Principles and Sensors

The Basic T: Temperature: Bimetallic Sensor

- Airspeed indicator “Comparative measure of hot and cold’.
- Attitude indicator Hot body = + molecular activity.
- Altimeter Abs zero = -273.15 C
- Compass / Gyro Driven DI
Degrees Celsius:
Based on water = 0C is freezing and 100C is
boiling. Abs zero = -273C

Kelvin:
Same as Celsius.
Two diff metals bound, when heated one metal expands.
0K = -273C
Resistance Thermometers:
Fahrenheit:
Freezing = 32F, Boiling = 212F.
Use Wizz-wheel to convert
This 6 Pack: Or F = (Cx9/5) +32.
Includes:
- Turn co-ordinator
Temperature Sensing:
- VSI
4 Types:
- Bimetallic Sensor
Electronic Flight instrument Systems: - Resistance thermometers Resistive sensor or Resistance Temperature Detector (RTD),
(EFIS) - Thermocouples Relies on change of electrical resistance of a pure metal such
Modern AC use LCD screens which allow - Radiation Pyrometers. as Platinum, nickel, or copper. Operate Typically -200 to 600c.
selective displays. Simply, measures voltage to a proportional resistance.
But retain standard displays in case of
electric failure. Robust sensor, NEEDS DC current.
Thermocouples: Light aircraft temperature sensors: Temp sensors on faster AC:
For light AC, probe normally bimetallic types. Many names, ‘Total head thermometer’.
Probe mounted through windshield, indicator inside,
sensor outside.

No icing protection.
Accurate for low-speed AC.

Used for HIGH temp sensing i.e., engine.

‘Two dissimilar metals which create an electrical
Rosemount Probe.
potential at their junction which is proportional
to the temp’. also known as Thermo EMF.
Temperature Measurement Errors:
E = K x Th. 3 Error sources:
E = Emf, Th = hot junction temp, K = Constant. - Instrument error (calibrations etc)
- Environmental Error (Solar
Parallel wiring, to ensure redundancy. Issue with speed: heating, Icing) No correction
Temps from -200 to 1250C. Faster AC create temp sensing problem. - Heating error (Ram rise or
Not very accurate. If air temp measured as it flows past, frictional heating frictional heating) can be
will distort the result. corrected.
Radiation Pyrometers: This increase called ‘Kinetic heating’, ‘Ram Rise’ or Ram
Used for Higher temps. Optical or radiation rise in temp due to adiabatic compression.
Time measurement:
pyrometer can be used. Measures the frequency
Faster AC describe temp as: Time standard = UTC (GMT)
of the emitted radiation from the area examined,
Static Air Temp (SAT) = temp you would sense if you were Modern AC use electronic clock called
used for turbine blades/inlet.
in a basket of a balloon with a thermometer. ‘System Clock’ which provides ‘System
Or Total Air Temp (TAT) = The higher temp sensed by fast time’ as the on-board reference for
Air temperature probes: moving AC. anything needing a time ref. E.g. engine
2 Types used: hours run, voice recording etc.
- Expansion type, Uses Bimetallic strip SAT sometimes called outside air temp (OAT) or corrected
(Direct reading probe) OAT (COAT). Tach time = 1 hour of running at datum
- Electrical wire/resistance type, relies on TAT = Measured impact temp. RPM.
change of resistance with temp. (Remote
reading type) Increase in temp can be calculated:
TAT = SAT (1+0.2 k M2) [K] (k = 0.9 fudge factor).
Sensor gives TAT
Hobbs meter:
Measures running time:
Activated by:
- Electrically from AC power up
- Oil pressure (shows engine running)
- Weight on wheels switch
- Airspeed sensing vane.

Accelerometers:

More sophisticated: consist of a weight suspended

on a thin metal blade. Acceleration in on axis only
will move the wight off centre.

MEMS Accelerometers:
Modern Inertial Reference System (IRS)

3 Accelerometers mounted at right angles. To

sense in all planes.
 Pressure Sensing

Pressure Aneroid Capsules: Bourdon Tube:

Units:
- Force per unit area.
- Lb/fr2
- Lbin2 PSI
- N/m2 (Pa)
CSA.
- inHg (Bar)
Aneroid = ‘Without fluid’
Conversions
In a vacuum
1 Bar = 100,000Pa
Measure absolute pressure
1 Bar = 1000 hPa.
Measure only a small range due to their limited Curved like a ‘C’ fixed at one end with an oval
1 Bar = 14.5 PSI
ability to expand and contract. cross section.
Pressure being measured is fed at one end
Absolute and Differential Pressure sensors: Pressure Capsules: with a tendency to straighten the tube,
Differential pressure sensors: Like Aneroid, but not sealed. therefore deflecting it.
- Diaphragm Fed with pressure to be sensed. Large range of pressure (more used for high
- An Aneroid Capsule Distortion = a measure of extra pressure being pressure application i.e. Engine oil pressure)
- A Pressure Capsule sensed, over and above atmos. (Direct differential
- Bellows pressure).
- A Bourdon Tube Pressure Transducers:
- Pressure Transducer Bellows: Transducer = Changes input parameter such as
temp or pressure to a diff output i.e. electrical
Diaphragm: signal.

Like a strain gauge. Resistive element wired to

a Wheatstone bridge.

To increase movement, stacks of capsules can be No risk of leaks/hazards.

joined to make a bellow.
Completely sealed, aneroid bellows or open to a
Simplest = Diaphragms/Membranes. pressure feed, pressure bellows.
Thin discs, fixed at an edge, distort under pressure. Increased expansion therefore medium range of
Rarely used, due to small scale deflections. pressure. (Engine manifold pressure).
Pitot Static system: Static Ports: Manoeuvre:
AC on ground has pressure from all directions Placed at right angles to the airflow so it doesn’t Roll, pitch, yaw, and gusts. Can introduce
‘Static pressure’. detect dynamic pressure. transient and unpredictable static pressure
As it moves through the air it encounters wind errors that cannot be programmed out.
resistance that is in effect a pressure acting on the Large AC manoeuvre less important.
The combination pressure head:
front of the aeroplane. Any error induced by yaw can be minimised by
Pitot and static pressure can be kept separate but
Dynamic pressure is proportional to the aircrafts siting connected static ports on both sides of
are more often combined into a single pressure
speed. the fuselage.
head.
Dynamic pressure = ½P V2
P is rho, Density Angle of attack sensors (AOA):
V = true velocity of AC. Called Alpha.
‘Angle between chord line and the relative
Dynamic pressure represents the pressure of air airflow’.
flowing over the AC which in turn creates lift. Main input to stall warning systems.

Essentially a 2 in 1.
Static pressure is atmospheric pressure. Dynamic
Pressure is the kinetic energy of the air changed
to pressure energy. Large AC Systems:
Errors in pitot or static pressure will bring errors in:
Pitot Tube: Speed, height, VSI, Mach.
Pitot Senses Static and Dynamic pressure.
Alpha sensors: 2 basic forms: a vane that is free
to line up with the relative airflow or a conical
Finding dynamic pressure: probe with slots above and below the zero
alpha datum which measures relative pressure.
Total Pressure = Dynamic + static.
Dynamic = Total pressure – static. (Bernoulli’s) Vane type alpha Sensors: And pressure type
Small aerofoils free to rotate and line up with
Static pressure can also give us an indication of relative airflow. Positioned clear of any airflow
Large AC have redundancy.
height, and rate of climb/descent. influenced by wings engines etc.
Position error:
‘If static pressure is giving false indication.’
Position error includes predictable configuration
error and unpredictable manoeuvre error.
 Pressure Altimeters:

The Standard Atmosphere: Sensitive Altimeters: Units and accuracy:

ISA: Same principle as simple altimeters: PANS-OPS sets accuracy requirement for
- Sea level pressure = 1013.25hPa Sensitivity is increased by having a stack of altimeters.
- Sea Air Density = 1225g/m3 2 or more capsules, thus increasing Must show QFE or QNH accurately within
- Sea Level temp = +15C movement. plus or minus:
- Temp reduces at 2C/1000ft. Up to Some have vibrators to overcome static - 20m or 60ft for altimeters with a
36,000ft at -56.5C then stays friction ‘stiction’. test range of 0-9000m (0-30,000ft)
constant to 65,600ft then rising Allows 3 pointers. - 25m or 80ft for altimeters with a
0.3C/1000ft. test range of 0 to 15,000m (0-
50,000ft)
Altimeters:
Designed to indicate altitude based on 1 meter = 3.28 ft.
changes in static pressure.
3 Mechanical types: Altimeter Errors:
- Simple altimeter Position Error:
- Sensitive altimeter Digitiser sends reading to transponder. Affects altimeter readings, minimised with
- Servo-assisted altimeters. good design but varies with TAS and angle
- ADC of attack.
Servo-assisted altimeters:
Instrument Error:
Simple Altimeters: Further increase sensitivity.
Caused by:
No need for mechanical linkages.
- Friction (Gearing ‘stiction’)
- Aneroid inertia. ‘Hysteresis Error’

Barometric Error:
Any change of pressure from 1013 will
give incorrect altitude readings.
Static pressure fed into instrument casing.
An Aneroid capsule is connected by a
system of linkages to a rotating needle. ADC driven systems:
As AC ascends static pressure decreases, the ‘Aircraft Data Computer’ to calculate
capsule expands. Datum pressure can be altitude referenced on 1013 to a subscale
adjusted in hPa or mb. Or inchMerc. set by the pilot.
Non-linear rise, only small AC, limited
range.
Temperature Error: Altimeter Pressure Settings: The standard setting:
Any change from ISA Temp of 15C will give 1013.25 hPa or 29.92 inchmerc.
incorrect altitude readings.
Density Altitude:
‘High-Low-High’ ‘Density altitude is the pressure altitude
– If you fly from high to low either temp or corrected for temperature, in other words
pressure your altimeter will read high. altitude in the inernation standard
atmosphere which gives the same air
‘Low-High-Low’ density as the prevailing non-ISA
- Vice versa. combination of temp and pressure alt’.

2nd Mnemonic:
‘High to low Careful go.’
- High temp/Pressure to lower than QFE – 2 types:
you are closer to the ground than - Airfield QFE (Highest point of
expected. airfield)
- Touchdown QFE (Touchdown of
runway)
Temperature Error Correction Tables: QNH – Aircraft above mean sea level.

Actual Sea level pressure is QFF.

QNH – QFF at ISA.

Baro corrected by setting correct pressure.

When temp is warmer altimeters will
underread.
Issue when low to the ground at low
temps.
 Vertical Speed Indicators:

VSI: Instantaneous VSIs (IVSI) Instrument displays:

Shows rates of climb/decent. Simple VSI do not show climb/descent Use a logarithmic scale with increased sensitivity at
Positioned below the altimeter. immediately, there is a time lag. small values.
Ft/min or m/s IVSI, counters this by including in the static
1000ft/min = 5m/s line two weights in a dashpot centred with
springs, which cause an immediate
differential pressure because of their inertia.
Simple VSI:
A pressure operated VSI, records the rate of
change of static pressure.
Consists of capsule fed with static pressure in
a case with static pressure. EFIS (electronic flight instrument system) show VSI
The static feed of the case passes through a right of AI.
very small gap, the metering unit, so that if
the AC changes altitude the capsule reacts Errors and blockages:
immediately whilst the pressure change in the
case is slower. Instrument Errors: Compensated for with an adjusting
Differential pressure is maintained if the AC Once stabilised in climb/decent weights are screw to zero the reading.
continues a climb or descend once level centred by their springs.
pressure equalises the rate of climb or Lag: IVSI compensates for lag. (Can be 6-8sec)
descent returns to zero. When rolling into a steep turn the IVSI shows
a climb, if turn is maintained it will stabilise. Static Errors: Error in the abs value of static pressure
A VSI measures rate of change of pressure And indicate a decent on roll out. produces no error. But a change in static pressure
and displays it as rate of change of height. when none is due will give a false indication.
IVSI better in turbulent air than VSI. Pressure driven system susceptible to manoeuvre
VSI lag can be = 6-8 sec. So useless in turb. error. During take-off, go around and turbulence.
Other systems: Static blockage will cause VSI to read zero.
3 other systems: Static leak to cabin pressure will cause instrument to
- IRS inertial reference system read cabin rate of climb and descent.
- ADC (barometric height is available in On start-up all VSI should read zero.
electronic form)
- Dynamic vane VSI (difference between
static and metered static pressures
induce a flow over moveable vanes like
a small turbine instead of capsules.
 Air speed indication Calibrated Air Speed:
IAS and TAS: IAS (Dynamic pressure reading) corrected for
Air speed still measured with atmospheric Flat Plate Indicators: Instrument and position errors specific to the
pressure. Dynamic pressure would deflect the plate AC is called ‘Calibrated airspeed’ CAS.
At height the air density reduced and therefore backwards against a spring force and scale AC without ADCs may have an ASI correction
the same dynamic pressure effects a higher would read speed accordingly. Calibrated to table for different congifs and airspeeds, from:
true air speed even though the AC handles just ISA. Knots indicated airspeed KIAS → Knots
as before. The mechanical Airspeed indicator (ASI): calibrated airspeed KCAS.
The same happens if the air was warmer than Feeds pitot and static pressure to an
ISA, TAS would be higher than IAS instrument in the cockpit. CAS used to be called RAS (Rectified Air Speed)
Dynamic pressure = ½ P V2 Pressure sealed case supplied with static For large AC CAS = IAS. No instrument or
If P reduces then V must increase to pressure. A capsule inside is supplied with pitot positional error.
compensate. (dynamic) pressure. As aircraft speed up, pitot
pressure increases.
At height we have two airspeeds, indicated IAS = TAS at calibrated sea level.
airspeed based on dynamic pressure and Issues with thermal conductivity omitted with
higher true airspeed through the air. bi-metallic strip.

IAS is important for the handling of the AC.

TAS is important for navigation, because with
the addition of wind it gives ground speed.

Mach = speed of sound. Compressibility, CAS and EAS

Before Mach 1, Airframe buffeting (Mach Assumptions:
buffet). - Air incompressible fluid
Fly set IAS at low speeds and set Mach number ADC (Aircraft data comp) Driven instruments: - Density in Bernoulli’s is the same as the
at high speeds. Modern Larger AC feed pitot and static line to
free air density around the AC.
an ADC.
In reality only true at low speed at M0.3 to
Units Air data computers calculate CAS from sensed
M0.4 air starts to compress. This causes
Kts, mph, km/h. pressures using Saint-Venants formulae.
dynamic pressure to be greater than it should,
1Knot = 1 nautical mile per hour Errors: and the CAS will overread. This is called
1 nautical mile = 6080ft = 1852m Instrument Error: Older mechanical systems compressibility error.
1 statute mile = 1760yards = 5280feet. will suffer from mechanical errors, less moving Not an issue with ADC calculated speeds.
parts = less mechanical error. CAS corrected for compressibility = Equivalent
Either by calculation or nav computer. Position Error: Poorly designed systems due to airspeed EAS.
location of sensors. Correction always a reduction as comp makes
it over read.
CAS corrected for compressibility is called Instrument Displays:
EAS.
Compressibility becomes significant above
200kts CAS and 10,000ft.
Density:
A correction for air density is required to
calculate TAS from EAS.

Alternative phraseology:
Pitot Static Blockages and Leaks.

If pitot blocked changes in airspeed will not be

correct.
If altitude remains same, indicated airspeed will
remain the same no matter of speed up or slow
down.

Any leaks in pitot line will lower pitot pressure and

TAS calculation: cause instruments to under read.
From CAS, if you know pressure and temp.
Pressure from pressure altitude of AC.

Pitot Static Blockages and Leaks.

Static Blockages:
‘Pressure in the instrument remains the same’
As long as the external static pressure stays the
same the instrument will read correctly, so if
we maintain height the ASI reading will be
correct.
A static blockage in the descent makes the ASI
overread, which is dangerous.
 Machmeters and ADC

The machmeter: The Machmeter: EAS/CAS/TAS/Mach relationship:

‘Gives speed relative to speed of sound’. Mach number is a function of dynamic pressure /
static pressure and is independent of air temp.
Local Speed of Sound:
Not constant, depends on air temperature or air. M = (pitot-static)/static
Warmer the air = faster speed of sound.

Local Speed of Sound LSS = 38.94√T

T = Static air Temp (K) Draw parameter that is to be held constant as
a straight vertical line. ECTM.
2nd Method using CRP5:
Crossover altitude:
Airliners climb on CAS (VMO as their limit) until
they reach ‘Crossover altitude’ after which
they climb using Mach Number MMO as their
limit.
Construction:
Uses a capsule of pitot pressure to find dynamic
pressure (ASI).
A capsule to find static pressure (altitude capsule).
To find LSS
2nd Gen systems are either servo driven (From ADC
or EFIS)

The machmeter is an ASI and an Altimeter

Isothermal Layers:
interacting in the same case.
If asked about a climb/descent through a layer
where the temp stays constant (ISOTHERMAL
Machmeter suffers only from instrument and
LAYER) draw the T and M lines Vertically
pressure errors. These errors are small so the
together. Then use the ECTM as before.
indicated Mach number can be taken to be true.
Inversions:
If asked about a climb/descent through an
To find Mach# Blockages and leaks.
inversion layer, where temp increases with
If Pitot blocked, same as ASI. Mach number stays
height, Draw the ECTM diagram with T and M
same until static pressure changes in
swapped round, inverted.
climb/descent. SOD SUC PUD POC.
ADC (Air Data Computers): Some AC combines ADC with the IRU to make an
Advantage is that the data can also be fed to the Air Data Inertial Reference Unit (ADIRU).
Autopilot and flight director system (APFDS), Flight
management system (FMS), ATC Transponder, If initial IR is lost so is all navigation capability of
Ground proximity warning systems (GPWS), area the system.
navigation aids and an instrument comparison Modern systems have 2 ADCs/ADIRUs.
system. And multiple Pitot/Static/AOA sensors.

ADC inputs and outputs:

To provide outputs the ADC requires inputs from:
- Static pressure
- Total pressure
- TAT (total air temp)
- Angle of attack
- Flap and landing gear position
And outputs:
- Pressure altitude/barometric alt. (using
static pressure)
- CAS, correcting for known
pressure/position errors so that IAS = CAS
- TAS, computed from pitot and static P
- SAT, by applying ram rise and recovery
factors to the TAT.
- TAT, raw data
- Angle of attack
- Vertical speed (IRS accelerometer) (or ∆P)
 Magnetism Dip:
Molecular theory of magnetism: We have seen the earth’s magnetic field is not
For iron to be magnetic the molecules need to be horizontal WRT the earth, except along the
aligned. Magnetic Fields:
magnetic equator, called the Aclinic line.
Poles labelled, north or red and south or blue.
Everywhere the angle between the Earth
Magnetising and Demagnetising: North = North seeing when placed in earths mag
horizontal and the Earths mag field is called dip.
‘Molecular magnets’ can be induced to line up field.
by: Max dip occurs at poles,
- Stroking a nail repeatedly with a magnet Zero dip occurs along the magnetic equator.
- Placing iron in a mag field In north hemisphere at latitude of Europe and
- If metal is hammered iron magnetises North America angle of dip is typically 55 to
- Inside a Strong DC current solenoid 60degrees.

Can be demagnetised by: Lines of equal dip = Isoclinic lines or isoclines.

- Iron loses magnetism at around 900C and
stays demagnetised on cooling
- Hammered at right angle to a mag field. Earths Magnetism:
- Placing it in an oscillating mag field in an Earth has IRON core = huge magnet.
AC current coil. (Degaussing) Magnetic north ≠ True (Geographic) north.

Hard and soft iron:

Intensity of magnetism can vary.
When iron obtains its maximum magnetism, it is
said to be SATURATED.
Where dip occurs the resultant or total
Iron that becomes saturated easily also loose magnetic force can be divided into a horizontal
magnetism easily ‘SOFT IRON’. component, called H and vertical Z.
The horizontal component may also be referred
Iron that holds is magnetism but is hard to Variation: to as the directive force because this is the
magnetise is called: ‘HARD IRON’. The angle between true north and mag north is component that gives us an indication of
called variation. magnetic north.
Magnetic Fields: Lines joining points of equal variation are called
Isogonals. Aclinic = means ‘No (in)cline’.
Isogonals converge at both magnetic poles and The field is horizontal on that line
at the true poles. Isoclinic = means ‘The same (in)cline’
Lines joining points where variation is zero is
called Agonic lines.
 Compass Direction: Example:
Deviation: True heading = 005, Variation 32W, Deviation
Before AC leaves a factory, it is Degaussed, to When a mag needle is influenced by the earths
mag field it points to mag north. 4E. what is compass heading?
remove any magnetic build up in manufacturing. 005 + 32 – 4 = 033.
Never completely successful. If compass installed in AC, earths mag field will
be distorted by the metal and equipment.
Always be some residual that’ll cause the Compass heading = 233, True heading = 246,
The needle now deviates and indicated
compass reading to be incorrect. Deviation = -3
‘compass north’.
233 – 3 + x = 246
Not the only thing that affects the magnetism: x = 16
- Cargo Difference between direction of magnetic north
- Electrical fields produced by aircraft and compass north is called ‘Deviation’.
Compass swing:
equipment. Deviation is detected by a compass swing:
This collective distortion is called ‘Deviation’. ‘Deviation east compass least’
‘Deviation west compass best’ The AC is swung, North, South, East, and West.
On each point compass is noted and compared
to what should be to the deviation.
Magnetic direction:
Variation is the difference between the direction
Purpose of compass:
of the datums it is also the difference between
- Determine amount of deviation on a
all true directions and their corresponding
series of headings
magnetic directions at any point.
- Correct for as much of the deviation as
Deviation varies with: possible
Magnetic heading +or- variation = True heading. - Magnetic latitude, as the strength of the - Record the residual deviation
earth’s mag field varies. Reasons to Swing a compass:
Variation can be described similarly, - Aircraft heading, as the orientation of the - Whenever a compass is installed or
+ = East interfering mag field changes replaced
-= West - Changes in AC electronic equipment. - Whenever the accuracy of the compass
‘Variation East magnetic Least’
is in doubt
‘Variation West magnetic Best’ Calculations: - After a maintenance period
Cadbury’s Dairy Milk is Very Tasty = - After significant AC modification
Compass Deviation Magnetic Variation True. - When carrying magnetic freight
- After lightning strike
- Long term storage
Main compass should be
accurate to +- 5Degrees.
Standby compass +-
10Degrees.
 Direct reading compass
Direct reading compass:
Most basic form of a compass found in an AC. Acceleration Errors Continued:
Aka ‘Direct reading’ To reduce oscillation, magnet is suspended in a Summary:
liquid filled case. - E/W acceleration produces an apparent
Principle of Operation: Several short magnets are used rather than one turn toward the nearer pole.
Free suspended magnets attached to a compass long one to keep moment of inertia down. - E/W deceleration produces an apparent
card. Fully damped system = Aperiodic. turn toward the far pole.
- N/S acceleration produce no error as the
Liquid must be = Transparent, non-corrosive, CG and pivot points are in line.
have a perfect viscosity to dampen. - On the Aclinic line there will be no error.
Alcohol or paraffin normally used.

Acceleration Errors: Turning Errors:

Design of the compass includes the pendulous In a balanced turn, combined effect of
suspension system, which counteracts some of acceleration towards the centre and the effect of
the effects of dip, but not all. gravity continue to act through the AC.
Direct reading Compass:
Vertically mounted (above windscreen) In the balanced state the magnets are not quire Turning error is more to do with aircraft bank
Case filled with silicone fluid and a bellows horizontal, and centre of gravity (CG) is not angle.
system allows for fluid expansion with increased directly underneath the pivot.
temp. UNOS:
2 Pairs of magnets are fitted to the top of the Under turn through North
case to correct for deviation as part of the Over turn through South
compass swing process.
Lubber line = reading line. Undershoot or overshoot = Take latitude /2
+15.
At very high latitudes close to mag poles,
horizonal component (H) is too small to use, Summary:
even with pendulous magnet. This is the The fact that CG does not lie directly under the - Turning errors are MAX when through
compass unreliability area, sometimes called pivot means the compass is subject to north and south. Are ZERO when turning
‘The six micro tesla zone.’ acceleration errors. through east and west.
Northern Hem: - Turning error are function of Dip, so
If AC facing 270 (W) accelerates Inertia will tent MAX at poles, Zero at Aclinic line.
to rotate anticlockwise, therefore = 285. - Turning error Function of bank angle,
If AC 090 (E) accelerates = clockwise = 080 Greater errors at greater bank angles.
In northern hem, acceleration produces an
apparent turn towards the NORTH.
Steep Turns:
Only holds if the sum of bank angle and dip are
less than 90Degrees.
Most obvious sign that the compass is
unreliable is that the compass card will not
rotate through a full 360 in a 360 turn, it will
only vary about 50degrees.

Liquid Swirl:
Makes the compass lag and always works the
same way. Increases lag and decreases lead.
UK CAA = amplitude of turning error for a rate 1
in mid-lat as 20degrees and liquid swirl as
5dgrees, hence final figure of 20-30degrees for
turning error, including liquid swirl.

Attitude Errors:
Attitude limitation no relevant in balanced turns
because compass card banks with AC. It could be
relevant in unbalanced or pitching manoeuvres,
in which the directed reading compass
information should be disregarded.

Serviceability checks:
Compass should be checked before flight,
Clean, not distorted.
No bubbles visible clean and clear.
Comparison with runway heading (which is also
magnetic).
Gyroscope: Gyroscope Classification by Use:
Greek – Gyro = Turn, Skopein = See. (A turn see-
Classification of Gyros: Unique to aviation, 5 cases:
er)
Classed by: Degree of freedom / Orientation of - Space gyros = 2 degrees of freedom aka
Rigidity:
spin axis and or their use ‘Free gyros’
Designers look for: High moment of inertia, high
rotation speed, with mass concentrated at the - Tied Gyros = 2 degrees of freedom, but
Classification of Degrees of Freedom: have an external influence controlling the
rim.
Degrees of freedom = Number of axis the gyro orientation of the spin axis, maybe tying it
If this is achieved the gyro will have high angular
displacement can be measured (# of gimbals). to the AC horizontal and vertical
momentum and hold its position in space. This is
Spin axis not counted as a degree of freedom as - Earth Gyros = Sub category of Tied gyros
called Rigidity. As gyro slows, angular
it cannot be measured.
momentum decreases, therefore losses rigidity. where the spin axis is tied by the earths
gravity to remain in the earth vertical.
Old gyros were air driven. - Rate Gyros = 1 Gimbal, sense rate of
Newer gyros are motor driven (advantages rotation in one plane, e.g. yaw.
include higher spin rate, more predictable, less - Rate-integrating gyros = 1 Gimbal, sense
chance of dust, ambient air pressure no longer
angular displacement.
Precession:
an issue) 1 Degree.
Gyroscopic Wander:
Rigidity = fix in space.
Force applied = Precess.

Wander = Gyro precess out of position due to

external factors such as friction.
Drift and Topple = Wonder can be broken down
If an external force acts on a gyro, it acts at 2 Degree. into: ‘Topple’ = Axis moves out of the vertical
90degrees in the direction of rotation. (relative to earth’s surface).
The image shows a force being applied to the Classification by Spin Axis Orientation: ‘Drift’ = Axis moves in horizontal plane.
left of the gyro and it is precessed through 90 Gyros can be classified by reference to the
degrees in the direction of rotation. orientation of their spin axis. Only meaningful if Real wander = When gyro imperfections cause
More rigid = more force required to precess. spin axis is vertical or horizontal and is either toppling or drift. A perfect gyro will not
The 2 key properties of gyros are: maintained in its orientation in some way, within experience this.
Rigidity and Precession aviation this is often the case.

Gimbals: Apparent Wander:

Gyros are usually suspended in a system of The gyro may seem as if it has wandered due to
frames, called gimbals, which allow freedom of e.g. the earth’s rotation or by transporting the
movement. gyro across the earth.
Needs one gimbal per axis measured.
Apparent TOPPLE Caused by Earth’s Rotation: Rate Gyros:
A gyro on the equator will try maintaining its A = Yaw rate
position in space as the earth rotates B = Roll rate
underneath it. C = Pitch Rate.
Because the earth spins at 15 degrees / hour,
the gyro will appear to topple at the same rate.
After 12hr it will appear to be erect again, but
actually be upside down, after 24hr it will return.
Apparent Topple is MAXIMUM around the
EQUATOR. Rate integrating gyros:
ZERO at the POLES Detects the rate of displacement and the time it
was applied for effective indication rotational
If a vertical gyro is placed at one of the poles it Amount of error caused by transport wander is displacement.
will produce no apparent topple as the rotation the amount caused by convergency.
is straight along the axis of the gyro.
Apparent DRIFT Caused by Earth’s Rotation: Convergency = Transport Wander
Vertically aligned gyro at north pole is unaffected = Change of longitude x Sine mean latitude
by rotation. But if placed on its side, the gyro
maintains is position in space by for the observer Rate Gyros:
it appears to be drifting clockwise when viewed Only 1 Gimbal, 1 DoF. I.E Yaw sensing.
from above at a rate of 15degrees / hr. In order to do this: Gyro is mounted in its gimbal
Apparent DRIFT is MAXIMUM at POLES. with the gyro axis oriented horizontally across
Used when extreme accuracy of output over a
ZERO Drift at the EQUATOR the aircraft.
small angular movement is required.

Between the poles and equator it will Rate integrating gyro has 1 degree of freedom
experience both apparent drift and apparent and is used to sense rotational movement
topple. about one axis only.

Alternative name for drift and topple =

Astronomic Precessio.
Transport Wander
Apparent drift and topple can occur also occur if The spring force produces a secondary
a gyro is aligned to north on one part of the precession equal to and in the same direction
earth and then moved to another. as the yaw.
Transport wander is ZERO when moving
North/South Rate gyro indicated rate of angular
Transport wander = Convergency. displacement
Ring Laser Gyros: Frequency Lock and Dither:
The Laser Gyro, or Ring Laser gyro (RLG) is new The RLG has one problem: Frequency lock.
tech, used in Inertial Reference Systems (IRS). (Lock-in or laser lock).
At low input rates, when the frequency of the
Operation of RLG: CW or CCW beams are very nearly the same,
Uses gas discharge laser to generate they shift frequency and lock together, taking a
monochromatic radiation in two directions. zero input. This is unacceptable.
Mirrors are used to reflect each beam around an
enclosed area, which produces a laser in a ring The cure is called Dither. The whole triangular
config either triangle or square. block with the laser system is mechanically
rotated backwards and forwards around the
input axis. The amplitude of rotation is very
small, but the frequency changes it produces
keep the RLG out of the lock in range. Since the
rotation is one way then another way the sum
over time is zero.
Real Wander:
Change in length of the ring, by thermal
expansion or any bias in the discharge current
on either side of the laser will produce a change
in the readout which is equivalent to real
wander in a mechanical gyro.
Compensated by active control of the discharge
current through an error detection and feedback
system and by active control of the path length
by moving one of the mirrors.

Uses:
In a Strap down IRS 3 RLGs are mounted at
90degrees. The whole set is fixed to the
airframe. The system measures rotation about
all 3 axes, with very accurate readout of AC
attitude.
Very small around 6cm across.
Have longer life cycle than normal rate sensing
and rate integrating gyros.
 Slip and skid indications:
Turn Indicator: Turn indicators
2 instruments that indicate rate of turn:
• Turn Indicator Calculation of required angle of bank:
• Turn coordinator Rate 1 turn = 180° a min or 3° a sec.
Both use a ‘balance ball’ to indicate whether Rate 2 turn = 360° a min or 6° a sec
a turn is in balance or not.
Turn indicator = Indicates rate of change of Angle of bank required to achieve a given
heading. rate of turn increases with TAS.
Uses a Rate Gyro, which has a horizontal axis,
1DoF. Either electric or air driven. Formula to calculate angle of bank in rate 1:
Angle of bank = (TAS/10) + 7
The turn indicator has one degree of freedom
and a horizontal axis parallel to the lateral Turn indications:
axis of the AC, which is the pith axis. Turn coordinator:
Development of turn indicator.
Gimbal raised at the front by 30°
Makes it primarily sensitive to yaw but also
Importance of Orientation:
slightly roll, allowing indication as soon as the
Orientation of the gyro determines whether
L and R show rate 1 turns. AC turns.
Yaw, Roll or Pitch is sensed.
Once AC established in the turn there is no
Slip and Skid: more roll rate, so the instrument only shows
Balance turn = coordinate amounts of bank yaw.
with rudder.
Too much Bank = Slip Downside:
Too little bank = Skid Instrument indicates yaw, roll and a little
To ensure no slip or skid, ‘slip’ indicator pitch (if TAS is wrong). Therefore turn
AC bank angle for a given rate of turn is needs to be centred. coordinator only indicates rate one turns
related to the AC TAS, so instrument has to In balanced turn, combined force of gravity accurately in a tight TAS range, within 5% of a
be calibrated to a specific range of TAS. and centrifugal force acts through the specific speed.
Turn indicator calibrated for a Cessna will not vertical therefore no slip or skid.
work for a jet. Can be confused with artificial horizon.
 Turning Errors:
Direct Reading Attitude Indicators: Attitude Indicator: Gyros affected by any false indication of the
Use an Earth Gyro. 2 DoF. vertical (may be caused by lateral acceleration in
Spin axis maintained on the Earths vertical. Air Driven Gyro Erection: turns or AC linear acceleration and deceleration
Air or electrically driven. Air driven artificial horizons are made take off/landing).
pendulous, centre of gravity below In a turn the erection system will try to erect the
Air driven Attitude Indicators: suspension point, so that they settle in their gyro to the resultant acceleration, which in a
gimbals in a nearly erect position when not balanced turn will be the AC vertical.
working. This reduces erection time on start-
up. This false alignment will produce an initial roll
error, which slowly changes to a pitch error as the
Once the engine starts, and gyro rotates, AC turns direction through 90degrees.
gyro has its spin axis tied to the earths
vertical by a system of pendulous vanes and REMEMBER THIS CHART:
Air enters through the centre of the gimbal air jets which make the gyro precess back to
bearing, drives the rotor by impinging on the vertical if displaced.
buckets on its outside edge, and exhausts at
the bottom of the rotor case. Gyro for most At the top of the rotor case are 4 air exhaust
air driven artificial horizons Rotate ANTI- vents, each normally half covered by a flap
clockwise when viewed from above. which is hinged at the top called a ‘pendulous
vane’.
Bank Indications – Sky Pointers:
Bank indications usually shown with the When gyro vertical = air escapes all 4 vents
indicator at the top of the instrument, called equally.
a ‘Sky pointer’. When displaced from the vertical, the Bank errors follow a different cycle under reading
pendulous vanes stay where they are under initally, then reading correctly after 180 degrees of
the influence of gravity, covering one vent turn then over reading before reducing to zero
and opening opposite. after a full orbit.

Unbalance in force allows for the restoration. EFIS Displays:

Modern Airliners with inertial reference systems
Bank indicators = Earth Pointers:
or ADAHRS take attitude signals from the IRS and
send them to the EFIS. Instrument called Primary
Flight Display (PFD)
 Servo Driven Attitude indicators:
Acceleration on Take-Off: Principle of Operation: More modern AC uses remote indicators driven by
Pendulous vanes of the erection system can Pendulous vane replaced by 2 mercury tilt servos.
also be displaced by sustained fore-and aft switches mounted on the rotor case.
acceleration when taking off, when a false Attitude information picked up from gyro gimbals
nose up indication is given. The acceleration and signals are amplified and sent to processor then
on take-off also affects the pendulous lower to display called Attitude Director Indicator (ADI).
element of the gyro and this force is (Signals can also be sent to auto pilot etc).
precessed through 90degrees to indicate a
bank to the right.

These acceleration errors restrict use of air

driven horizons to aeroplanes that do no
accelerate quickly i.e. small Cessna.
To prevent gyro erecting to a false datum in
The instruments typically are free an extended turn there is a roll cut-out
In pitch = +-60 degrees switch fitted on the roll axis, to disconnect Independent and self-contained standby artificial
In roll = +- 110degrees the roll torque motor at bank angles horizon is always retained as a backup which uses
Mechanical stops prevent movement >10degrees. electrical power from AC battery.
outside these limits at which the gyro will
topple. Electric attitude indicators usually have Vertical Gyros and AHRS:
complete freedom but are restricted to +- Advantages of remote vertical gyro over more basic:
Once gyro topples it re-erects at the rate of 85degrees in pitch. - Improved accuracy
2-4degrees per min. A fast erection button is provided which - Better use of space, (vertical gyro not
supplies high voltage to torque motors, and installed in the instrument panel)
Acceleration on take off = pitch up by-passes the cut-outs, in order to erect gyro - Better maintenance access, LRU (Line
indication and bank to the right. at 180degrees/min. (Only used on ground or replaceable unit)
Deceleration
Electrically on landing
driven = pitch
Artificial down
horizons: straight flight).
indication and bank Most
to therotate
left. CLOCKWISE - When 3 gyros used, signals can be
Similar to air driven. compared.
when viewed from above.
Tied to earth vertical Such vertical gyros can be combined with a remote
2 DoF. indicating compass system called: Attitude and
Differences include: Heading Reference System (AHRS).
More rigid (Faster 22,500rpm) AHRS use 1DoF combined with accelerometers in all
Faster erection (Not pendulous) 3 axis.
ELECTRICALLY DRIVEN artificial horizons DO AHRS can be combined with ADC to make Air Data
NOT suffer from turning and acceleration and attitude heading reference system (ADAHRS)
errors.
 Directional Indicators
Directional Gyros: Apparent Drift Caused by Earth’s Rotation:
DI Construction and Operation:
Gimbals give freedom in pitch +-55degrees. Apartment drift MAX at Poles (15degrees/hr)
As it turns, the aircraft effectively rotates Zero at equator.
around the outer gimbal, and indicated
heading is read from the scale fixed to the Apparent drift between latitudes is:
outer gimbal. ER Drift = 15 x Sin(latitude). Degrees per hour)
Latitude = AC Lat, if lat changes calculate mean lat.

In Northern Hem DI axis drifts clockwise and

under reads. Opposite in southern.
Gyros can be used to indicate Direction (DI). Image on left gives this
ER (Drift due to earth’s rotation), -ive in northern
Gyro spin axis is TIED to the earths horizontal, system.
DI Gyro Erection: hem and +ive in the southern hem.
but this is hard to achieve so we say: it is tied When rotor is out of alignment the stream of
to AC horizontal. air strikes the buckets asymmetrically and A DI Powered up and functioning stationary on the
produces a side force which processes to re- ground will misalign 15sin(lat) every hour.
Gyro = Tied gyros with horizontal spin axis. erect the gyro.
2 DoF = 2 Gimbals. DI Errors:
Air or Electric. Gimbal Error:
Inner and outer gimbal 90degrees to each
Used to supplement heading reading from other when AC is straight and level.
magnetic compass. Rigidity of gyro gives When AC banks in a turn gimbals no longer in
better heading readings. line, as AC turns the heading indication will
The DI Cannot be used on its own as it is sometimes lead and sometimes lag the true
susceptible to its own errors: azimuth. Effect is small at working angles of
- Apparent drift (caused by earth Latitude Nut:
bank, as wings level gimbals line up and error
rotation) and transport wander) As this is a predictable error, a latitude nut was
disappears.
Two instruments (Compass and DI) used added.
Gimbal error IGNORED in the DI.
together. Compensating the drift by 15sin(lat) in the
opposite direction. This is set by maintenance and
Drift Errors:
not by crew!
Di subject to apparent wander. Because of
For classification purposes the action of the
Earth’s rotation (opposite) and transport
latitude nut produces real wander.
wander.
Latitude nut induces real wander to counter the
Also subject to Random Real Wander (due to
apparent wander of Earth’s rotation.
imperfections in the instrument.
If no info given assume No real wander.
Transport wander: DI Drift calculations: Watch out for:
As gyro moved from one point in earth to
another, gyro maintains its orientation in Total drift = AC flying in one hemisphere with their latitude
space. Real Wander + Earths Rotation + Latitude Nut nuts set for the correct latitude value in the
Further you travel east/west the greater the + Transport Wander. other hemisphere.
change.
Transport wander = the apparent loss of + = Anti-clockwise or left-hand rotation Remember = Mean latitude must be taken for
alignment caused by east/west travel and is - = Clockwise or right-hand rotation ER and TW. Do not use mean latitude for a
the value of convergency between two latitude nut correction!
points.
Remember = Earth rotation and latitude nut
Transport wander(°) = corrections are rates, in degree / hr, whereas
Change of longitude * sin(Mean Latitude) transport wander is a value in degrees!

Transport (northern hemisphere) to the:

EAST = POSITVE
WEST = NEGATIVE
 Remote Reading Compass Measuring the component of H in each leg:
DI and compass have errors. But together But because earth’s mag field actually does lie
work well. Measuring the component of H in each leg: on top of the induced fields it has the effect of
Another option = Combine them into one. By using AC electricity to impose a fluctuation EM field on lifting the total so that a resultant is produced.
Called ‘Gyro compasses’ or ‘Remote top of the steady earth’s mag field.
Reading Compasses’ or ‘Gyro Flux Gate Legs of the detector are made of 2 sections, one on top of
Compasses’. each other but connected by a core in the middle:
Very outdated.
Flux detector:

Meaning
we can measure the H component.
Primary coil around core supplied with AC (487.5hz), just Transmitting the signal:
enough to saturate the top and bottom legs as it reaches Induced current sent = array of stator coils.
Remote indicating compasses detect the peak power. Because the 2 sections are connected through 3 stator coils produce a mag field in the centre,
direction of the Earth’s mag field with a the core the mag field in the top and bottom sections is varying amplitude, with a resultant direction
‘flux detector’. orientated in opposite directions: that corresponds exactly in relation to the 3
3Legs made of soft iron. Positioned on wing legs, as does the direction of the original field.
tip or tail (far from interfering instruments). A rotor coil placed in the stator field will have a
It is Pendulous, mounted on a Hooke’s current induced in it unless it remains
Joint (universal joint). 90degrees to the resultant field. Thus the rotor
Allows +- 25 Degrees pitch/roll. coil when turned to the null position is used to
As AC pitches, flux detector stays level reproduce at the remote location the exact
Possibility of small turning error in a turn. heading of the original field.
The changing mag field induces a current in a secondary
This is called a selsyn system, ‘self-
pick-up coil on each leg of the detector.
synchronising’
Without earth’s mag field the two opposing mag fields
would produce equal and opposite currents in a secondary
coil. Making output = 0

Not free to rotate.

Legs on flux each end in a ‘Horn’. Soft iron
distorts earths mag field through the horn.
The Gyro Unit: Gyro Erection:
To keep gyro spin axis aligned with AC horizontal, the inner Initial Alignment:
Gyro in remote indicating compass is a At bottom right allows for manual fast alignment
standard directional gyro like the DI. gimbal which gives the gyro freedom in the vertical
(topple), is fitted with a slip ring on its axis powered by DC. on start up.
2 DoF. Horizontal Axis.
The Selsyn rotor (the error detector) is While gyro spin axis in line with AC horizontal, the pickoffs
in contract with the slip ring sit on insulated segments and DG/COMP switch:
mounted on the drive shaft, or the heading Sometimes called: DG/MAG.
card aligned at 90 degrees to north on the do not receive current.
If gyro spin axis goes out of alignment with AC horizontal DG = disconnects the mag monitoring system and
card. also the automatic synchronisation with mag
pickoffs receive a current which is passed to a torque
motor (Called a ‘levelling erection torque motor’). This gyro north so the system can be used as a pure
If this is not exactly magnetic north, (maybe direction Gyro.
due to gyro drift) an AC current is axis is to be precessed back to alignment with the AC
generated in the error detector, this is horizontal. Horizontal Situation Indicator:
amplified and rectified to DC in the If info about deviation from a selected VOR, ILS or
‘Precession amplifier’ and then energises a RNAV tracks is added, the remote indicating
‘Precession coil’ wound around a curved compass becomes a Horizontal Situation
‘Precession magnet’ (permanent magnet) Indicator, HIS
mounted on the inner gimbal. This creates
a magnetic field.

The force created by the mag field of the

precession coil acting on the precession
magnet is precessed to rotate the gyro, the
bevel gears, the drive shaft, the heading System Errors:
Digital Feeds of Other Systems: Deviation:
card, and the attached error detector to a
Although the output of the combination of the Selsyn Remote indicating gyro compass suffers from
point where the current to the precession
system and the Directional gyro is analogue it can be same errors caused by variations in AC
amplifier dies away and the assembly is
digitised and send to automatic flight control system (AFCS) magnetism as do Directional compasses but less.
once more aligned with mag north.
and FMS and to an EFIS. They must also be swung periodically to
This is called ‘ Synchronization’ or a ‘slaving
loop’ and realigns the gyro at a slow rate of Indications: establish compass deviation.
2degrees/min. The Radio magnetic indicator: Deviation correction achieved by adjusting the
If info from VOR / NDB is EM fields near the flux valve with perm
added the remote indicating magnets.
compass becomes a radio Acceleration and turning:
magnetic indicator or RMI. Is susceptible to acceleration errors
- Lubber line = Magnetic Steady pitch up to 25degrees will produce no
heading error as the flux detector remains horizontal in its
- Green arrow = VOR / Hooke’s joint, but in balanced turns the flux will
NDB stay level WRT the AC leading to horizontal
errors.
Inertial Navigation Principles: Initial levelling and Alignment:
Self-contained system that can provide Inertial Navigation Principles Done only once for each flight while AC
continuous information on AC Position, The acceleration axes: stationary on ground. Once aligned the
Track, Heading, GS, and height. Without North/South = X axis inertial system is not (cannot) be re-aligned
any external assistance. East/West = Y axis for the remainder of the flight.
Most AC will be fitted with at least 2 Vertical = Z Axis
Inertial systems for redundancy.

Older inertial systems not fully integrated,

Levelling:
To start the alignment select ALIGN on the
fitted as optional extras known as Inertial
Navigation Systems (INS), main function INS modeby
Achieved motoring
selector. the platform
Process until no
starts with
Stable Platforms and Strapdown Systems: acceleration due to gravity is sensed by either
being Navigation. automatic battery test.
We know where we start, we measure acceleration, we know accelerometer.
where we will end.
Modern systems are fully integrated with 3 accelerometers to sense in 3know
axis. which direction is north
How does the inertial system Alignment:
other AC systems, they provide not only
etc? If AC is stationary, only movement from
nav info but also attitude references. These
3 solutions: planet.
are known as Inertial Reference systems
- Stable platform - Keep the platform on which the Level platform rotated with the azimuth
(IRS) and individual units are called Inertial
accelerometers are mounted always level and aligned motor until the ‘east’ rate integrating gyro
Reference Units (IRU).
north. stops sensing rotation, meaning axis must be
- Wander angle – Keep the platform level, but not worry aligned north/south.
Some IRS integrated into ADC = ADIRU. (Air
about north alignment. Once reached, the rotation sensed by the
data and inertial reference unit)
- Strapdown – Not worry about either levelling or north ‘north’ rate integrating gyro should be equal
Basic Principles: alignment but just detect how far out of level and how to the apparent drift caused by the earth’s
For INS, starts with acceleration. rotation, 15sin(lat).
far out of alignment the accelerometers are at
From acceleration → Speed → Distance. This allows the INS to calculated, the latitude
initialisation and then monitor any changes. Gyros and
By integration. Stable Platform: at which it is.
accelerometers areKeeps platform
fixed to alignedHow
AC structure. to true
modern
The alignment of the stable platform with
IRS works. north.
true north is called gyro-compassing.
2 gimbals, driven by electrical
AC must not move during levelling and
motors.
alignment.
 Calculating Longitude:
Latitude and longitude: Similarly, east accelerometer output
After ALIGN is complete, Pilot inputs AC Controls and indicators:
integrated twice.
latitude and longitude through a keypad. Cockpit equipment consists of a mode selector unit (MSU)
Need math, as 1 mile of east/west distance is
This data is used: and a control display unit (CDU) for each INS unit.
not a minute of longitude.
- So the INS has a correct start Departure = Change of longitude x
position Mode selector units (MSU):
Cos(Latitude)
Switches equipment on:
- To cross check calculated latitude
- OFF – Power off
Or change of longitude = departure x
1/cos(lat) - STBY – Power is on, display test performed, battery
INS can calculate latitude, roughly but not
longitude. Relies on pilot input for 1/cos = secant. test is performed AC can be moved
longitude. Change of longitude = departure x - ALIGN – System aligns automatically. Present
Error check compares last known longitude. secant(lat). position must be inserted before sequence will
If >1Degree it’ll show error. complete. AC must not be moved
Incorrect latitude may lead to loss of To find longitude, the latitude output from - NAV – Normal navigation mode. NAV must be
alignment and is more critical than the North/south integrators is fed with the selected before moving the AC.
incorrect longitude. departure from the east/west integrators - ATT – Disables the nav function of the INS and
Alignment sequence is therefore in order: into a secant gear to find first the change of provides pitch roll and heading outputs to the
- Automatic battery test longitude and the, knowing the start attitude indicators and APFDS.
- Local Vertical Alignment position, actual longitude.
- Search for the True North Control Display Unit CDU:
- The Definition of the Latitude Main control on the CDU is a rotary data selector switch
- The Insertion of Present Latitude that controls the info displayed.
and Longitude.
After Alignment, green nav light comes on,
and NAV selected by pilot.
Stable platform INS alignment takes 10- Calculating Heading, Track and Drift:
Navigation:
15mins. Knowing new position and old, INS able to
Rate integrating gyros now used to keep
calc the track using spherical trig.
the platform level and aligned, the
TAS not calculated by the INS. Is normally
accelerometers outputs feed through
fed by the ADC.
integrators to become speed and distance.
Variation is input provided by a database of
Calculating Speed:
If initial speed and change in speed is variation values around the world.
With these 2 inputs INS can calculate wind
known, new speed can be calculated.
and mag headings and tracks.
Calculating Latitude:
Attitude outputs:
The north accelerometer output is
INS can feed into APFDS (Auto pilot and
integrated once to find speed in the
north/south sense and then a second time flight director system), the main attitude.
to get north/south distance travelled.
ISN terminology: INS Normal Operation: An intercept course:
Rotary data switch functions are as follows: 2nd method will direct the AC to fly an intercept heading
- TK/GS: True Track and to join the new track.
Select WY PT CHG, key in (From) 2 (to) 3 and then
instantaneous groundspeed
INSERT.
- HDG DA: True Heading and drift
angle
- XTK/TKE: Distance left or right of
track 1/10 of a mile and on the right
hand display the angle between
INS will navigate between a sequence of
desired track and track. waypoints flying the shortest, great circle,
- POS: AC position as a lat and long to tracks.
1/10 of a min. Way points are entered as lat and long by the
- WAY PT: Lat and long of the pilot of the CDU. Go Direct:
waypoint selected on the rotary To do this rotary switch selected to 3rd option, Select WT PT CHG, (from)0 (to) 3, then INSERT.
waypoint selector. WAYPOINT, each waypoint is selected in turn This redefines waypoint zero as the AC position when
- DIS/TIME: Distance/Time to next with the waypoint selector. INSERT is pressed and steers the AC direct to 3.
waypoint Current waypoints are displayed in the
- Wind: Computed wind direction (T) FROM/TO window.
and Speed. Initial Tracks
Passing are great circles.
a Waypoint:
- DSTRK/STS: Desired track and INS can be redirected to waypoint 3 in one of
system status. If the WARN light is 3 ways:
illuminated STS shows a malfunction - If nothing is done and the AUTO/MAN
code followed by an action code. switch is set to AUTO, the AC will fly The XTK TKE Selection:
towards waypoint 2 XTK TKE selection on the rotary switch is used when the
- Just before waypoint the alert light will AC is steered away from the track it should be on, IE when
illuminate, the INS will turn AC steering around thunderstorms.
smoothly onto the new track and the XTK on the left hand part of the display show
FROM/TO window will change read to displacement left or right of track, TKE on the right hand
from 2 to 3. (23) part display shows the angle from the actual track to the
desired track.
- If Auto/Manual switch selected AC will
An AC 20.3NM right of track, between waypoints 2 and 3
overfly the waypoints.
and closing to the desired track with 30degrees cut:
Stable Platform Configuration: Earth Rotation: Schuler Errors:
It is normal to have 2 or even 3 INS fitted Although the platform was level and aligned with All Bounded errors.
and compared for redundancy. north on initial alignment the effect of apparent
Advantages: wander due to the earth’s rotation will cause it to
Advantages of a stable platform INS is that, both drift and topple over time.
although the concepts are complex, the INS compensates by adjusting at 15sinlat.
maths of converting east/west and
north/south acceleration are simple and Transport Wander:
suited to an age before computers. Transport wander = Drift and topple.
Disadvantages: INS computers calculate the corrections.
A disadvantage of the north aligned stable
platform system is that it cannot easily Coriolis Effect:
maintain north alignment as it crosses the Compensated by INS.
poles.
Centripetal Acceleration:
Summary: Compensated by INS.
A stable platform INS required:
- 3 Rate integrating gyros Real Wander
- 2 accelerometers The largest source of unbounded error is the
A stable platform INS measures imperfection of the gyroscopes leading to real
acceleration in a trihedron which is free wander.
from the AC trihedron (AC pitch roll and Schuler Tuning:
The wander
yaw axis) angle INS: The period of oscillation of a pendulum depends
- A wander angle INS is stable only on length.
platform with no North alignment
- It is mathematically more complex, A platform that displays these 93.3 min cycles is
but better for polar navigation. said to be Schuler tuned.
Inertial Systems Errors:
Classed as: bound/unbound, or other
errors. Bounded errors are either fixed or
oscillate about a mean they do not get
bigger with time or distance flown.
Unbounded errors get bigger with time.
IRS Inertial Reference System:
Inertial Reference System Fast Re-alignment:
Strapdown IRS.
During turn around, realignment is best.
IRU used to feed into FMS. Initialisation:
Fast re-alignment is also available.
Whole system called IRS. Alignment varies with latitude.
AC at Gate → Turn IRUs from NAV to ALIGN on
IRS = Strapdown inertial system. 5 mins = equator the IRMP → ALIGN Lights illuminate → New gate
Within an IRS = 2 or 3 IRU’s. 10 min = 70 degrees position can be entered if required → IRU will
17mins = 70-78 degrees align in 30 sec → ALIGN lights go out → NAV
Each IRU on alignment senses the vertical, Summary reselected.
the direction of true north from earth’s - Accelerometers sense the gravity vector
rotation and from that calculate latitude. - Earth rotation sensed by RLGs is used to ATT function:
With pilot initial input, it will sense compute If IRS or INS fails, no lat/long data but may provide
position in space. - North and attitude. Selecting ATT disables navigation
- The approximate latitude function.
Unlike the strapdown INS the IRS has a
- Pilots/FMS inputs accurate Lat and Long Once ATT selected NAV CANNOT BE RESELECTED.
concept of inertial altitude.
- Takes 5/10 mins at temperate latitudes.
Errors:
IRS Accuracy.
RLG’s replace mechanical rate integrating - Strapdown IRU require:
Controls and indicators: IRS > INS. IRS has error rate of <0.5nm/hr.
gyros to sense angular rotation. IRU controlled from start up, alignment and monitoring - 3 Ring Laser Gyros (RLG)
RLG’s = Lighter, + Accurate, + Reliable
by a single Inertial Reference mode panel (IRMP) - 3 Accelerometers
3 Required.
No STBY mode is provided as there are no mechanical - IRU measures acceleration in a trihedron
3 MEMS accelerometers also needed.
gyros to spin up. which is FIXED regarding the AC trihedron.
Accelerometers and RLG’s are known as - IRU has faster alignment and is more
the ‘Computing trihedron’. accurate in time than stable platform
system
- BOTH stable platform and strapdown
Initialisation:
AC Stationary on ground as before. inertial systems suffer from Schuler errors.
3 accelerometers will sense elements of LED Display can be set to show outputs from left or right
gravitational acceleration and computer IRU.
will determine which way is down. Include: Track/Groundspeed, Present Position, Wind
No gyro stabilised platform. Velocity, True heading, and Status.
Once vertical established, attitude To start: Move selector to ALIGN or NAV. Do not move
changes only come from earth rotation, AC. ON DC light comes on to test standby Battery, then
allows the IRU to determine axis of the ALIGN will illuminate, Lat and Long entered by pilot.
earth’s rotation and calc true north. IRU compares the entered pos with pos of last known,
if too far ALIGN will Flash. Once pos is accepted, ALIGN -
light will go out. AC moved.
 Cost Management with the FMS:
FMS: Calcs cost and profit of a flight.
Holds two data bases: Performance and Flight Management System 2 Major costs:
Navigation. - Fuel Cost
Consists of: Predicted fuel flow can be modified by a ‘Performance
- Flight time cost (excluding fuel)
Factor’ per AC, where drag and engine differs from fleet
Flight Management Computer (FMC), holds the Longer time airborne, higher maintenance,
(due to age). +- 9.9%.
large databases salary, leasing chargers.
Control Display Unit (CDU) Flying faster = Save money on flight time
FMS Cannot calculate fuel for any other configurations
BUT increase cost in fuel.
Sometimes referred to as FMGC (Flight than standard. (clean)
management and guidance computer) Cost Index (CI) = AC operating cost / Fuel
LNAV and VNAV
FMS + CDU = MCDU. (Multifunction control Cost
Routes can be recalled from data base and flown
display unit.
automatically.
FMS Navigation database updated every 28Days Cost index = 0 = minimum fuel.
In the Horizontal sense it known as LNAV (Lateral
Usually uploaded to FMS 7-10days before they High-cost index = high airspeed and high
NAVigation)
are active. fuel consumption.
In the Vertical sense it known as VNAV (Vertical
NAVigation)
Navigation Database Contains: FMS Input:
- Reference data for Airports
Can be modified by crew.
- VOR/DME station data
When route is altered, its stored in RAM the ROM(read
- Waypoint data (5 letter ICAO code)
only memory) is not altered.
- STAR Data
- SID Data FMS Lateral Navigation:
- Runway Data, Length, Position, FMC uses inputs from IRS, GPS, Radio Nav aids, to
Orientation compute its position. Known as a multi-sensor system.
- NDB Stations (2-3 Letter)
FMS Performance Database Contains: FMC will tune its own DME and VOR frequencies in
Updated when required: sequence and ILS localiser info.
- V1, Vr and V2 speeds FMC sends demands to AFCS and show on the EFIS and
- AC drag data ND.
- Engine thrust characteristics
- Max and operating altitude
- Speeds for long range cruise (LRC), FMS Vertical Navigation:
endurance and holding. Follows stored min/max heights for a route. 3-
- Max Zero Fuel Mass, (ZFM), Take-Off Dimensional navigation plus Time = 4-dimensional
Mass (TOM) and Landing Mass (LM) aircraft trajectory.
- Fuel Flow
- AC flight envelope.
Control Display Unit CDU: POS REF Summary:
Page lists the entered start positions for the FMS and for the The following FMS inputs are required:
left and right IRS together with computed Ground speed. - Gross weight or zero fuel weight
Next Page - Fuel Reserves
POS SHIFT - Cost index
Shows true bearings and distances of the IRSs and the radio - Cruise altitude
fixes from the FMC position. - Transition altitude
- ISA deviation or Temp
Routing: - Flex Temp
To begins set up, press RTE - High level winds
Back through POS pages and select ROUTE.
Stored company routes.
FMS automatically inserts origin and destination airfields, but
it is left to the pilot to enter runway and flight number.
CRT screen and a keyboard for entry.
RTE LEGS:
Shows 1/6 pages of the active route, ACT RTE LEGS, giving
Determining the AC Position:
waypoints, ranges and bearings, speeds, and heights.
The uses an algorithm called: Kalman Filter to
Ranges and bearings, speeds and heights.
computer position from all available inputs
taking account of likely errors of each system.
Performance initialisation:
GPS very accurate but signal loss. Once route is loaded, perf can be input.
IRS Less accurate but more stable. Temps, Winds, are inputted so power settings and speed can
Kalman computes in-between theses. be calculated and VNAV and cost profiles assessed correctly.
Most accurate radio updates come from INSUFFICIENT FUEL means the predicted fuel at destination
double DME. is less than the entered value for ‘reserves’

Altitudes and Winds:

FMS SETUP:
ACARS is VHF datalink, it can be used to load route,
performance, and meteorological data.
Step 1: Identification
Check data relates to your AC and check validity
of database. Take-Off Reference:
Used to verify take off settings
Step 2: Position initialisation Flex Take-offs use a higher than ambient temperature input
3 pages, Asks for start-up details. to achieve a reduced thrust setting.
Input Airport, Gate number to update IRS.
Next page
Using the FMS: Using Flight Management Systems Changing the Routing:
Pilots can change route in flight.
In flight: Simply command the FMS direct to waypoint.
Most accurate. DME/DME > DME/VOR > VOR/VOR
Once AC is airborne, FMS display shows next
waypoint, course and heading to be flown, with Lateral Offset:
ANP RNP:
speed and height. Mandatory restrictions on On some systems the FMS can be instructed to
Actual Navigation Performance ANP. 95% confidence the
speed or height are shown in large characters. fly parallel to an FMS route, offset by some
actual position lies within a circle of the radius of the
miles left or right.
given ANP value, centred on the FMS position.
With LNAV selected the AC will fly programmed
Lower ANP = Higher confidence.
route. Cruise Speed Options:
The FMS FLIGHT PLAN or LEG page shows track Default cruise speed = ECON CRUISE
RNP Required Navigation Performance.
and distance to waypoints and required ‘Best range speed as modified by the cost
The desired limit of navigation accuracy and is specified
altitudes and speeds. index’
by the kind of airspace.
ANP always be less than RNP.
Flight Progress: Long Range Cruise (LRC) is a speed 4% faster
Alternative/more informative display: FLIGHT than the still air unmodified best range speed
PROFRESS page. Map Shift: but gives 99% of the range. Made when pilot
Shows track Flight crew advised to monitor FMC position when has no cost index (maybe for diversions).
Distance to go approaching destination without radio navigation and
ETA and fuel remaining. GPS. Required Time of Arrival (RTA) allows pilot to
Nav Display Output: input time at a waypoint from which the FMC
Nav fed from the FMC to the EHSI or ND with will calc speeds.
Calculated ETAs:
active route selected in magenta. Waypoint and destination ETAs are calculated using the Fuel Calculations:
FMS LNAV and VNAV commands will also show actual wind to the next waypoint and then cruise wind Can be relied upon.
on the PFDs entered on the PERF INIT page for all other waypoints. In ‘Abnormal AC configurations’ the
Forecast winds can be entered to increase accuracy. calculations may prove very wrong.
Navigation:
FMS uses IRS, GPS, VOR, DME, and ILS.
Waypoints: Effect of Configuration on fuel flow:
FMS Uses Receiver Autonomous Integrity
Normally turn starts shortly before the waypoint to stay Flaps, Spoilers, Landing Gear, Anti-Ice, or
Monitoring (RAIM) to exclude a GPS giving
on route, unless waypoint annotated ‘Overfly’ another bleed air sys. Have profound effects if
contradictory information.
outside their predicted profile.
The FMS does not update the IRS position
without GPS, the most accurate radio updates
come from double DME.
Approach and Landing: Operating:
In the decent APPROACH REF page can be called Crew can give full navigation and performance to the FMS,
from the main index. called ‘Managed guidance’.
Gives: target threshold speed, VREF for
calculated landing gross weight for diff flap Single FMC Dual MCDU Operation:
settings. Some AC have single FMC with dual CDU’s or MCDUs. Care
should be taken to not enter data simultaneously.
FMS approved to provide guidance for RNAV
approaches, VOR/DME and DME approaches Dual FMC Dual MCDU operation:
and localiser only approach. Most sophisticated AC have Dual FMS fir with 2 FMCs, 2 MCDUs
and 2 AFCS.
Where Vertical guidance is provided it will base
its altitudes on a barometric altitude from the Dual FMC used:
ADC or ADIRU as fitted. Master/Slave Operation:
One mode is used as the input unit. And shared with the 2 nd
unit, Computers talk to each other, as well as sharing data they
FMS Outputs: compare. Each FMC retains control of its associated AFCS,
Apart from displaying information and guidance Auto-throttle and selection of radio nav aids.
on the CDU the FMS can, as selected, feed the
LNAV and VNAV information to the pilot’s Independent Use:
instruments, flight directors and auto throttle The FMS units operate totally independently.
and AP. Outputs include: Allows pilots to operate with one displaying performance while
- CDUs other displaying nav data.
- APFDS
- FCC Back up
- Auto Throttle One 1 FMC has failed.
- PFD, FD
- ND
- Autotune system for navaids
 Flight mode annunciator:
EFIS Electronic Flight Instrument System Autopilot active modes shown on top of
Components: PFD in the FMA (Flight mode
Speed Tape:
Complete EFIS consists of Left and Right annunciator).
Shows CAS Calibrated airspeed from the ADC between 45-
systems. Boeing and Airbus:
420Kts.
Armed = white
Captured = Green.

Boeing:

Decision Height DH and Radio Height RH: Left = Auto-throttle / speed control
DH can be supplemented with a digital Radio Altitude RA. Middle = Lateral Modes LNAV
Radio altimeter is only active below 2500ft. Right = Vertical Modes VNAV
EADI = Electronic Attitude Director Indicator On B737 radio altitude can be displayed either at the top
Aka PFD. right of the PFD or at the bottom right.
EHSI = Electronic Horizontal Situation indicator The Rising Runway:
Aka ND. Airbus decision height display:
Radio altitude shown in digital in the bottom centre of the
Symbol Generator (SG) creates the graphic attitude display.
outputs for display on the PFD/ND. Green until 100ft of the DH, when it changes to amber.
It flashes for 3 seconds at DH. Same time amber DH flag
appears above the RA.
Primary Flight Displays:
An EADI or PFD is a sky pointing ADI. Pitch Lift Symbols:
The pitch lift ‘Eyebrows’ show the attitude to select in the
event of a wind shear go-around or in response to a GPWS
For rising runway symbol to be displayed
warning. At this Attitude the AC will be climbing just on the
all must be met:
light buffet/stick shaker.
- Valid ILS localiser frequency
- Data supplied by the radio
altimeter must be valid
- Radio altitude less than 2500ft.
Combines all basic T instruments into one.
Boeing Navigation Displays: Full VOR/ILS modes: PLAN mode:
Navigation Displays (ND/EHSI) provide mode- Does NOT show a aircraft symbol.
selectable colour depiction of nav and
supplemental information.

In all nav displays heading is supplied by IRS

display is referenced to Magnetic north
between 60-65degrees South and 73 Degrees
North.
Outside the ND is referenced to TRUE north.
Also selectable by crew.
FULL VOR.
- DME distance shown top left Only display with a north arrow.
Full and Expanded Modes: Used to look ahead down track by
Certain modes, VOR, ILS, and NAV can be - Present heading indicated in ‘heading box’ with true
and magnetic scrolling through the route’s pages on
displayed in ‘full’ format, meaning the whole the FMS.
compass is visible, or as ‘expanded’ modes. - Magenta heading = heading select.
Which only show the forward 90degrees. - FMC calculated wind shown bottom left
Course deviation indicator (CDI) also shown. Weather Radar Colouring:
Expanded = Arc
Full = Rose. VOR = 1 dot = 5 degrees.
ILS = 1 dot = 1.25dgrees.

Weather radar not shown on Boeings full rose displays.

MAP mode:
Other symbols and colours

Shows the computed FMS Track.

FMS track shown by magenta line connecting Star shaped
waypoints, active waypoint is Magenta, others are white.
Map can be overlaid with weather.
Off route Airfields = Cyan
Remote Light Sensor: Engine and System Screens:
Respond to ambient light sensors auto adjust Boeing EICAS:
brightness of the EFIS displays.
Engine Indicating and Crew Alerting System
EGFIS Failure Warnings: (EICAS).
Amber in colour and appear at the point on the
screen where failed information would have
appeared.

Primary engine
operating parameters.
Engine Pressure Ratio – EPR
Failure = Amber. N1 RPM
Exhaust Gas Temperature – EGT

Airbus Navigation displays: Warnings = RED

Boeing system have 5 modes: Cautions = AMBER
- ROSE LS (landing system, ILS, GLS, MLS) Advisory = White
- ROSE VOR
Typical Indications:
- ROSE NAV
Fuel:
- ARC
- Fuel quantity in each tank
- PLAN
- Total Fuel quantity
- Fuel temperature
N1:
- Present N1
- Commanded N1
- N1 Operating limits
EGT:
- Present (Instantaneous) EGT
- Maximum continuous EGT limit
- Maximum Take-Off (or go around) EGT
limit.
Different Systems: Datalink Communications An AC ATSU is said to ‘enable access to all
Datalinks allow for transmission or exchange of available communications media, to manage the
CPDLC Ground systems:
messages between suitably equipped found HMI (Human Machine Interface), and select the
systems and AC. appropriate ATC centre for datalink through the
flight.
Analogue radio system passes messages through
text-based operator to AC system known as
ACARS (AirCraft Addressing and Reporting
System).

Datalink messages in common use:

- OOOI (times Out of the gate, Off the
ground, On the ground, Into the gate)
- Load sheet data
- Passenger information (connecting flight Ground routing of messages is usually operated
details) through ACARS digital service providers (DSP) such The CMU
- Weather reports (METARS, TAFs) as SITA and ARNIC. Core of the ATSU is the CMU. Connected to the
- D-ATIS (ATIS Provided by datalink) Most recent developments use Aeronautical CMU is:
- Maintenance reports Telecommunications Network (ATN) - FMS MCDU (and DCDU on airbus)
- Free Text Messages. - HF Communication Unit
CPDLC Aircraft Equipment: - VHF Communication Unit
Controller Pilot Data Link Communication AC equipment known as the Air Traffic Service - Satcom
(CPDLC) type of ACARS, Text based messaging. Unit (ATSU). Audio control panel is not a part of the ATSU
Can replace voice communications, for example Typical ATSU has: Msgs originated on the MCDU and displayed on
for departure clearances. - Communications management unit which DCDU.
receives msgs from the appropriate radio CPDLC in use:
Latest datalink systems remove human interface equipment and allocates messages for To establish comms with the active data authority
and allow direct communication between the AC transmission the flight crew must log on with that agency.
avionics systems and ground agency. - FMS multi-function control display unit Initiate CPDLC procedure = sending CONTRACT
This is Automatic Dependent Surveillance (MCDU) input and display msgs. MESSAGE containing 4letter ICAO site designator
(ADS). - On Airbus, additional Data communication of the ATC unit. Latter responds with
2 Forms: Display Unit (DCDU). acknowledgment msg.
ADS-B (B = Broadcast) - Visual and aural warning of incoming msgs.
ADC-C (C = Contract) AC interrogated by ground - A printer.
station.
 Automatic Dependent Surveillance (ADS) - B On Demand = one-off contract for a basic ADS-C
CPDLC Messages: report, such as to obtain instantaneous altitude in a
Broadcast.
Once logged on following ATC msgs are typical: descent.
Uses a Mode S transponder.
- Level assignment
Broadcasts unsolicited information such as:
- Crossing constraints
- GPS derived position
- Lateral deviations ADS-C Report Contents:
- Airspeed
- Route changes and clearances ADS-C contains:
- Altitude
- Speed assignment - Latitude
- Heading
- Radio frequency assignments - Longitude
To any station that can receive data.
- Voice contact request - Time Stamp
In Europe ADS-B uses SSR frequency 1090MHz
The pilot can: - Figure of merit (FOM) (navigational accuracy
Transceiver frequency 978MHz.
- Respond to messages 0-7) 7 = Best.
- Request clearance and information ADS-C EG:
- Report information using a free text ‘Contract’ aka ADS-A (Addressed).
capability Relies on a 2way contract being established between
- Declare or rescind an emergency ground station and the AC.
- Initiate a voice request. Contract initiated and controlled by the ground
Take-off and landing clearance will NOT be station.
made over CPDLC ADS-C operates through ACARS, not transponders.
Controlled by the FMS.
On-request groups can be added to basic group to
CPDLC Messages: 3 types of contracts
provide:
A msg may come from ATC, - Periodic
- Meteorological information
3 options – Standby, Reject, Accept. - On event
- Predicted position at a particular time
Certain uplink msgs will such as amended routes - On Demand
- FMS intended route
will give flight crew option to directly load into
- FMS projected optimum level.
FMS. Periodic = Sets a reporting rate at which the
requested info is downloaded.
CPDLC frequencies: On event = Sends a downlink report whenever
Can use: VHF, HF or SATCOM. With the specified events occur: Emergency Mode:
Aeronautical Telecommunications Network - The Vertical Rate Change Event, Rate of Flight crew can set this by:
(ATN) climb or descent outside parameters defined Sending Mayday Msg
in request. Which puts both CPDLC and ADS-C into emergency
- The Lateral Deviation Event, Distance off mode.
track exceeding specified in the contract Or by switching the ADS-C to emergency mode
request. which increases periodic reporting rate.
- The Altitude Range Change Event, Level
variations greater than specified.
- The Waypoint Change Event, New next
waypoint in the FMS
Future Air Navigation System (FANS) FANS B:
ICAO committee proposed CNS/ATM concept Airbus development for use in high density
(Communication, Navigation, Surveillance, and airspace with radar surveillance in en-route
air traffic management) phases.

Purpose of FANS = to allow more AC to safely It is intended to use the ATN air/ground
and efficiently utilise a given volume of airspace. communications network using CPDLC and ADS-
C and will automate elements of ATC and ATM.
Performance Based Navigation (PBN) FANS B only on A320 Family.
- Control is provided by ATC over the ATN
FANS A: - Navigation is to RNP standards using GPS
Works in same way as ACARS. - Both elementary and enhanced
Used mainly in oceanic areas. surveillance are used
ATC control provided by CPDLC - Uses standard ATM anticipating eventual
AC position, height and speed data may be ATM automation.
downlinked to ATC using ADS-C if available using
the acronym CNS/ATM:
- Control is provided by ATC and AOC
datalink
- Navigation is GPS based
- Surveillance by ATC Datalink
- Uses standard Air Traffic Management
(ATM) procedures.
FANS uses electronic handshake through ARINC
622 Network called ATS facility notification
(AFN)
 Automatic Flight

AFCS = Automatic flight control system Outer Loop Operation – Controlling Rate of
Autopilot control and stability:
APFDS = Autopilot Flight Director System Climb:
The AFCS has 2 functions:
- Control of AC movement about its CG, Input determined by the pilots on the AFCS
AFCS classification: Mode Control Panel (AFCS MCP)
(stability)
Classified by number axis controlled:
- Guidance of AC CG along a flight path → Computed by signal processor (Flight Control
Single Axis: Roll only Computer) (FCC)
Two Axis: Roll and pitch, can capture and hold
Open and Closed loop: → Sent to flight controls
heading/altitude. Pilot controls power and trim.
Open = no feed back → AC climbs, Performance system senses climb
Three Axis: Roll, Pitch, Yaw. and feeds back to FCC.
Closed = feedback loop
→ Performance achieved against performance
A Three Axis System: measured. (Error)
Following operating modes: Closed Loop Operation – Pitch Stability: → Error Reduced to zero.
- Heading, altitude and vertical speed Pitch axis’s change sensed by RLG. (In IRU)
capture and hold Signal produced → Signal processor computes
- IAS or Mach hold suitable corrective signal → Sends to elevator servo
- Coupling to VOR track and to ILS localiser → Servo motor feedback position.
and glidepath
- Coupling to FMS horizonal and vertical Feedback is an essential requirement of a closed
loop control system. Inner loop (stability) e.g.:
profiles - Yaw damper
- Autoland (some AC) Id closed loop system overcompensates, AC may
enter self-induced oscillations. - Holding pitch / roll attitude
Autopilot comprised of: Outer loop (Flight path control) e.g.:
- Sensors - Altitude hold
- Comparators Inner and Outer Loops:
- VOR and ILS track
- Computers Although AFCS control loops are closed, they are
- Speed control.
- Amplifiers further divided into inner and outer loops.
- Servo-actuators Inner loop systems = provide stability (Stabilise) Gain Variation:
Outer loop system = flight path guidance (Control) Gain needs to be adjusted in proportion to for
Regulatory Requirements: example speed as surfaces don’t need to move
It is not a requirement to have AP. Outer loop flight path modes are operated by low- that much at high speeds.
CS 25.1329 lays down ways AP must be fit and speed rotary actuators fitted parallel to flight -Gain Variation gives more gain generally at low
operate. control system. Operation of a parallel actuator speeds, less at high speeds.
Some operations need AP. moves both flying control surface and flight deck -Too much gain produces instability, too little
Only mandatory requirement for fit is the 2-axis controls. gain gives not enough control
AP with altitude and heading hold for single pilot
IFR.
 Flight Envelope Protection: Yaw damping:
Gain Adaptation: Control laws protect AC from exceeding flight Too much directional stability is bad in turns.
envelope limits (Overstress / overspeed):
Adjusts the AC behaviour so it matches that of a Protection available for: Too much lateral stability leads to continuous
computer model for the relevant speed, height, - Overspeed – Limit is VMO or MMO roll and yaw in straight flight (Dutch Roll).
and configuration. - Stall protection/alpha protection
Fly-By-Wire AC have additional protection: Lateral and directional stability of an AC not
Direct Control Law: - Pitch attitude constant in flight, at high TAS directional stability
Basic mechanical connection between input and - Bank angle decreases as aerodynamic dampening on the fin
output is called direct control law. - Excessive G decreases.
A nose up pitch demand applied and held will - Excessive Roll and pitch rate At low speed, in swept wing AC, lateral stability
initiate a nose up pitch rate. - Flap and undercarriage limit speeds etc increases sharply.
Necessary to artificially modify stability by active
Pitch Rate Demand/Attitude Hold Law: Failures of other systems not directly related to control of the rudder (Yaw dampening).
Nose up pitch applied and held will initiate a AP may make the AP unavailable or unreliable. Yaw damper counters Dutch roll.
nose up pitch rate as before, but the computer
will continuously increase elevator deflection to Trim Systems: Parallel and Series Yaw Damper Systems:
maintain the pitch rate constant. Basic Trim systems adjust the position of control In AC with 3 axis AP, rudder is used to balance
Zero pitch rate = constant attitude hold. surfaces to hold a given attitude. AC in turns. (Roll/Yaw Coupling)
Large AC have trim in all 3 axes. Yaw damper channel will be integrated with this
G Demand/Flight Path Hold Law: system. Called ‘Parallel System’
Relies on the idea that level flight is a constant Auto Trim:
1G flight path, increased G will make the AC up, Auto flight systems adjust trim settings to relieve
reduced G make AC go down. the autopilot servo motors and to keep AC in
Good for maintaining a defined flight path – level trim.
flight or glideslope angle. Auto trim functions in pitch and prevents
There is Lag = sharp and rapid corrections. snatching when the AP is disengaged.

C* Law: Mach Trim: Alternatively, the yaw damper may have a

Fully developed (A320) At M0.75-M1.0, shockwave formation on the separate channel. Known as a ‘Series system’.
Flight path hold law with an element of pitch upper wing surface causes wing centre of Separate from the AP system.
rate demand introduced at low speed to pressure to shift rearwards. This leads to a large AFCS Protection Systems:
improve response on the approach. tail up/nose down pitching force known as Mach Interlocks – Prevent AP engagement if: Electrical
tuck. supply is faulty, roll control knob not centred,
Mach trim operates at higher Mach numbers to Synchronisation fault, Fault in attitude ref unit.
prevent the pitch down known as ‘Mach tuck’ Torque Limiters – Limits torque applied.
Synchronisation – Removes Jerk when AP off.
Automatic Flight Path Guidance: Automatic Flight Path Guidance Altitude Control:
AP and Flight director systems are controlled on Engaging the Autopilot: Normal way to climb/descend → Select it in the
a single Mode Control Panel (MCP). If flight director selected, then selecting one of the ALITUTDE WINDOW, select V/S.
CMD will engage AP. Once altitude is reached ALT HOLD is engaged
APFDS has following outer loop functions which The FMA on top of the PFD will display CMD. and announced on the PFD.
can be fed into the Flight Director System, ALT HOLD switch light on the MCP does not light
Can be followed manually or on full AP Autopilot Disengage: up.
command (CMD): A single AP can be disengaged by pressing A/P
- Altitude Hold Engage switch again. Or by pressing the disengage ALT NTV and ALT HOLD:
- Airspeed Hold bar/control column disengage. Altitude intervention (ALT NTV) is used during
- Mach hold VNAV climb/descents to delete FMC altitudes
- Vertical Speed Hold If AP randomly disconnects continuous warning will and allow a continued climb/descent to the
- Heading Hold sound. altitude selected on the MCP.
- ILS Tracking If ALT HOLD is selected during the climb/descent
- INS Tracking Lights and tone can be extinguished by pressing the altitude selection is held.
- VOR Tracking control column button again.
- LNAV / VNAV Heading Control:
Pressing HDG SEL on the MCP will command the
LNAV and VNAV
AP to turn to and hold a heading.
Selecting LNAV and VNAV will hand the AP to the
Displays on the FMA.
FMS.
Max and min bank angles can be set in HDG SEL
In VNAV AP sets required thrust.
and VOR modes but not in LNAV.
In level flight VNAV holds cruise altitude and sets
throttle as commanded by the FMS.
VOR Tacking:
Controlled by the VOR/LOC selection.
Vertical Speed and Flight Path Angle: Once overflown the VOR signal becomes
Selected Modes:
With V/S button pressed the AP will adjust the pith unreliable, and the AP is cut off. This is done by
Shown on the PFD Flight Mode Annunciator
to hold the vertical speed selected in VERT SPEED an Over Station Sensor (OSS) which cuts the VOR
(FMA) specifically:
Window. signal for a present time.
- AFCS lateral and vertical modes
Only 1 pitch mode can be engaged at a time: AP will maintain a heading while the OSS is
- Auto-Throttle Modes
- ALT Hold active.
- FD selection
- Autopilot engagement and Autoland - VNAV
capacity - V/S
- Failure and alert msg
 Auto throttle: Autothrottle Mode Annunciation:
Control Wheel Steering:
Controls the thrust of an AC engines. Speed modes shown top left side of the FMA.
Rarely used alternative to outer loop control is
2 commands can be given: Possible modes include:
to select Control Wheel Streeting (CWS).
Selected speed (SPEED) N1, GA, REATARD, FMC SPD, MCP SPD, THR
CWS allows AC to be flown manually but, if pilot
Deliver a selected amount of trust Engine HOLD, ARM.
removes hands from the column, AC holds the
last pitch and roll attitude selected. pressure ratio (EPR).

An Auto throttle may be disengaged: Autothrottle will not automatically adjust

CWS can be engaged by engaging the AP
- By pressing the disengage buttons on the speed when turbulence is encountered.
without any modes selected.
throttles
Some AC have a system called Touch Control - On most systems, by selecting reverse
Steering (TCS). It is subtly different from CWS. thrust
TCS the autopilot remains engaged, but autopilot - Automatically, 2 seconds after
servos/actuators are disconnected from the touchdown
control surfaces. Manual control of the AC - Selecting A/T arm switch to off
continues for as long as the TCS button is - If there is a throttle asymmetry of more
depressed. than 10degrees in the late stages of a
The AP servos/actuators reconnect when the TCS multichannel Autoland.
button is released and the AP returns. Rather
than adopting a new attitude as it would with
Boeing A/T Stall Protection:
CWS.
If Autothrottle system is set to ARM at high
angles of alpha autothrottle will auto engage to
Speed Control: give stall protection.
Result of Trust and pitch attitude combined,
Under some circumstances, such as VNAV Climb, Autothrottle Take-Off:
the auto throttle will command the limiting Normal take-offs will be with reduced thrust
thrust and the autopilot will control speed with selected on the FMS, called ‘FLEX’ take-off.
pitch. Under other circumstances, e.g., in cruise
the AP will hold height and Auto throttle control In this case AC is lined up and N1 engaged by
speed. pressing TOGA on the throttle.
Speed can be set manually in the IAS/MACH Throttle will be driven forward to selected N1
window and held.
At 84Kts g/s sensed by IRS, FMA changes to THR
HOLD
 Autoland Other AP considerations:
Autoland:
To keep AC on centre line on roll out after
Most challenging manoeuvre for an AP to Definitions:
landing, nosewheel steering actuator must
undertake. Fail operational: An automatic landing system is
work through the rudder channel, called
Needs great precision and reliability. fail-operational if, in the event of failure, the
‘Rudder fine Nosewheel Steering’.
Less taxing is an ILS, flown to a DH and then approach, flare and landing can be completed by
disconnected. (Semi-automatic approach). the remaining part of the automatic system.
Autoland limitations:
Fail passive: An automatic landing system is fail-
Headwinds, Tailwinds, Cross wind limits.
ILS Categories: passive if, in the event of a failure, there is no
Flap Settings, All engines operative.
CAT I - Guidance to 200ft significant out-of-trim condition or deviation of
CAT II – Guidance to 100ft flight path or attitude- but the landing is not
CAT III – Guidance down to touchdown and completed automatically.
beyond.
Two Channel Fail operation systems:
Cat depends on equipment certification, Possible for a two AP system to be certified as
calibration etc. fail operational in one of two ways:
- If there is an external monitoring and
Before making automatic approach, AC must be comparison system which can identify
certified for that approach and the crew must be and disconnect the failed AP
trained to make the approach. - If a primary fail passive system is
supplemented by a 2nd independent
Fail Operational and Fail Passive: guidance system such as a HUD, ‘Hybrid
In low ceiling and vis, must be complete system’
confidence in the system. -
Usually, 3 functioning and engaged AP all The Alert Height:
working together, failure of one will result in Component failures have different implications
being voted out. ‘Fail operation’ system. (Fail at different heights.
active in USA) Alert height is around 200ft RA.
Failure before alert height gives more time to
If only 2 AP, and one fails, no way to know which react, either go around or reversion.
is right, therefore both disengage and leave AC If below A go around is still possible, less critical
in trimmed state. Called ‘Fail Passive System’. failure will allow continuation of landing.
Triggers that warn below alert height:
- All AP disengages
- Loss of ILS signal or components
- Excessive ILS deviations
- Radio-altimeter failure
Go-Around:
GA arms itself at 1500ft and is engaged by
pressing TO/GA on throttle.

When TOGA is pressed AP will pitch up to

+15degrees and autothrottle will select full
thrust.

Once 2000fpm reached, thrust will adjust to hold

2000fpm at the airspeed existing at GA engage.

Pilots retract flaps and gear to reduce drag.

Some AC pressing TOGA once gives reduced EPR

Twice for full thrust.

Back Course:
Some AP have back course (B CRS or BC) options.
If fitted, this is sued at airfields which have two
instrument runways but only one ILS and where
there is a published back course procedure
(Usually only in USA).
 Flight Directors
Flight Directors: Interpreting the display: B737-800 FD system operation:
‘Guides pilot in manual flight’ Magenta lines that are NOT part of the FD include: Each FD system can operate from its
Displays on the ADI, PFD, EFIS. - On left, fast and slow come from autothrottle respective FCC, with comparison between the
system FCC to error checking, or be controlled by a
- ILS localiser master FCC.
- G/S
FD shows pitch and roll commands in centre of PFD. Master/Slave Operation:
The NORM.
Pilots treat the first small movement of the FD roll bar as a Which side is the master depends on:
cue to start a steady roll out which matches the - If neither AP is engaged in CMD the
commands from the FD. master FCC is the one whose FD is
With AP engaged it follows the demands smoothly and switched on first. Both FDs will display
without delay. the same information.
- If one or both AP are engaged in CMD
Architecture: Ignoring a roll demand: the FCC for the first AP engaged in
Systems of autopilot and FD are similar. If first roll command is ignored FD bar moves further to CMD is the master FCC, regardless of
Need info from sensors: direct pilot back to the localiser. which FD is switched on first. Both FDs
- ADC (Height and speed) show the same information.
- IRS (Heading and alt) Flying wedge Display Master FD displays green light ‘MA’ just
- Nav receivers (Track and glidepath) above the FD ON/OFF.

FD usually = Yellow on analogue Independent operation:

FD usually = Magenta on EFIS. Occurs automatically but only rarely.
For this to occur, there must be no AP in CMD
Interpreting the Display and either APP is selected with LOC and G/S
engaged or TO/GA below 500ft RA.
Magenta wedge
In independent operation both FD MA lights
are illuminated.

FD modes on the FMA:

FD replaces CMD on the PFD to just no AP.
 Alerting Systems

Alerting system: Automatic suppression of warnings and

Includes: Alerting Mechanisms: cautions:
- Warnings Sight, Sound, Feel. Some are inhibited during start-up to avoid
- Cautions Visual, Aural, Tactile. transient false warnings; others are
- Advisories inhibited at critical stages of flight:
Airbus = Flight warning system (FWS). Visual Alerts: On take-off master caution is inhibited
Boeing = Master Caution. Lights, Electronic displays and msgs on EFIS/EICAS and flags or from passing 80kts up to 400ft and engine
markers. Level of alert matches the CS25 being: fire warning bells are usually inhibited
Levels of Alert: - Red for warnings, flight envelope or system limits from V1 to 400ft.
Warning: - Yellow for cautions or abnormalities
Require Immediate recognition, and - White for advisories. EICAS:
corrective or compensatory action by the Flashing red = top of the alert scale. Airbus = ECAM
crew. Timely attention getting cues through Steady white = bottom. Boeing = EICAS
at least two different senses by a
combination of aural, visual, and tactical Aural Alerts:
indications are required. Visual alert must be Bells, Klaxons, Sirens, Spoken Messages.
red. Loud bells/intermittent klaxons more attention getting
Calmy spoken words = least.
Cautions: Type specific
Require Immediate crew awareness, and
subsequent crew action will be needed. Tactile Warnings:
Stall warning and protection:
Timely attention-getting cues through at Stick-shaker mechanism in the stall warning system.
CS23 and CS25 require AC give clear
least 2 different senses, combination of warning of approaching stall.
aural, visual, and tactical indications is Warning begins at VSW , exceeding the
required. Visual alert must be yellow. speed at which the stall is identified by
not less than 5 kts or 5% CS, once initiated
Advisories: the stall wanting must continue until AOA
Require crew awareness, and subsequent is reduced to approx. where the stall
action may be required. No aural warning is began.
required. They may be any colour except
red, yellow/amber, or green. Master warnings and cautions: Stick pusher = Stall protection.
Most use yellow/white. Pressing the Master Warning light cuts the associated bell but
leaves light on until fire is out.
Pressing Master Caution light resets the system.
Inputs and Outputs: Fly-by-Wire Stall protection: Overspeed Warning:
Stall = f(AoA) = f(alpha) Flight protection system will execute series of corrective Alerts crew if the AC exceeds max operating
actions, the key points in this system as the stall is limits, VMO or MMO.
approached are: Only the altitude is needed to calculate the
- Alpha VLS – 1.23 times the level flight stalling speed, limit, not the CAS.
the normal maximum alpha on the approach
- Alpha port – the control law changes to hold alpha Speed Strip High Speed Markings:
constant even if the AC begins to descend, only If
pilot pulls stick back will alpha increase.
- Alpha floor – TO/GA thrust automatically applied
- Alpha max – Max alpha without stalling, max
performance alpha, just short of CL max.
With TO/GA thrust and the stick hard back the AC will climb
at alpha max. (Terrain avoidance manoeuvre).

Stall warnings: Autothrottle Stall protection:

At low altitude AC will reach VMO first, at
Primary stall warning = Stick shaker. Speed will not fall below 1.3 VS
high altitude MMO.
This shakes and knocks the control wheel
When either is reached:
and is accompanied by an audio knocking On B737 if Autothrottle is armed but with no speed
- Sound aural alarm
noise. selected, autothrottle will not function until AoA close to
- Illuminate the master warning light
Some systems have ‘STALL, STALL’. stall is sensed, called ‘Alpha floor’.
- Display an OVERSPEED on the EICAS
Master warning will illuminate. At which autothrottle will auto engage and maintain alpha
in red.
Red STALL warning appears on EICAS. floor.
Warning cannot be cancelled.
Takes precedence over GPWS and
WINDSHEAR Speed Strip Low Speed Markings:
Take-off Warning System:
Stall Protection: Systems that may trigger a take-off warning
T-Tail AC susceptible to Deep stall (Super system include:
stall) these AC fitted with stick-pusher. - Flaps
Crew can overcome stick-pusher if false - Leading edge devices
warning. - Wing spoilers
- Speed breaks
- Parking Brakes
- Trims
Alternative name = CONFIG warning.
Altitude Alerting System: Frequency Bands:
Required for all jets over 5700kg or with Varies between 4200 MHz and 4400 MHz known as
more than 9 seats to have altitude alerting frequency modulated radio altimeters.
system: Super High Frequency (SHF) band of radio spectrum.
Must be capable of:
- Alerting crew on approaching the Hight compensation:
selected altitude Zeroed to compensate for both aerial height and length of
- Alerting crew by at least an aural wiring inside the AC so the altimeter reads zero when
signal when deviating above or below wheels touchdown.
the selected altitude.
Takes data from the Barometric altitude Accuracy:
from the ADCs and reference height from RA accurate to +-2ft in the first 500ft or +-1.5%
the AP control panel. whichever is greater.

Low Level Radio Altimeters: RA primary height input to: GPWS/TAWS/HTAWS.

Active 2500ft down. If RA failed, you will not have these protections.
Primary function of radio altimeter is to
provide accurate decision height (DH) info
for precision approaches.

Radio altitude also used as an input to the

ground proximity warning (GPWS) and TCAS

Radio Altimeter System Operation:

Radio beam directed to the ground in a
30degree cone is reflected to AC.

Radio altimeters use a continuous wave

radar rather than a pulse radar.
GPWS = Ground proximity warning system GPWS and TAWS Mode 2:
TAWS = Terrain Awareness Warning System Triggered by reducing RA and warnings of rising ground
2 PULL UP waning lights illuminate when beneath the AC.
modes 1-4 are active. With voice warning. Initial alert is ‘TERRIAN, TERRIAN’
TAWS Requirements:
EU-OPS any AC with >9 seats or >5700kg If worsens is ‘WHOOP, WHOOP, PULL UP’
Amber BELOW G/S, illuminates when mode Until RA has stopped reducing and an increase of 300ft
must have TAWS.
5 active. With voice ‘GLIDESLOPE’ warning. of barometric altitude is registered.
GPWS must provide audible signals:
B737 control panels have 2 guarded Mode 1 and Mode 2, together capable of dealing with
Mode 1 – Sink Rate
switches. most Controlled flight into terrain (CFIT) incidents.
Mode 2 – Ground Proximity
FLAP INHIBIT – inhibits or cancels warnings Neither Mode 1 nor Mode 2 will stop you flying into a
Mode 3 – Altitude loss after take-off or Go-
caused by flap selector not being set to 30- vertical cliff face.
around
40degrees (landing position)
Mode 4 – incorrect landing config
Mode 5 – Below G/S deviation. Mode 3:
GEAR INHIBIT – inhibits warnings caused by
Warns of barometric height loss after take-off or go-
gear selector not being down (only used in
ALERTS – Corrective response around.
gear up landing).
WARNINGS – immediate climb manoeuvre. For mode to be active flap selectors must be moved
away from ‘land’ position and gear up.
INOP – illuminates if system fails or Circuit
TAWS Requirement: Alert ‘DON’T SINK, DON’T SINK’.
breaker pulled.
Must provide visual and aural display of
terrain forward of AC, this is called Mode 4:
SYS TST – Pressed on ground or in flight
FLTA (Forward looking terrain avoidance) Warns of proximity to the ground without the
>1000ft RA conducts BITE (Built in test
appropriate gear and flaps selections.
equipment) test.
Cockpit Equipment: At speed AC is unlikely to making an approach, the aim
Varies between manufacturers. of the alert is to inform pilot of ground proximity.
MODE 1: Alert ‘TOO LOW TERRIAN’
Gives warning of excessive barometric rate If ac is low without correct gear of flaps:
of decent. Alert ‘TOO LOW, GEAR’ or ‘TOO LOW, FLAPS’
Active below 2500ft RA. TOO LOW, TERRIAN = warning = immediate action.
When Barometric rate of descent >3xRA it
Mode 5:
gives alert ‘SINK RATE, SINK RATE’.
On GS more than 1.3 dots below GS triggers:
If higher rate of descent closer to ground
‘GLIDESLOP, GLIDESLOPE’ gets louder as worsens.
alert becomes ‘WHOOP, WHOOP, PULL UP’
GPWS Mode 6: EGPWS Classification of Warnings and Alerts:
Includes height and bank angle call outs. Said to provide: Genuine – Correctly generated by GPWS.
- A terrain Clearance Floor (TCF)
Basic mode 6: ‘MINIMUMS, MINIMUMS’ As - Terrain Look Ahead Alerting Nuisance – Pilot flying an accepted safe procedure.
assigned by pilot. - A Terrain Alerting and Display (TAD) Criteria for alert have been infringed by situation is not
’50,40,30,20,10 RETARD, 5’ No expiry date, but the obstacle database is unsafe. EG ‘TERRAIN, TERRAIN’ on approach.
‘BANK ANGLE, BANK ANGLE’ only valid for 28 days.
False – generated by GPWS not accordance with
technical spec, i.e., its broken
GPWS Mode 7:
Not required by EU-OPS
Provides Wind shear alerts and warnings.
Uses: ADC, Temp, Rate of climb, AoA, RA, Summary of inputs:
IRS. basic GPWS (Modes 1-5) receives inputs from:
Alert: ‘CAUTION WINDSHEAR’ - CAS
If AC enters microburst - RA
Red light illuminate followed by: - Pressure Altitude
‘WINDSHEAR, WINDSHEAR’ - Vertical Speed
- G/S deviation
- Flaps Position
- Gear Position
EGPWS IRS for optional Mode 6 Bank callouts.
3D GPS Satellite fix. Initial Actions:
EGPWS needs precise position fix. TOO LOW GEAR requires either gear down The EPWS element needs:
Aural Warnings: or go around. - Accurate positioning (perhaps a 4D FMS)
CAUTION, TERRIAN - An obstacle/terrain database.
TERRIAN, TERRIAN, PULL UP WIND SHEAR warning requires full wind
There is no Whoop, whoop shear go-around.

Red PULL UP lights illuminate.

ACAS/TCAS: ACAS/TCAS Audio Commands and advisories for TCAS II Version
TCAS II version 7 is compliant with the ACAS 7:
II standard.

TCAS = Traffic Collision Avoidance System

ACAS = Airborne Collision Avoidance
System

EU-OPS require new AC >19 passengers or

MTOM >5700kg to carry and use ACAS II

Principle of Operation:
TCAS uses MODE S transponder to The Tau Area:
interrogate the SSR transponders of nearby
AC and plot their positions and velocities.

Receives and transmits Squitters.

Includes an ICAO 24-bit address, uniquely
identifying the AC system status and
pressure altitude information.
Extended squitters used in ADS-B, carry 49
individual parameters in a data package. TCAS Envelopes vary between AC.
Traffic Advisory (TA):
Bearings = Direction finding receiving
AC assessed as being likely to enter the collision
aerials
area in between 48-35 sec results in audio caution
Distance = Time delay between transmitted
of: TRAFFIC, TRAFFIC
and received.
AKA Traffic advisory (TA).
TCAS can cope with Mode A, C or S. Range and limitations:
Resolution Advisory (RA): Range of system outside terminal areas = 30NM
When both AC have TCAS II and Mode S,
If time to enter collision area reduces 35-15 sec and +- 2700ft.
the advice on how to avoid collision will be
TCAS II will generate a resolution advisory (RA). All aural commands are inhibited by Stall, GPWS,
coordinated by the mode S data link
Audio Command of: ‘CLIMB, CLIMB’, ‘DESCEND, Terrain and wind shear warnings.
between AC.
DESCEND’ if already climbing:
‘INCREASE CLIMB’ or ‘INCREASE DECENT’
TCAS can only see transponding AC.
When conflict clear: ‘CLEAR OF CONFLIT’
 Required Reactions:
Symbol for Traffic causing an RA: TA only for information. Crew should liaise
Range and limitations: Most threatening traffic = RED BOX with ATC for separation.
As the radio altitude progressively decreases
resolution advisories are progressively inhibited: RA requires crew to respond and follow
- RAs that recommend an increase in rate of instructions promptly. Where the required
descent are inhibited below 1450ft RA action conflicts with ATC clearance the pilot
- RAs that recommend a descent are inhibited Symbol for traffic causing a TA: must follow the TCAS RA for the purpose of
below 1100ft RA TA Soldi Yellow or Amber Circle avoiding immediate danger but must in from
- All RA’s are inhibited below 1000ft. ATC of his deviation asap. And return once
- All Aural commands are inhibited below ‘CLEAR OF CONFLICT’ heard.
500ft.
TCAS Aims to resolve between 300-500ft.
Cockpit displays and terminology: Proximate Traffic:
Pilot reaction time expected by the TCAS logic
TCAS can be displayed on a dedicated display on a Transponding traffic not generating a TA or RA and
is 5 seconds with the pilot achieving the pull
VSI/TCAS Display or in an EFIS Display. inside 6NM and +-1200ft are called ‘Proximate
up/push over in 3 seconds.
Traffic’.
Combined VSI/TCAS unit can be referred to as an Solid Diamond (Lozenge) Cyan or White.
Pitch change requirements depend on
electronic VSI (EVSI) If own ship is white, proximate = cyan.
speed.
Typical g value = 0.25g aiming for
1500ft/mins.

For enhanced RA, INCREASE CLIMB

Other Traffic: G value = 0.35g aiming for 2500ft/min.
Transponding traffic not generating a TA or RA and
outside 6NM and +-1200ft is called ‘Other Traffic’.
TCAS System components:
Hollow Diamond (Lozenge) Cyan or White.

TCAS may also be displayed on the PFD and ND.

+ = Above you
- = Below you

Trend arrows show AC is in climb/descent 500-

600ft/min
Mode S Transponder/ TCAS Control Panel Control Panel:

TEST: TCAS System functional test

STBY: Power applied to TCAS Processor and Mode S
transponder. The TCAS does not issue any
interrogations and the transponder will only reply to
discrete interrogations.
ALT RPTG: Altitude reporting Off.
XPDR: The Mode S transponder is fully operational
and will reply to all ground and TCAS interrogations.
Mode S/TCAS transponder controls are almost the TCAS Remains in standby.
same as those for traditional mode A/C. TA ONLY: Mode S Transponder fully operations.
Mode A Code set with larger knob. TCAS will issue appropriate interrogations.
TCAS Will only issue TAs.
TA/RA: Mode S Transponder fully operational
TCAS will issue appropriate interrogations and
perform all tracking functions
TCAS will issue TAs and RAs.

TA ONLY maybe a company procedure, ie when

approaching parallel runways.
 ACMS
Flight Data Recording: Flight Data Recording Aircraft Condition Monitoring System (ACMS):
Cockpit Voice Recorders (CVRs) Monitors AC and engine data for maintenance.
Digital Flight Data Recorders (DFDRs) Digital Flight Data Recorder (DFDR). Inputs from:
The CVR and DFDR can be both single units Records parameters such as: - Air conditioning system
Or combined to make a: - Time - AFCS
Cockpit Voice and Data Recorder (CVDR) - Attitude (Pitch/Roll) - Flight controls
- Airspeed - Fuel systems
- Fire resistance - Pressure altitude - Landing gear
- Corrosion Resistance - Heading - Nav system
- Waterproof - Normal acceleration - MCDU
- Large impact force - Propulsive thrust or power on each - Pneumatic systems
engine and cockpit thrust lever position - APU
Cockpit Voice Recorder (CVR): - Flaps/slat config - Engines.
Must Record: - Ground spoiler selection
- Voice communications transmitted AC >27,000kg must record: On B737 data sent to Digital Flight Data Acquisition and
from or received at the flight deck. - Position of primary flight controls Management Unit (DFDAMU).
- Aural environment of the flight deck - Pitch trim Less robust than the FDR but samples more parameters. ‘First
including audio data from each boom - Radio altitude point of storage’
or mask mic. - Primary nav information
- Voice Comms from AC interphone - Cockpit warnings Data from the DFDAMU or its equivalent is sent on the DFDR.
system. - Landing gear position Unit can also:
- Voice/audio signals identifying nav or - Any unique design parameters - Transmit data in flight to operator via ACARS, without
approach aids in use. crew notification.
- Voice or audio signals introduced into a DFDR Components: - Transmit data via a cellular telephone link on landing,
headset or speaker. Include: without notification.
- PA system. - Recording system, solid state memory in - Store data in flash memory on SD or PMCIA cards
shock case. which can be removed and read on the ground.
CVR = 2hr recording retained - A data interface and acquisition unit Last element is sometimes referred to as the Quick Access
AC <5700kg = 30mins - Up to 2 control units (Test and event Recorder (QAR).
making button). The data captured used primary for maintenance.
Components include: Records information for MINIMUM 25 hours
- Solid state memory mounted in shock AIDS
<5700kg MTOM = 10 hours
proof case. Airbus use similar system to ACMS called Aircraft Integrated
Starts recording on engine start.
- An area microphone Data System (AIDS). It has an additional print option as an
- A control unit. output.
An EVENT button allows pilots to put a marker
Airbus, equivalent of DFDAMU is Flight Data Interface and
on the recording.
Management Unit (FDIMU).
 Powerplant and system Monitoring

Colouring: The Electrical Tachometer: The Electronic Tachometer:

Normal: GREEN Modern AC – measured by small generator – All prev tachometers require a drive from the engine
Cautionary: YELLOW Tach generator. gearbox.
Upper and lower limits: RED. Tach generator can output DC, single phase AC, Electronic tachometer uses a probe, which is a small
or 3 phase AC. electromagnet, detects teeth on shaft by changes to its
RPM Measurement: Independent of AC electrical supply. magnetic field.
Required to measure RPM of: Allows engine far from cockpit. ‘Inductive probe’
- Piston engine crankshaft (Power) Sometimes called ‘Inductive probe tachometer’.
- Gas turbine compressors and turbines DC Electrical Tachometer: Whole assembly = phonic wheel.
(Engine performance) DC generator attached to and driven by the
engine. Processing the signal:
- Variable pitch propellers, correct
DC voltage increases as RPM increases.
operation, and sync.
Voltage drives needles in flight deck.
- Helicopter rotors (Correct operation) 2 Disadvantages:
- AC Wheels (Anti-skid). - DC Gen requires Commutator and
Rotational speed measured by ‘Tachometer’. Electronic tachometer requires a power supply.
carbon brushes = Wear and electrical
(Speed measurer). Raw AC signal processed into digital. # Of pulse = RPM.
sparking = radio interference. Unaffected by signal loss.
3 Types:
- Line resistance = voltage drops.
- Mechanical, Electrical, Electronic.
Single Phase AC Electrical Tachometer: Turbine Displays
To stop wear and spark replace to DC gen with Turbine engine RPM display as a percentage of MAX.
Mechanical Tachometer:
single phase brushless AC Gen which is rectified Some have Max RPM pointers.
to DC.
Still subject to indication errors from voltage N1, N2 and N3
loss in transmission.

3 Phase AC Electrical Tachometer:

AC frequency varies with RPM.
3 Phase drives motor called ‘Squirrel cage’ at
Only for light piston single engine. the instrument.
Sleeve turns magnet Consists of = 3 Phase generator, Synchronous
Max length = 2m. motor, and magnetic tachometer.
Advantage = Frequency measured, so no loss in
transmission
Green = Operational range
Disadvantage = more wiring.
Yellow = Caution, Vibration
Red line = RPM Limit.
The Synchroscope: Hydraulic Torque meter:
Analogue instrumentation:
‘Used to balance the RPM of multi-engine
turboprop, piston and sometimes, jet, to reduce
noise levels.’
Synchroscope works from RPM gauges.

Torque can be computed by measuring oil pressure

at the fixed crown of a reducer gear on an epicyclic
main engine gearbox. Digital Instrumentation:
Vibration Sensors: Boeing = EICAS (Engine indicating and Crew Alerting
Jet engines usually low vibration, higher vibration System)
usually means problem. Electronic Torquemeter:
Airbus = ECAM (Electronic centralised aircraft
monitoring)
High freq vibration usually indicated serious
damage.
Vibration sensors can be piezoelectric (Send EICAS
electrical signals when distorted). EICAS can be fed by either of 2 computers either
Or magnets mounted loosely in coils. manually or auto switched. One computer on standby.
EICAS = 3 modes:
Vibrations picked up at the sensors are amplified - Operational (Primary engine parameters
before being transmitted to the indicator. shown on top screen and bottom screen either
The indicator indicates the vibration amplitude at blank or secondary parameters.
a particular frequency. Torque can be computed by measuring the change
Secondary shows: Oil pressure, Oil Temp, Oil
in phase between the torque shaft and the
Quantity, Vibration.
reference shaft.
- Status (On ground to show control surface
Torque measurement: positions and system status)
Turning force produced by the prop or rotor. Gas turbine Thrust Indication: - Maintenance (Only on ground, assist
Torque x RPM = Power. Thrust produced by jet engine measured by maintenance engineers)
Torque measured either: hydraulically at the acceleration of a mass of air.
output or electronically at the shaft which Engine pressure ratio
connects the engine to the gearbox. 𝑻𝒖𝒓𝒃𝒊𝒏𝒆 𝒐𝒖𝒕𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆
𝑬𝑷𝑹 =
𝑪𝒐𝒎𝒑𝒓𝒆𝒔𝒔𝒐𝒓 𝑰𝒏𝒍𝒆𝒕 𝑷𝒓𝒆𝒂𝒔𝒔𝒖𝒓𝒆.
EPR gauges: EPR should always be checked against
N1. Icing = over reading.
B757 Standby Engine indicator:
If EICAS fails a standby indicator shows:
- EPR
- N1
- EGT
- N2
On LED display
B737-800:
Uses 2 screens and displays both engine and
system information. Limits on a placard in
white next to the displays.
 Fuel Flow and Contents Fuel Flow Gauging:
Can be used to monitor performance of a jet engine.
Indications Provided Capacitive Mass Measurement: Either Volume flow or Mass flow.
1 KG = 2.2LB Usually measured just before point of use in the engine.
For ATPL pilots, the following indications:
- Fuel quantity – Indicated either as volume Venturi Volume Flow Indicators:
or weight. Primitive flow indicators rely on a venturi tube.
- Fuel Flow – Indicated pressure, weight per Fuel feed narrowed at a point, velocity increases, pressure
hour, volume per hour or as percentage of at right angles to flow decreases.
power (Tells fuel efficiency) Reduced pressure in venturi compared to normal pressure
- Fuel Temperature – More important for in the pipe is an indication of flow rate.
turbine engine AC.
- A Filter Light – Light shows when starts to
Eliminates previous issues, by measuring mass of Variable Orifice Volume Flow Indicators:
clog.
fuel. Mass sensed by capacitance. Hinged measuring vane placed in a shaped chamber
𝐴
Fuel Contents Gauging: 𝐶𝑎𝑝𝑎𝑐𝑖𝑡𝑎𝑛𝑐𝑒 = 𝐸 ∗ slightly offset from the centre. Fuel flow exerts a pressure
𝐷 on the vane countered by a spring force.
Mechanical Float Volume Indicators: 𝑄 = 𝐶𝑉
Older tech, only accurate when AC is level, not Q = Charge in Coulombs, Vane position converted to electrical signal.
accelerating and constant temp. Mass flow can be shown with added temp sensor.
C = Capacitance in Farads,
Cheap but reliable. V = Voltage in volts.
Require AC circuit.

Resistive Float Volume Indicators: Fuel gauges only indicate the usable fuel and
electrically operated gauges will always go to zero
when the power is removed or if the system fails.

Manual Fuel Contents Checking: Turbine Volume Flow Indicators:

Drip Stick: Modern AC measure fuel flow with a turbine inserted into
To take reading the tube is drained, then lowered fuel lines.
Float Type fuel gauges indicate volume, which until fuel starts to drip steadily from the tap, As turbine rotates, it passes an induction coil in the casing.
varies with temperature and typically use DC showing the fuel quantity on a scale. Like a tachometer, makes AC pulses which can be squared
Power. Magnetic Stick: to digital.
Suffers similar issues to normal float. Uses magnetics. Do not cope well with large flow rate and temp changes
Refuelling: on modern AC.
Check fuel uplifted and gauge are equal.
Sometimes may require conversion of mass and
volume.
Mechanical Mass Flow Indicator Rotor Torque: Electronic Mass Flow Indicators:
True mass flow indicators rely on deflecting the Impeller is turned by a motor at fixed RPM.
fuel so that it swirls in the pipes and then Rotor is connected to the motor by a twisting Fuel enters body of the flow meter and turns a
sensing its angular momentum. As Angular spring the greater the resistance the mort ether hydraulic driver, which drives the shaft, the
momentum is a product of rotational speed and rotor lags behind the motor and the more the drum, and the impeller. Fuel then enters static
mass. True mass can be calculated. spring is twisted. straightener to remove swirl. Then drum into
Two Systems exist: Stator torque and Rotor impeller. Deflection of impeller relative to drum
Torque. Both rotor and motor have magnetic inserts is then measured by pulses generated by
which create pulses in inductive pick-ups. magnets on both the drum and impeller as they
Stator Torque: Time intervals indicate amount of twist on the pass pickoff coils. System uses time between
Uses an impeller rotating at contact speed to spring and hence mass flow. start and stop pulses caused by angular
put a swirl in to the fuel. Stator downstream of displacement, which is directly proportional to
the impeller takes the swirl out of the fuel. the mass flow.
Greater the angular momentum, greater the
twisting force on the stator as it does this.
 Digital Circuits and Computers
Digital Computer: Hexadecimal:
Memory:
Data in → Input Peripherals → Computer → More compact number system.
Stores programs and data while computer is
Output Peripherals → Data out. Binary = Base 2
operating.
Hexadecimal = Base 16
If the information does disappear when power is
The von Neumann Model:
off it is called ‘volatile memory’.
6 Features and capabilities:
- Input and output facilities
Random Access Memory (RAM) – aka read/write
- A Processing unit memory.
- Memory
- Programs and data sharing the same Static RAM (SRAM) – Holds info without being
memory refreshed for as long as power is supplied.
- Program steps carried out in a sequential Dynamic RAM (DRAM) – Needs refreshing every
manner few seconds. Slower than DRAM, but denser.
- Processor and memory joined as a pair

Central Processing Units:

CPU = Brains ROM, PROM, EPROM:
CPU job is to execute programs stored in ROM – Read only memory. – Data stored in chip
memory. that cannot be removed.
CPU = FETCH-DECODE-EXECUTE cycle. PROM – Programmable Read Only Memory. –
3 main parts: Can be programmed once into a blank chip.
- A control unit (responsible for fetching EPROM – Erasable Programmable Read Only
the instructions from memory and Memory. – Allows chips to be re-used. Machine Code:
determining their type) Low-Level vs High Level Languages:
- An Arithmetic and Logic Unit (ALU). Assembly = more robust, used for auto break and some
Software: flight control systems.
Does maths and logic CPU – bank of switches on or off.
- A small, highspeed, memory used to - Is used to programme mission critical software
store temp results and control - More user-friendly than machine code
64 bit = Architecture of computer.
information. Made up of registers, often - Low-level
64-Bit Binary:
32bit. Abstraction = degree to which a language uses easily
understood phrases.
High-level Language: Scripting Languages: Software Certification:
Different parts of the AC can use different
Scripts are set of instructions which are operating systems.
interrogated by other software.
Languages such as: Flight safety regarding AC software is certified
- JavaScript under:
- ASP European Organization for Civil Aviation
- Perl Equipment (EUROCAE)
- Python
Software is never certified as a standalone entity.
Scripting languages: Hardware also considered.
- Are not compiled into machine code to Five levels of failure defined:
produce a file which can run on a
High-Level: computer.
- Most commonly used to write computer - Used to produce scripts which are a
programmes. series of instruction used by other
- High abstraction, very user friendly. software
- Files must be compiled, either into - Primarily used on websites
assembly or directly into machine code. - Maybe used in applications such as
database on server.
- Maybe low or high level.

Connections:
Computers connected via buses = ‘omnibus’
meaning all together.

Can be
Serial: Data sent in packages one after the other.
Parallel: Multiple data paths exist allowing flow
in both directions.
Electronic Flight Bag (EFB): New Technology Head-Up Display (HUD):
Portable electronic device for use by flight crew. Also expect to see:
EFB can calculate things otherwise done by hand. - Localiser, G/S
Electronic Check List (ECL):
- AoA indication
Manufactures now showing not only what’s
‘Portable’ and ‘Installed’ devices. - Notional Runway Depiction
going wrong, but what needs to be done about it.
2 Types in modern flight deck: - Flare Cues
Type A applications: No adverse effect on the AC - Tail strike warnings
in the failure or misuse case. Document storage
Sensed ECL – takes inputs from systems or - Unusual attitude alerting
and retrieval would have no direct effect on flight
switches positions to decide which parts of the - Stall margin indications
safety.
ECL should be displayed, or to test if actions - ACAS/TCAS alerts and advisories
declared complete by the pilot have been carried - Runway distance remaining
Type B applications: Applications are more safety
out correctly. - Ground deceleration display (auto break
critical:
- Independent performance calculations indications)
Standalone (unsensed) ECL – Displays like
- Aeronautical Charts (without AC position
normal paper checklists.
display)
- Electronic checklists ECL should be used with training and judgment.
- Internal and other AC operation
communications.
- Weather information
Head-Up Display (HUD):
- AC Video cam surveillance Display critical information to pilot, through
window field of view.
Type C applications: Relates to active control of Advantages of HUD include night and low vis Makes situational awareness better.
AC therefore not EFB. close to the ground.

EFBs may carry charts etc, so a backup is needed HUD can be decluttered with buttons on the Synthetic Vision System (SVS):
in case of failure, maybe a second EFB or hand controls. Images produced from same database in
smartphone etc in non-commercial flying. EGPWS/TAWS/HTWAS
HUD Displays:
- Attitude (Pitch, Roll and Balance)
- Speed (Speed trend)
- Heading
- Flight Path Vector (FPV)
- FMA
- Crew Alerting System (CAS)
- TAWS
- Windshear command annunciations
Synthetic Vision System (SVS) Enhanced Vision System (EVS)
Real time view of outside world, with sensors.
Uses infra-red.
Like SVS image can be displayed on PFD or HUD.
Unlike SVS it uses real images.

Thermal cross over : when two objects like

tarmac and grass are at the same temp, with
little temp differential the image produced is
more like green fog.

Very useful in poor visibility on approach to

land, Lights are picked up as different heat
signatures to their background, so stand out
Shows terrain colour like TAWS. well.
If the AC is not where it thinks it is, it will show EVS equipped AC are likely to have better
where the AC expects, which may be wrong. landing minima than non-EVS AC.
Therefore cannot be used to reduce landing EVS dramatically reduces CFIT.
minima.
Very useful in adverse weather conditions