but similar arguments can apply for any of the DOPs. PDOP is a
dimensionless number that will vary from about 1.6 in the best possible geometrical configurations
with four satellites, to much larger numbers when satellites are badly positioned for a particular user.
For example, if the user was able to measure pseudo-range from a user set to a satellite to 5 metres
and at a particular instant, the satellite and user geometry was such that the PDOP was 2.2, then the

user error of position would be 2.2 × 5 = 11 m.

PDOP and all the other DOPs are:

 Independent of the coordinate system employed, both in terms of scale (unit of distance) and
orientation.
 A means of user selection of the best satellites from those that are visible.
 The amplification factor of pseudo-range measurement error into the user error due to the
effect of satellite geometry.

The DOP factors that are of most concern to surveyors are PDOP (dilution of precision in position),
HDOP (dilution of precision in horizontal position), and VDOP (dilution of precision in height). For the
best possible constellation of satellites, the average value for HDOP is under 2 and under 5 for PDOP.
Other DOP factors such as GDOP (dilution of precision in geometry) and TDOP (dilution of precision in
time) can also be evaluated, but are generally of less significance in surveying.
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3.7.6. GPS OBSERVING METHODS

The use of GPS for positioning to varying degrees of accuracy, in situations ranging from dynamic
(navigation) to static (control networks), has resulted in a wide variety of different field procedures
using one or other of the basic observables. Generally pseudo-range measurements are used for
navigation, whilst the higher precision necessary in engineering surveys requires carrier frequency
phase measurements. The basic point positioning method used in navigation gives the X, Y, Z position
to an accuracy of better than 20 m by observation to four satellites.

If one of the receivers is set up over a fixed station whose coordinates are known, then comparison
with the observed coordinates enables the differences to be transmitted as corrections to the second
receiver (rover). In this way, all the various GPS errors are lumped together in a single correction. At
its simplest the corrections transmitted could be in a simple coordinate format, i.e. δX, δY, δZ,
which are easy to apply. Alternatively, the difference in coordinate position of the fixed station may
be used to derive corrections to the ranges to the various satellites used. The rover then applies those
corrections to its own observations before computing its position.

The fundamental assumption in Differential GPS (DGPS) is that the errors within the area of survey
would be identical. This assumption is acceptable for most engineering surveying where the areas
involved are small compared with the distance to the satellites.

Where the area of survey becomes extensive this argument may not hold and a slightly different
approach is used called Wide Area Differential GPS.

It can now be seen that, using DGPS, the position of a roving receiver can be found relative to a fixed
master or base station without significant errors from satellite and receiver clocks, ionospheric and
tropospheric refraction and even ephemeris error. This idea has been expanded to the concept of
having permanent base stations established throughout a wide area or even a whole country.

3.7.6.1. Absolute Positioning/Single positioning

The use of one GPS receiver to determine the absolute position of a point on the earth surface with
reference to WGS84 is known as Single Point positioning (SPP) technique. This method can be carried
out in two processes namely pseudorange - based point positioning and carrier-phase -based point
positioning.

Pseudorange-based point positioning is based on the principle of resection by distance to determine

the receiver’s coordinated. Since the coordinates of the satellite are known (as they are carried within
the navigation massage), the coordinates of the receiver can be computed from from resection
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technique using the measured pseudoranges. The accuracy of this method is currently about 7 meters
and 12 meters in horizontal and vertical components respectively (Wayumba, 2013). The latter
method uses carrier phase measurement from both frequencies (L1 and L2), but it requires post
processing for high precision position results.

3.7.6.2 Deferential Positioning

This method is also known as relative positioning. It involves use of two GPS receivers that observe
same satellites simultaneously. One receiver designated as “the base station” is set on a reference
station whose coordinates are known, while the other receiver designated as “the rover station” is
used to determine its coordinates based on the reference station. The differences in reading at the
reference station are used to adjust the readings at the rover station.

Differential positioning can further be divided into two classes depending on the measurement
method adopted. These classes can either be pseudorange-based differential positioning technique
or carrier phase-based differential positioning technique. The pseudorange-based differential
positioning is commonly known as the Differential GPS (DGPS). The estimation of error is carried out
at the reference station which is communicated to the rover station through a radio link.

On the other hand carrier phase-based differential method can be realized by either differencing the
carrier phase measurements made to the same satellite by the two receivers at the same time or
differencing the carrier phase measurement made to the two satellites by the same receiver at the
same time. Carrier phase measurement can be carried out either in static or kinematic mode.

The differential technique reduces many of the systematic biases (such as satellite orbit bias, satellite
clock error, ionosphere and troposphere delays), and is extensively where centimetre level accuracy
is required. However, the effectiveness of the relative positioning technique is largely dependent on
the distance between the two receivers. The residual error increase as the distance between the
receivers increases.

1. Static Positioning

This method is used to give high precision over long baselines such as are used in geodetic control
surveys. At its simplest, one receiver is set up over a station of known X, Y, Z coordinates, preferably
in the WGS84 reference system, whilst a second receiver occupies the station whose coordinates are
required.

Observation times may vary from 45 min to several hours. This long observational time is necessary to
allow a change in the relative receiver/satellite geometry in order to calculate the initial integer ambiguity
terms. More usually baselines are observed when the precise coordinates of neither station are known.
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The approximate coordinates of one station can be found by averaging the pseudo-range solution at
that station.

Provided that those station coordinates are known to within 10mit will not significantly affect the
computed difference in coordinates between the two stations. The coordinates of a collection of
baselines, provided they are interconnected, can then be estimated by a least squares free network
adjustment. Provided that at least one, and preferably more, stations are known in WGS84 or the local
datum then the coordinates of all the stations can be found in WGS84 or the local datum.

Accuracies in the order of 5 mm ±1 ppm of the baseline are achievable as the majority of errors in

GPS, such as clock, orbital and atmospheric errors, are eliminated or substantially reduced by the
differential process. The use of permanent active GPS networks established by a government agency
or private company results in a further increase in accuracy for static positioning. Apart from
establishing high precision control networks, it is used in control densification, measuring plate
movement in crustal dynamics and oilrig monitoring.

2. Rapid static

Rapid static surveying is ideal for many engineering surveys and is halfway between static and
kinematic procedures. The ‘master’ receiver is set up on a reference point and continuously tracks all
visible satellites throughout the duration of the survey. The ‘roving’ receiver visits each of the
remaining points to be surveyed, but stays for just a few minutes, typically 2–10 min.

Using difference algorithms, the integer ambiguity terms are quickly resolved and position, relative to
the reference point, obtained to sub-centimetre accuracy. Each point is treated independently and as
it is not necessary to maintain lock on the satellites, the roving receiver may be switched off whilst
travelling between stations. Apart from a saving in power, the necessity to maintain lock, which is very
onerous in urban surveys, is removed.

This method is accurate and economic where there are many points to be surveyed. It is ideally suited
for short baselines where systematic errors such as atmospheric, orbital, etc., may be regarded as
equal at all points and so differenced out. It can be used on large lines (>10 km) but may require longer
observing periods due to the erratic behaviour of the ionosphere. If the observations are carried out
at night when the ionosphere is more stable observing times may be reduced.

3. Reoccupation

This technique is regarded as a third form of static surveying or as a pseudo-kinematic procedure. It is

based on repeating the survey after a time gap of one or two hours in order to make use of the change
in receiver/satellite geometry to resolve the integer ambiguities.
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The master receiver is once again positioned over a known point, whilst the roving receiver visits the
unknown points for a few minutes only. After one or two hours, the roving receiver returns to the first
unknown point and repeats the survey. There is no need to track the satellites whilst moving from
point to point. This technique therefore makes use of the first few epochs of data and the last few
epochs that reflect the relative change in receiver/satellite geometry and so permit the ambiguities
and coordinate differences to be resolved.

Using dual frequency data gives values comparable with the rapid static technique. Due to the method
of changing the receiver/satellite geometry, it can be used with cheaper single-frequency receivers
(although extended measuring times are recommended) and a poorer satellite constellation.

4. Kinematic Positioning

The major problem with static GPS is the time required for an appreciable change in the
satellite/receiver geometry so that the initial integer ambiguities can be resolved. However, if the
integer ambiguities could be resolved (and constrained in a least squares solution) prior to the survey,
then a single epoch of data would be sufficient to obtain relative positioning to sub-centimetre
accuracy. This concept is the basis of kinematic surveying. It can be seen from this that, if the integer
ambiguities are resolved initially and quickly, it will be necessary to keep lock on these satellites whilst
moving the antenna.

RTK provides the relative position to be determined instantaneously as the roving receiver occupies a
position.

The system requires two receivers with only one positioned over a known point. A static period of
initialization will be required before work can commence. If lock to the minimum number of satellites
is lost then a further period of initialization will be required. Therefore the surveyor should try to avoid
working close to major obstructions to line of sight to the satellites. The base station transmits code
and carrier phase data to the rover. On-board data processing resolves the ambiguities and solves for
a change in coordinate differences between roving and reference receivers. This technique can use
single or dual frequency receivers. Loss of lock can be regained by remaining static for a short time
over a point of known position.

The great advantage of this method for the engineering surveyor is that GPS can be used for setting-
out on site. The setting-out coordinates can be entered into the roving receiver, and a graphical output
indicates the direction and distance through which the pole-antenna must be moved. The positions of
the point to be set-out and the antenna are shown. When the two coincide, the centre of the antenna
is over the setting-out position.