AL-HIKMAH UNIVERSITY, ILORIN, NIGERIA

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DEPARTMENT OF BIOLOGICAL SCIENCES
COURSE CODE: BGY 101 CREDIT UNIT: 3
COURSE TITLE: GENERAL INTRODUCTORY BIOLOGY
COURSE LECTURER: MR. W.O. OPADOKUN

CELL STRUCTURE AND ORGANIZATION

The cell marks the boundary between the nonliving and the living. The molecules that serve as
food for a cell and the macromolecules that make up a cell are not alive, and yet the cell is alive.
Thus, the answer to what life is must lie within the cell, because the smallest living organisms are
unicellular, while larger organisms are multicellular—that is, composed of many cells. The
diversity of cells is exemplified by the many types in the human body, such as muscle cells and
nerve cells. But despite variety of form and function, cells contain the same components. The basic
components that are common to all cells regardless of their specializations are the subject of this
chapter. The Science Focus on these two pages introduces you to the microscopes most used today
to study cells. Electron microscopy and biochemical analysis have revealed that a cell actually
contains tiny specialized structures called organelles that perform specific cellular functions.

What is a cell?
The cell is the smallest unit of life. Every living thing has a smallest unit; the building blocks,
called the cell. The cell is the lowest level of structure capable of performing all the activities of
life. It is the smallest unit of matter that can carry on all the processes of life. It can also be
described as the tiniest building unit of an organism that is capable of carrying out all the functions
of life. Living things are composed of cells, and these cells have specific structures. In other
words, all organisms are composed of structural and functional unit of life called 'cell'. This implies
that even you, a complex human is made up of cells. The adult human body is made up of 100
trillion cells. For example, in the body, there are skin cells, brain cells, heart cells, etc., just to name
a few. Each of these organs consists of cells that contain organelles. These organelles are
microscopic structures that help cells to carry out all the activities necessary for life. Just as the
human body has organs like the heart, stomach, and lungs, the cell has organelles. Not all cells are
the same, but they all perform basic functions.
Living things made up of a single cell (unicellular organisms) are also capable of (i) independent
existence and (ii) performing the essential functions of life. Since anything less than a complete
structure of a cell does not ensure independent living, a cell is described as the fundamental
structural and functional unit of all living organisms. From the small single-celled bacteria and
blue-green algae to complex higher organisms such as elephants, humans and oaks, there are some
features common to all cells. Although our planet consists of several thousands of organisms and
species from microscopic bacteria to giant sequoia trees, the cells which are the basic unit of such
organisms are common in features and functions. Therefore, by understanding the structure,
component and functions of a single cell, scientists are able to better understand the workings of
the entire organism be it plant or animal.

Cell discovery
Invention of microscope (Figure 1.1), a piece of scientific equipment that amplifies small object
severally for observation led to the discovery and study of cell. With a single lens, the scientist
Robert Hooke, (1635-1703), began the exploration of the parts of a cell and after several decades
of study, cell structure and functions as we know today were developed. Series of events and
activities as well as scientists were involved in the study of the cell. The branch of biology which
deals with the study of cells structure, function and chemistry is called Cytology. Scientist
involved in the study of cell structure, forms and functions are called Cytologist or simply Cell
Biologist.

Figure 1.1: A typical compound microscope

You will find below some historically important events in the discovery of cell

1590 -A scientist called Zacharias Jansen invented the compound optical microscope, an
improvement over the single-lens primitive microscope that was already in
existence. The Jansen microscope combines two lenses for greater magnification
(between 10X and 30X) which made it applicable in the study of cell by making it
easier and more practical to observe cells. The types of microscopes developed by
Jansen were usually referred to as the “flea glasses” because they were basically
used to examine small organisms such as the flea and other insects.
1665 - With the aid of an improved compound microscope, the English scientist Robert
Hooke started his study by examining thin slices of wooden cork. He discovered
continuous honeycomb-like structures that are cemented by a thin layer boundary
that separates the units. In the actual fact, what Hooke saw was cell walls in the
 cork tissue. He was the first to use the word ‘cell’ to describe the basic unit of life.
Robert coined the word cell from the Latin word Cella (= hollow space), box-like
cells of cork reminded him of the cells of a monastery. He published the discovery
in his famous book titled Micrographia in the year 1665.
1650 -1700 - Anton van Leeuwenhoek is one of the earlier scientists who observed the cell soon
after Robert Hooke published his findings. The Dutch merchant Anton van-
Leuwenhoek, using a good quality simple lens (mag. >×200), observed nuclei and
unicellular organisms, including bacteria. In 1676 he described bacteria for the first
time as ‘animalcules’; a miniature moving body. His extensive research on the
growth of small animals such as fleas, mussels, and eels helped to disprove
the theory of spontaneous generation of life. He also improved the microscope and
laid the foundation for microbiology. He is often cited as the first microbiologist to
study muscle fibres, bacteria, spermatozoa and blood flow in capillaries.
1831-1833 - Robert Brown, an English botanist, discovered the nucleus and described it as a
characteristic spherical body in plant cells. His roles in the study of cell helped in
the postulation of the cell theory. In addition to nucleus discovery, Brown explained
that all living organisms are composed of cells and that new cells arise from pre-
existing cells. Other significant works of and contributions of Brown include the
discovery and naming of over 2000 species of plants.
1838 - Matthias Jacob Schleiden was a German professor of botany at the University of
Jena. He was one of the founding fathers of cell theory. He examined a large
number of plants and observed that all plants are composed of different kinds of
cells which form the tissues of the plant. He showed that the development of all
somatic tissues comes from the activity of cells. Also, Schleiden explained that cell
is the common element among all plants and animals. His contribution to the field
of embryology was significant. He concluded that all plant parts are made of cells
and that an embryonic plant organism arises from one cell which is the basis for
cell theory sometimes referred to as cell doctrine. He introduced the Zeiss
microscope lens and through his works on cells better understanding of cell and its
properties were known which form the basis for an organizing principle of cell
biology.
1839 - Theodore Schwann, a British Zoologist was a contemporary of Matthias Schleiden
who worked in the same period with him on plants and animal cells. He is
considered one of the founding fathers of cell theory. Schwan studied different
types of animal cells and reported that cells had a thin outer layer which is today
known as the ‘plasma membrane’. He also concluded, based on his studies on plant
tissues, that the presence of cell wall is a unique character of the plant cells. Based
on this, Schwann proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of animals are composed
of cells and products of cells. Schwann also discovered pepsin, the first digestive
enzyme prepared from animal tissue, and experimented to disprove spontaneous
generation. Thus his discovery supports the rejection of spontaneous
generation and motivated scientists to look at the cells of different organisms.
1855 - Rudolf Virchow had to his credit many important discoveries. However, his most
remarkable scientific contribution was on cell theory. He built on the work of
Theodor Schwann and was one of the first to accept the work of Robert. Virchow
also stated that the origin of cells was the division of pre-existing cells. He was the
first to explain in plain language that cells divided and new cells are formed from
pre-existing cells (Omnis cellula-e cellula). He modified the hypothesis of
Schleiden and Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape.
1866 - Haeckel’s pioneer work was in the area of the combination of cell theory with
evolution theory. He was able to explain the origin of multicellular organisms from
colonies of single-cell protists that remained very popular with biologists today.
Haeckel devoted his career to the promotion of evolution. He established that the
nucleus was responsible for storing and transmitting hereditary characters, an
important aspect of cell biology on which character hereditary was based.
1866 – 1900 - In the 1860s most biologists accepted all three tenets of what came to be known
as cell theory. Cell theory led biologists to re-envision individual organisms as
interdependent assemblages of individual cells. Cell division was studied in detail
and chromosomes described.
1898 - Camillo Golgi while using the silver staining method on the owl and cat nerve
cells, the term Golgi complex to describe the reticular structure found in the
cytoplasm of the nerve cells.
1930s - The electron microscope was invented. This enabled a much-improved resolution
of several thousand that reveals the detail of cell components. The structure and
detail of the cell as observed under the electron microscope is called the cell
ultrastructure or fine structure of a cell.
1946 – date - Electron microscope became widely used in biology, revealing much more
detailed structure in cells. This ‘fine’ structure is called ultrastructure. Several
independent studies were conducted that explain in detail the structure and function
of cell organelles.

Cell Theory
While observing dead cork samples with a crude lens, Robert Hooke was the first to use the term
“cell” to describe the basic component of a living organism. He thought that the small, simple units
looked like the bare prison cells of his time, and the name cell stuck. His work launched a new
frontier in scientific exploration that led to the modern cell theory. In 1838, Matthias Schleiden
stated that all plants are composed of different kinds of cells which form the tissues of the plant.
At about the same time, Theodore Schwann (1839), reported that cells had a thin outer layer which
is today known as the ‘plasma membrane’. From his studies, he concluded that plant and animals
consist of cells. Based on this, Schwann and Schleiden proposed the hypothesis that the bodies of
animals and plants are composed of cells and products of cells. This theory, however, did not
explain how new cells were formed. Rudolf Virchow (1855) first explained that cells divided and
new cells are formed from pre-existing cells. He modified the hypothesis of Schleiden and
Schwann to give the cell theory a final shape. Cell theory was eventually formulated in 1839. This
is usually credited to Matthias Schleiden and Theodor Schwann. However, many
other scientists like Robert Hooke, Rudolf Virchow and many others contributed to the theory.
The Modern Cell Theory as understood today from the observations and discoveries of scientists
on cell features and characteristics states that:

1. all living things are made of cells.

2. the cell is the smallest fundamental unit of life.
3. new cells arise from pre-existing cells through cell division.
4. cells contain genetic materials, which they pass to daughter cells during cell division.
5. the metabolic processes associated with life occur within cells.

TYPES AND FORMS OF CELLS IN LIVING ORGANISMS

Prokaryotic and Eukaryotic Cells

It is thought that all organisms living now on Earth are derived from a single cell that came into
existence about 3,500 million years ago. It is believed that from this primordial cell, two major
categories of cells we have today emerged. The two major categories or types of cells are
prokaryotic and eukaryotic (Figure 1.2).

Figure 1.2 The two major categories or types of cells; prokaryotic and eukaryotic cells
Prokaryotic Cells
The prokaryotic cells are mainly present in blue-green algae (cyanobacteria), bacteria,
mycoplasma and Pleuro Pneumonia-Like Organisms (PPLO). Organisms that have prokaryotic
cells are called prokaryotes (Pro-: before; -karyote: nucleus). These organisms are generally
smaller and multiply more rapidly than the eukaryotic cells. They usually vary in their cell shape
and size. For instance, bacteria as prokaryotes have four basic cell shapes on which they could be
classified; the bacillus (rod like, Figure 1.3), coccus (spherical), vibrio (comma shaped) and
spirillum (spiral).

Figure 1.3. A typical rod shape bacteria a prokaryote

Although prokaryotic cells exhibit great diversity in their cell shape and sizes, the cell organization
is similar. Cell wall protecting the cell membrane is common to all prokaryotic cells except in
mycoplasma. The cell cytoplasm is filled with fluid matrix and the cell has no well-define nucleus.
Since the prokaryotes have no membrane bound or nuclear envelope around the nucleus, nuclear
material consists of a single chromosome that lies freely in the cytoplasm. The nuclear region in
the cytoplasm is called nucleoid. Prokaryotes also have rudimentary circular DNA
(deoxyribonucleic acid) which contains the organism’s genomic materials. Sometimes, some
bacteria have small circular DNA called plasmid in addition to the genomic DNA. The presence
of plasmid in bacteria confers certain unique phenotypic characters and adaptive transformation.

Eukaryotic Cells
Each living cell is a small compartment with an outer boundary: the plasma membrane. Unlike the
prokaryotes, nuclear membrane is found in eukaryotes (Eu-: true; -karyote: nucleus). The
eukaryotes nucleus is bound by a nuclear envelope and contains nucleoplasm. The cytoplasm
which is located between the plasma membrane and the nucleus consists of fluid and the
organelles. These organelles are membrane-bound compartments that perform specific function in
the cell. Eukaryotic cells are found in many organisms which include: protista, fungal, plant and
animal cells.
Structural and functional differences between prokaryotes and eukaryotes:

Eukaryotic
Features Prokaryotic Plant Animal
Size(diameter) 0.5 - 5 μm 40 μm 15 μm

Cell wall Present (contains Present (contains cellulose) Absent

peptidoglycan)

Cytoplasmic structure Very few structures Highly structured by membranes and

a cytoskeleton

Genetic Naked DNA which is a single Linear DNA, associated with

circular molecule histones
Material
(proteins) in a nucleus, surrounded
by a
Nuclear envelope.

Ribosomes 70S ribosomes (smaller) 80S ribosomes (larger)

Endoplasmic Absent Present

Recticulum, Golgi
apparatus

Mitochondria Absent (respiration occurs in Present and is concern with

infold of the cell membrane ATP/energy production
called the mesosome.)

Organization usually single cells Single cells, colonies, higher

multicellular organisms with
specialized cells

Chloroplasts Absent Present: site of Absent

photosynthesis

Cell division Binary fission (simple division) Mitosis (normal cell replication)
Meiosis (gamete production)
 Figure 1.4. Comaprison of a typical eucaryotic with prokaryotic cells
Unicellular and multicellular organisms
Some organisms consist of a single cell = unicellular organisms, while others are composed of
aggregates of specialized cells and are usually referred to as multicellular organisms. The body of
some organisms like bacteria, protozoans and some algae is made up of a single cell while the
body of fungi, plants and animals are composed of many cells. For example, the human body
comprises about one trillion cells.

Figure 1.5. Unicellular and multicellular cell organization

CELL DIVERSITY
Cells are not always alike, even within the same organism; there could be great diversity of cells
in terms of size, shape, internal organization and activities.
Cell sizes and shapes
Cells can be remarkably different in size, shape and function. Plants have cells very similar to
yours, so do other animals. Several billions of cells in the human body are of about 300 different
types. Mycoplasmas, the smallest cells, are only 0.3 µm in length while bacteria could be 3-5 µm.
The largest isolated single cell is the egg of an ostrich. Among multicellular organisms, human red
blood cells are about 7.0 µm in diameter and the nerve cells are some of the longest cells. A few
types of cells are large enough to be seen by the unaided eye. The human egg (ovum) is the largest
cell in the body, and can be seen without the aid of a microscope. So also are the eggs of birds.
➢ The size limitation is due to the ratio between their outer surface area and the internal
volume, making large cubical or spherical cells too big for the surface areas to
accommodate all of their cellular life functions.
➢ Cells are three-dimensional, so as the cell grows, the volume increases geometrically as the
cube of the side length, but actual surface area increases arithmetically with the square of
the side length.
➢ Most cells are small for two main reasons which also accounts for cell size limitation:
a). The cell’s nucleus can only control a certain volume of active cytoplasm.
b). Cells are limited in size by their surface area to volume ratio.
➢ A group of small cells has a relatively larger surface area than a single large cell of the
same volume. This is important because the nutrients, oxygen, and other materials a cell
requires must enter through it surface.
➢ As a cell grows larger at some point its surface area becomes too small to allow these
materials to enter the cell quickly enough to meet the cell's need.
However, most cells are microscopic and cannot be seen by the naked eye but can only be
visualised with the aid of microscopes. Cell size (usually the diameter) is measured in micrometres
(μm). Generally, the bacterial cell could range from 0.3 - 0.5 μm, the liver cell is about 20 μm and
the plant cell is between 30 to 40 μm.
Cells also vary greatly in their shape. They may be disc-like, polygonal, columnar, cuboid, thread-
like, or even irregular (Figure 6). The shape of the cell may vary with the function they perform.

Figure 1.7: Some of the shapes in which eukaryotic cell can exist.
 Plant and animal cells
Humans are classified as animals because our cells look and act remarkably like all the other
animal cells without any significant difference. If you take a look at one of your cells under a
microscope, then compare it with one from a rat, you will find out they are similar. Try it with a
plant cell you will discover that the plant cell is likely to have some structures which are not found
in animal cells.
Although cells function similarly in all living organisms, there are some features that distinguish
the plant cell from the animal cell. A plant cell and an animal cell are shown below (Figure 1.8).
What differences do you see? Are there any similarities? In fact, there are more similarities than
differences between these two types of cells! Try to compare the cells.

Figure 1.8. Structure and organelles of a typical (a) animal cell and (b) plant cell.
 Organelle differences between plant and animal cell
S/N Plant cell Animal cell

1 Chloroplast Absent
2 Large central vacuole When present, very small vacuole
3 Tonoplast Absent
4 Rigid cellulose cell wall Absent
5 Lysosome not present Lysosome present
6 Presence of plasmadesmata Presence of plasma membrane
7 No flagellum Flagellum/flagella may be present
8 Golgi body present in form of units known Golgi body well developed.
as dictyosomes
9 No centrosome Centrosome with centriole

The cell organelles

To learn about cell organelles, you will need to get familiar with the ultra-structure of a cell. You
will be responsible for describing each organelle’s appearance and functions.

What are organelles?

Organelles are small membrane bounded bodies with specific structures and functions within a
cell. Organelles can either be single or double membrane-bounded. Examples of double
membrane-bounded organelles are nucleus, mitochondrion and chloroplast. Most organelles in the
cell are single membrane organelles. Examples are lysosome, endoplasmic reticulum, Golgi
bodies, etc.

Cell structures and functions

One cannot just imagine how much activity and level of integration exist in a cell, but a simple
analogy of seeing a cell as a production factory can be of help. Various organelles work together
in a coordinated manner within the cell, contributing individually to ensure the cell’s functionality.
All components of the cell work harmoniously together for its existence and optimal performance.
The functions of the cell components are intertwined, complementary and cohesive as a whole.

The major parts of a cell.

The cell can be divided into three main parts:
A. Cell membrane: a selective barrier which encloses a cell.
B. Cytoplasm: all the cellular contents between the plasma membrane and the nucleus. It
includes: the cytosol (a jelly-like fluid ), all the organelles other than the nucleus, and the
cytoskeleton
 C. The nucleus: contain genetic material (a fine network of treads called chromatin which is
DNA (deoxyribonucleic acid)) associated with particular proteins

CELL ORGANELLES AND FUNCTIONS

The cell membrane: Every cell is enclosed by a cell membrane which is also called plasma
membrane or the plasmalemma. It is a living membrane, outermost in animal cells but next to the
cell wall in plant cells. It is flexible and can fold in (as in food vacuoles of Amoeba) or fold out
(as in the formation of pseudopodia of Amoeba). The cell membrane is a “phospholipid bilayer”
made of membrane lipids (phospholipids, glycolipids, cholesterol) and membrane proteins
(integral, peripheral).

Figure 2.1: Generalized structure of cell membrane

Molecules that are small can be transported across the membrane in any of the following ways:
1) Osmosis: movement of water molecules from the region of higher concentration to
the lower concentration via a semi-permeable membrane. There is no expenditure of
energy in osmosis. Usually, osmotic movement is along a concentration gradient.
2) Diffusion: movement of molecules or substances from higher concentration to lower
concentration region through the membrane. Diffusion usually does not require
energy. An example is the absorption of glucose in a cell.
3) Active Transport: when the direction of movement of certain molecules is from the
region of their lower concentration towards the region of their higher concentration, it
would require an “active effort” by the cell. This requires energy which is provided in
the form of ATP (adenosine triphosphate). The active transport may also be through a
carrier molecule.

Functions of the cell membrane

The cell membrane separates the material outside the cell (extracellular) from the
material inside the cell (intracellular).
It defines cell boundaries.
It maintains the integrity of a cell.
It regulates the exchange of materials between the cytoplasm and extra cellular fluid due
to its selective permeability.
It is also important in intercellular communication and cell identity.

The cell wall

Cell wall is only found in the plant cell and bacteria. It is the outermost cell cover, present outside
the plasma membrane. In bacteria, the cell wall is made of peptidoglycan, in plants, however, it is
made of complex cellulose and may contain pectin and lignin. The cell wall outermost consist of
non-living layer formed from the cells’ secretion. The primary wall of a young plant cell wall is
capable of growth, which gradually diminishes as the cell matures and the secondary wall is formed
on the inner (towards membrane) side of the cell. The middle lamella is a layer mainly of calcium
pectate which holds or glues the different neighbouring cells together. The cell wall and middle
lamellae may be traversed by plasmodesmata which connect the cytoplasm of neighbouring cells.

Figure 2.3: A typical plant cell wall

Functions of the cell wall.
The cell wall protects the delicate inner parts of the cell.
Being rigid, it gives the cell its shape.
Being rigid, it does not allow distension of the cell, thus leading to turgidity of the cell that
is useful in many ways
It freely allows the passage of water and other chemicals into and out of the cells
There are breaks in the primary wall of the adjacent cells through which the cytoplasm of
one cell remains connected with the other.
The cytoplasmic strands which connect one cell to the other one are known as plasmodesmata.
The walls of two adjacent cells are firmly joined by a cementing material called middle lamella
made of calcium pectate.

Cytoplasm
The cytoplasm is the gel-like fluid inside the cell. The cytosol is an integral part of the cytoplasm.
It contains enzymes for glycolysis (part of respiration) and other metabolic reactions together with
sugars, salts, amino acids, nucleotides and everything else needed for the cell to function.
Functions of the cytoplasm
It is the medium for chemical reactions.
It provides a platform upon which other organelles can operate within the cell.
All of the functions for cell expansion, growth and replication are carried out in the
cytoplasm of a cell.
It includes the cytosol and all the organelles other than the nucleus and the cytoskeleton.

Endoplasmic Reticulum
The Endoplasmic Reticulum (ER) is found near the nucleus. It is an aggregate of flattened sacs
called Cisternae, which are continuous with the nuclear envelope. The Rough Endoplasmic
Reticulum (RER) has several ribosomes attached to its outer surface. The Smooth Endoplasmic
Reticulum (SER) however, does not have ribosomes.

Figure 2.4: Endoplasmic Reticulum (a) rough endoplasmic reticulum (b) smooth endoplasmic
reticulum
 Functions of the ER
The RER is primarily concerned with protein transportation after the ribosome must have
synthesised the proteins.
Helps in intracellular transportation
It provides mechanical support to cytoplasmic matrix
It helps in the formation of microbodies, nuclear membrane and Golgi complex.
It helps in the detoxification of metabolic wastes.
The endoplasmic reticulum is the cells’ membrane factory
The smooth endoplasmic reticulum carries out lipid synthesis in the cell.

The Golgi apparatus

This is a stack of membrane-bound flattened sacs in the cytoplasm. It has a group of curved,
flattened plate-like compartments like Cisternae. The cisternae produce a network of tubules from
the periphery and the tubules end in spherical enzyme filled vesicles. The Golgi apparatus is
commonly called “packaging centre” of the cell and are responsible for the modification of
proteins received from the ER. These proteins are then transported in vesicles around the cell.

Figure 2.5: Structure of Golgi apparatus

Functions of the Golgi apparatus

The Golgi bodies store and modify the products from the endoplasmic reticulum.
Production of lysosomes takes place in the Golgi apparatus.
The secretion of various enzymes, hormones and cell wall materials takes place here.

Ribosomes
Unlike most other organelles, ribosomes are not surrounded by a membrane. Ribosomes are the
granular structures first observed under the electron microscope as dense particles by George
Palade (1953). They are the most common organelles in almost all cells. Ribosomes exist in two
sizes: 70S and 80S, the eukaryotic ribosomes are 80S while the prokaryotic ribosomes are 70S.
Here ‘S’ (Svedberg’s Unit) stands for the sedimentation coefficient; it indirectly is a measure of
density and size. Both ribosomes comprise of two units. Some ribosomes are free in the cytoplasm
(prokaryotes); others line the membranes of the rough endoplasmic reticulum (rough ER). Groups
of 80s ribosomes, working together, are known as a polysome, particles consisted of proteins and
ribosomal RNA (rRNA).

Figure 2.6: A typical ribosome with two units.

Functions
Site of protein synthesis in the cell.
Free ribosomes in cytosol synthesize proteins that function within cytosol.

Mitochondrion (Pl. Mitochondria)

Living cells are constantly using energy in form of a chemical energy substance known as
adenosine triphosphate (ATP). Since cells require continuous use of energy for existence, there is
a need for constant replenish of the energy source. Mitochondria which are round double-
membrane organelles are responsible for the supply of ATP in the cell for cellular activities. ATP
is produced in the mitochondrion during aerobic respiration. Thus, mitochondria are the energy
house of the cell. A mitochondrion appears like a tiny thread-like structure under a light
microscope, approximately 0.5 - 1.00 µm (micrometre). It may have a rudimentary circular DNA.
They are not found in the prokaryotes. The mitochondria divide by fission, they occur in large
number in active cells such as muscle cell.

Figure 2.7: Structure of a mitochondrion

Functions of mitochondria
Oxidation of pyruvic acid (breakdown of glucose product) to release energy which gets
stored in the form of ATP for ready use. This process is also called cellular respiration.
The matrix possesses single circular DNA molecule, few RNA molecules, ribosomes (70S)
and the components required for the synthesis of proteins.

Plastids
Plastids are found in all plant cells and euglenoids. These are easily observed under the microscope
as they are large. They bear some specific pigments, thus imparting specific colours to the plants.
Based on the type of pigments plastids can be classified into:
Chloroplasts: The chloroplasts contain chlorophyll and carotenoid pigments which are
responsible for trapping light energy essential for photosynthesis.
Chromoplasts: Fat-soluble carotenoid pigments like carotene, xanthophylls and others.
Leucoplasts: Colourless plastids of varied shapes and sizes with stored nutrients:
▪ Amyloplasts store carbohydrates (starch) for example, as found in potato.
▪ Elaioplasts store oils and fats.
▪ Aleuroplasts store proteins.

Chloroplast
A characteristic feature of plant cells is the presence of plastids that make or store food.
Chloroplasts are found in the mesophyll cells on the leaves of green plants. Chloroplasts are
membrane-bounded organelle. They can be lens-shaped, oval, spherical, discoid or even ribbon-
like organelles. The length varied from 5-10 µm; and the width between 2-4 µm. A single
chloroplast can be present in a cell as in Chlamydomonas, or very many as found in higher plant
mesophyll. The inner membrane is relatively less permeable. Each chloroplast encloses a system
of flattened, membranous sacs called thylakoids, which contain chlorophyll. The thylakoids are
arranged in stacks called grana. The space between the grana is filled with cytoplasm like stroma.
Chloroplasts contain circular DNA and 70S ribosomes and are semi-autonomous organelles. In
addition, other plastids store reddish-orange pigments that colour petals, fruits, and some leaves
are also present.

Figure 2.8: Structure of a chloroplast

Functions of the chloroplast
Chloroplasts capture the radiant energy of sunlight and convert it to chemical energy in
sugars.
Chloroplasts are responsible for photosynthesis.

Vacuoles
Vacuoles are single membrane-bound sacs very visible in plant cells. The tonoplast in vacuoles
contains cell sap. Lysosomes contain enzymes that break down food particles, cell wastes, and
worn-out organelles.

Figure 2.9: The cell vacuole

Functions of the vacuole

Maintenance food vacuoles formed by phagocytosis and digested by lysosomes contractile
vacuoles (in Protists).
Vacuoles function as temporary storage containers within the cell, storing starch, water,
and sometimes wastes.
Pump excess water out of the cell’s central vacuole (a versatile compartment in plants).
Stores protein and metabolic by-products.
Reservoir of inorganic ions, pigments.
Maintain cell turgidity in plants.

Lysosome
Lysosome is an organelle in the cytoplasm of animal cells. It is a spherical sac-like structure
surrounded by a membrane and filled with a fluid containing dissolved digestive enzymes.
Each lysosome is surrounded by a membrane that maintains an acidic environment within the
interior via a proton pump. A lysosome has a specific composition, of both its membrane proteins
and its lumenal proteins. Lysosomes are basically a specialized vesicle that holds a variety of
enzymes.
Function of lysosomes
Lysosomes contain a wide variety of hydrolytic enzymes (acid hydrolases) that break down
macromolecules such as nucleic acids, proteins, and polysaccharides.

Peroxisomes
Hydrogen peroxide (H2O2) is a product of many biochemical processes within cells. If allowed to
accumulate, it is a poisonous substance. Peroxisomes are small membrane-bound organelles rich
in the enzymes catalase and urate oxidase. The accumulation of hydrogen peroxide is prevented
by the action of catalase. Lysosomes are sometimes called ‘suicide bags’. Peroxisomes in different
types of cells may contain different sets of enzymes. Both plant and animal cells have peroxisomes.

Functions
Peroxisomes detoxify various toxic materials that enter the bloodstream. For example,
about 25 per cent of any alcohol consumed is detoxified through oxidation to acetaldehyde.
Some peroxisomes break down fatty acids into smaller molecules that are transported to
mitochondria for fuel.

The Cytoskeleton
This is a network of fibres extending throughout the cytoplasm. There are 3 main types of fibres:
a) microtubules: They determine the positions of membrane enclosed organelles and
intracellular transport.
b) microfilament: It determines the shape of the cell and is necessary for the whole cell
locomotion.
c) intermediate filament: It provides mechanical strength and resistance to shere stress.

Functions
It provides mechanical strength to the cell.
It establishes cell shape locomotion (several types of cell motility) intracellular transport
of organelles.

Centriole
Centrioles consist of two bundles of microtubules at right-angles to each other. Each bundle
contains nine (9) tubes in a very characteristic arrangement.

Functions
At the start of mitosis and meiosis, the centriole divides, and one half moves to each end
of the cell, forming the spindle.
The spindle fibres are later shortened to pull the chromosomes apart.

The Nucleus
The nucleus as a cell organelle was first described by Robert Brown as early as 1831. Later the
material of the nucleus stained by the basic dyes was given the name chromatin by Flemming. In
the eukaryotic cell, the nucleus (pl. Nuclei) is normally the largest organelle and the centre of
coordination of the cell activities; however, the prokaryotes have no nucleus but a nuclear body
instead. The nucleus is surrounded by a double membrane called the nuclear envelope, which has
many nuclear pores through which mRNA, and proteins can pass. These dimples make it look like
a golf ball. The nuclear membrane has a loop of DNA and no chromatin proteins in the prokaryotes.
The eukaryotic nucleus contains the cell’s chromosomes which are normally uncoiled to form a
chromatin network, which contains both linear DNA and proteins, known as histones. These
proteins coil up (dehydrate) at the start of nuclear division when the chromosomes first become
visible. Whilst most cells have a single nucleus, some cells (macrophages, phloem companion
cells) have more than one and fungi have many nuclei in their cytoplasm – they are coenocytic (=
common cytoplasm throughout). Most nuclei contain at least one nucleolus (plural, nucleoli). The
nucleoli are where ribosomes are synthesised. When a nucleus prepares to divide, the nucleolus
disappears.

Functions
Nucleus is the centre of coordination of the cell activities.
Nucleoli is the centre of ribosome synthesis.

DIVERSITY, CHARACTERISTICS AND CLASSIFICATION OF LIVING THINGS

What is biodiversity
We find living organisms all around us, even deep under the oceans and in the snow covered Arctic
and Antarctica. There are organisms which are single celled and microscopic, as well as animals
as large as the elephant, the rhinoceros, the hippopotamus and the whale. Also, if you were to take
a drop of water from the nearby pond and view it under a lens you will be amazed to see the
enormous variety of organisms moving about in that drop of water. You might be wondering how
many kinds of organisms there would be on earth! It is estimated that about 10 to 15 million
different kinds of organisms have been found on earth including the ones that lived in the past.
However, scientists have till date identified only over two million of them.
The enormous variety of organisms is termed biodiversity (bios means life and diversity means
variety). There is not only diversity in size among organisms but also in complexity. eg. bacteria
are simple single celled organisms and humans are made of a trillion cells and are highly complex.
All organisms have come to exist on earth because of evolution and are related through ancestry.
The humans are at the top of the evolutionary ladder. It is sad that lots of different kinds of
organisms have been lost due to the impact of human activities. Therefore, we have to be conscious
and aware so that damage to the earth on which we live along with other organisms, is avoided.

Levels of Biodiversity
All the varieties of living organisms on earth constitute biodiversity. Three levels of biodiversity
have been recognized:

Ecological/Ecosystem diversity
Organisms evolved features which helped them adapt to their surroundings or the
ecosystems in which they live. There are different ecosystems and even related organisms living
in different ecosystems may differ vastly from each other. For example, tortoises are terrestrial
and turtles are aquatic. Both are related but differ much especially in their feet. There is diversity
of ecosystems—terrestrial ecosystems include forests, plains, deserts and mountains and aquatic
ecosystems are sea, river, pond etc. Organisms living in these have evolved suitable adaptations.
India has very diverse terrestrial and aquatic ecosystems.

Species diversity
Variety of species living in a certain geographical area constitutes species diversity. Individual
organisms belonging to a particular species are similar and are able to undergo reproduction to
produce fertile offspring. They cannot interbreed with another species. There is an enormous
number of species of organism. It refers to the variety of genes contained within species of plants,
animals and microorganisms.

Genetic diversity
Organisms are made of cells and cells in their nuclei contain chromosomes which bear the
genes. Genes control the features of a particular species. Genes of individuals belonging to the
same species are similar. Every species has a gene pool. Gene pool means all the different kinds
of genes found in a species. The gene pool of a species differs from that of another species.

Classification of organisms NAMI

How do scientists study and identify organisms? They do it by arranging organisms into groups
and subgroups. Grouping of organisms according to similarities and differences is termed
classification. When an organism is classified into various categories a hierarchy is maintained.
Accordingly, an organism belongs to Kingdom, Phylum, Class, Order, Family, Genus and Species
in hierarchical order. These are groups to which an organism belongs and which express its
evolutionary relationship with other organisms. Thus, Classification shows evolutionary
relationships between organisms and is also termed Systematics. The science of classification or
systematics is termed Taxonomy. NG ORG
The scientific name of a human being is Homo sapiens. Humans are classified as
follows: A
 Name of Group Characteristic features of the groups into which
humans are classified
Kingdom All animals (Multicellular, eukaryotic, heterotrophs)
Animalia
Phylum Animals with notochord at some stage of life.
Chordata
Subphylum Animals possessing a backbone.
Vertebrata
Class Animals with mammary glands to provide milk for their
Mammalia young.
Order Grasping hands and feet. Share the group with monkeys
Primates and apes
Family Group shared with primitive humans.
Hominidae
GenusSpecies Homo sapiens
Homo sapiens means the wise hominid.
The Three Domains of Classification
All organisms are now classified into three major domains
Archaebacteria are thermophilic or heat loving bacteria that live in high temperature vents.
Eubacteria are single celled organisms without well developed nucleus.
Eukarya are all other organisms with a well formed nucleus in their cell/cells.

The Five Kingdoms of Life

Earlier there were only 2 kingdoms of plants and animals. Whittaker in 1969 suggested that
bacteria should not be in plant kingdom and protozoa not in animal kingdom. He gave the five-
kingdom classification. Given below are the 5 kingdoms of life and their typical features.

The five kingdom of life

 Kingdoms Pictures of Name Features
Kingdom 1 examples Monera Single celled, No
well formed nucleus
(Prokaryotes)

Kingdom II Bacteria Protoctista Single celled with

or Protista well formed nucleus
(Eukaryotes)

Kingdom III Protozoa Fungi Eukaryotes, multi-

celled saprotrophs

Kingdom IV Mushroom Plantae Eukaryotes,

multicelled,
autotrophs

Kingdom V Fern and Tree Animalia Eukaryote

s,
multicelle
d,
heterotrop
Earthworm and cat hs

The kingdoms are further divided into divisions (as in bacteria, fungi and plantae) or phyla (as in
Protoctista and Animalia). Every phylum includes several classes, Classes are divided into orders.
Orders include families.
A family is made up of many genera (singular: genus). Every genus includes several
species. Species are segregated from their related species under the same genus through
reproductive barriers. This means that members of one species cannot interbreed with
members of another species to produce fertile offspring.

How organisms are named

Every organism has a scientific name beside the name by which it is known in a particular
language. For example, mango is its name in English, Aam in Hindi and Mangifera indica, its
scientific name. In scientific naming, genus and species of the organism are mentioned. eg. Homo
sapiens.

The Scientific Name

A Scientific name has several advantages and constitutes the specific identity of the specific
organism.
❖ It is understood all over the world.
❖ It consists of two words, name of the Genus to which it belongs begins with a capital letter
and name of the species to which it belongs, begins with a small letter e.g. cat is Felis
domestica where Felis is the genus name and domestica the name of the species.
❖ A scientific name is always written either in italics or underlined. Having two names is the
Binomial system of nomenclature (naming) introduced by the Swedish naturalist of
18thcentury, Carolus Linnaeus.
❖ The term binomial nomenclature pertains to the two word naming system (binomial = two
names; nomenclature = naming).

Classification of Kingdoms Plantae and Animalia

Every organism belongs to one of the five kingdoms of life.
A. Kingdom MONERA includes microscopic, single celled organisms with cell wall, no
proper nucleus e.g. All bacteria.
B. Kingdom PROTOCTISTA (PROTISTA) includes single celled organisms with well-
formed nucleus e.g. Amoeba, malarial parasite, Chlamydomonas
C. Kingdom FUNGI includes multicellular or many celled organisnms. The body is made of
network (mycelium) of fine threads called hyphae. Fungi feed on dead decaying matter
(saprotrophs) eg. Mushroom, yeast, bread mould.
D. Kingdom PLANTAE includes:
❖ Multicellular eukaryotes with cellulose cell wall and chlorophyll present in their
cells.
❖ Autotrophs and thus carry out photosynthesis.
E. Kingdom ANIMALIA includes organisms with the following characteristics.
❖ Multicellular, eukaryotes.
❖ Hetrotrophic so feed on plants or other animals
❖ Possess special organs for locomotion or movement from one place to another.
❖ Possess nervous system with sense organs.
Classification of Plants
Kingdom Plantae is divided into the following divisions.
CONSERVING BIODIVERSITY
Having got an idea of biodiversity, you must be feeling sad that human activities have put the lives
of so many other living beings in jeopardy. Your conscience must be telling you, 'don't all different
species have a right to live on earth?' You are right. We must all strive to conserve biodiversity
because organisms are interdependent and together maintain a balance in nature. The flora and
fauna of our nation is our heritage. We have to conserve our heritage. Let us examine how
biodiversity maintains equilibrium and harmony in nature.

Role of biodiversity in maintaining harmony in nature

Biodiversity maintains equilibrium in nature because of which all kinds of organisms are able to
survive. The bacteria and fungi recycle organic matter to feed diverse organisms. Algae and plants
trap solar energy for photosynthesis and produce food for all living creatures. Insects and bats
pollinate flowers. Animals also disperse seeds. Ecosystems such as the forests, deserts, aquatic
bodies, wetlands sustain their own typical biodiversity, some of which are part of their unique food
chains and food webs.

Conserving Biodiversity
Due to increased land use by humans required for constructing houses and buildings, road and
train lines, quarrying and cultivation (agriculture), habitats of plants and animals have been
destroyed and biodiversity has been threatened. It is the duty of every human being to protect
biodiversity. Conservation keeps ecosystems stable.
Human populations are also making excessive demands upon environmental resources for food
and energy and generating a lot of waste. Many plants have become extinct. Some are close to
extinction. Endangered species need to be protected. Fish and mollusc stocks have to be conserved
and prevented from overexploitation by humans for food. Animals are poached for fur and ivory.
Each year about 10 million birds from the wild are traded some of which die even before reaching
the destination. Monkeys and tigers have been killed for making traditional medicines. A ban has
been imposed on international trading in animals.

What Can You Do?

You can spread awareness regarding the dwindling biodiversity and the necessity of conserving
their habitats. You can form a group with your friends and organize painting and chart making
competitions, essay writing, declamation and slogan writing contests on conservation of
biodiversity and also hold debates on issues of biodiversity conservation in your neighborhood.
You may even write and enact street plays to create awareness. You can use the photographs of
birds /trees/animals to make greeting cards
 REPRODUCTION IN ORGANISMS

Each and every organism can live only for a certain period of time. The period from birth to the
natural death of an organism represents its life span. Life spans organisms varies from one another
for example tortoise can live for 100- 150 years, crocodile can live for 6o years, parrot for 140
years, crow for 15 years, butterfly for 1-2 weeks. Examine the life spans of organisms given. Isn’t
it both interesting and intriguing to note that it may be as short as a few days or as long as a few
thousand years? Between these two extremes are the life spans of most other living organisms.
You may note that life spans of organisms are not necessarily correlated with their sizes; the sizes
of crows and parrots are not very different yet their life spans show a wide difference. Similarly, a
mango tree has a much shorter life span as compared to a peepal tree. Whatever be the life span,
death of every individual organism is a certainty, i.e., no individual is immortal, except single-
celled organisms. Why do we say there is no natural death in single-celled organisms? Given this
reality, have you ever wondered how vast number of plant and animal species have existed on
earth for several thousands of years? There must be some processes in living organisms that ensure
this continuity. Yes, we are talking about reproduction, something that we take for granted.
Reproduction is defined as a biological process in which an organism gives rise to young ones
(offspring) similar to itself. The offspring grow, mature and in turn produce new offspring. Thus,
there is a cycle of birth, growth and death. Reproduction enables the continuity of the species,
generation after generation. There is a large diversity in the biological world and each organism
has evolved its own mechanism to multiply and produce offspring. The organism’s habitat, its
internal physiology and several other factors are collectively responsible for how it reproduces.
Based on whether there is participation of one organism or two in the process of reproduction, it
is of two types. When offspring is produced by a single parent with or without the involvement of
gamete formation, the reproduction is asexual. When two parents (opposite sex) participate in the
reproductive process and also involve fusion of male and female gametes, it is called sexual
reproduction.
Asexual Reproduction
In this method, a single individual (parent) is capable of producing offspring. As a result, the
offspring that are produced are not only identical to one another but are also exact copies of their
parent. Are these offspring likely to be genetically identical or different? The term clone is used to
describe such morphologically and genetically similar individuals.
Asexual reproduction is common among single-celled organisms, and in plants and animals with
relatively simple organizations. In Protists and Monerans, the organism or the parent cell divides
by mitosis into two to give rise to new individuals. Thus, in these organisms cell division is itself
a mode of reproduction.
Many single-celled organisms reproduce by binary fission, where a cell divides into two halves
and each rapidly grows into an adult (e.g., Amoeba, Paramecium). In yeast, the division is unequal
and small buds are produced that remain attached initially to the parent cell which, eventually gets
separated and mature into new yeast organisms (cells). Under unfavourable condition the Amoeba
withdraws its pseudopodia and secretes a three-layered hard covering or cyst around itself. This
phenomenon is termed as encystation. When favourable conditions return, the encysted Amoeba
divides by multiple fission and produces many minutes amoeba or pseudopodiospores; the cyst
wall bursts out, and the spores are liberated in the surrounding medium to grow up into many
amoebae. This phenomenon is known as sporulation.
Members of the Kingdom Fungi and simple plants such as algae reproduce through special asexual
reproductive structures. The most common of these structures are zoospores that usually are
microscopic motile structures. Other common asexual reproductive structures are conidia
(Penicillium), buds (Hydra) and gemmules (sponge).
Obviously, since the formation of these structures does not involve two parents, the process
involved is asexual. In some organisms, if the body breaks into distinct pieces (fragments) each
fragment grows into an adult capable of producing offspring (e.g., Hydra). This is also a mode of
asexual reproduction called fragmentation.

Sexual Reproduction
Sexual reproduction involves formation of the male and female gametes, either by the same
individual or by different individuals of the opposite sex. These gametes fuse to form the zygote
which develops to form the new organism. It is an elaborate, complex and slow process as
compared to asexual reproduction. Because of the fusion of male and female gametes, sexual
reproduction results in offspring that are not identical to the parents or amongst themselves.
A study of diverse organisms–plants, animals or fungi–show that though they differ so greatly in
external morphology, internal structure and physiology, when it comes to sexual mode of
reproduction, surprisingly, they share a similar pattern. Let us first discuss what features are
common to these diverse organisms.
All organisms have to reach a certain stage of growth and maturity in their life, before they can
reproduce sexually. That period of growth is called the juvenile phase. It is known as vegetative
phase in plants. This phase is of variable durations in different organisms.
The end of juvenile/vegetative phase which marks the beginning of the reproductive phase can be
seen easily in the higher plants when they come to flower. How long does it take for
rice/wheat/coconut/ mango plants to come to flower? In some plants, where flowering occurs more
than once, what would you call the inter-flowering period – juvenile or mature?
A few plants exhibit unusual flowering phenomenon; some of them such as bamboo species flower
only once in their life time, generally after 50-100 years, produce large number of fruits and die.
In animals, the juvenile phase is followed by morphological and physiological changes prior to
active reproductive behaviour. The reproductive phase is also of variable duration in different
organisms. Among animals, for example birds, do they lay eggs all through the year? Or is it a
seasonal phenomenon? What about other animals like frogs and lizards? You will notice that, birds
living in nature lay eggs only seasonally. However, birds in captivity (as in poultry farms) can be
made to lay eggs throughout the year. In this case, laying eggs is not related to reproduction but is
a commercial exploitation for human welfare. The females of placental mammals exhibit cyclical
changes in the activities of ovaries and accessory ducts as well as hormones during the
reproductive phase. In non-primate mammals like cows, sheep, rats, deers, dogs, tiger, etc., such
cyclical changes during reproduction are called oestrus cycle where as in primates (monkeys, apes,
and humans) it is called menstrual cycle. Many mammals, especially those living in natural, wild
conditions exhibit such cycles only during favourable seasons in their reproductive. phase and are
therefore called seasonal breeders. Many other mammals are reproductively active throughout
their reproductive phase and hence are called continuous breeders. That we all grow old (if we live
long enough), is something that we recognize. But what is meant by growing old? The end of
reproductive phase can be considered as one of the parameters of senescence or old age. There are
concomitant changes in the body (like slowing of metabolism, etc.) during this last phase of life
span. Old age ultimately leads to death. In both plants and animals, hormones are responsible for
the transitions between the three phases. Interaction between hormones and certain environmental
factors regulate the reproductive processes and the associated behavioural expressions of
organisms.

Events in sexual reproduction

After attainment of maturity, all sexually reproducing organisms exhibit events and processes that
have remarkable fundamental similarity, even though the structures associated with sexual
reproduction are indeed very different. The events of sexual reproduction though elaborate and
complex, follow a regular sequence. Sexual reproduction is characterized by the fusion (or
fertilization) of the male and female gametes, the formation of zygote and embryogenesis. For
convenience these sequential events may be grouped into three distinct stages namely, the pre-
fertilization, fertilization and the post-fertilization events.

Pre-fertilization Events: These include all the events of sexual reproduction prior to the fusion of
gametes. The two main pre-fertilization events are gametogenesis and gamete transfer.

Gametogenesis
Gametogenesis refers to the process of formation of the two types of gametes – male and female.
Gametes are haploid cells. In some algae the two gametes are so similar in appearance that it is not
possible to categorize them into male and female gametes. They are hence called homogametes
(isogametes). However, in a majority of sexually reproducing organisms the gametes produced are
of two morphologically distinct types (heterogametes). In such organisms the male gamete is
called the antherozoid or sperm and the female gamete is called the egg or ovum.
Sexuality in organisms
Sexual reproduction in organisms generally involves the fusion of gametes from two different
individuals. But this is not always true because self-fertilization cases is easy to observed in plant,
citing such examples in plants is easy. Plants may have both male and female reproductive
structures in the same plant (bisexual) or on different plants (unisexual). In several fungi and
plants, terms such as homothallic and monoecious are used to denote the bisexual condition and
heterothallic and dioecious are the terms used to describe unisexual condition. In flowering plants,
the unisexual male flower is staminate, i.e., bearing stamens, while the female is pistillate or
bearing pistils. In some flowering plants, both male and female flowers may be present on the
same individual (monoecious) or on separate individuals (dioecious). Some examples of
monoecious plants are cucurbits and coconuts and of dioecious plants are papaya and date palm.
But what about animals? Are individuals of all species either male or female (unisexual)? Or are
there species which possess both the reproductive organs (bisexual)? Earthworms, sponge,
tapeworm and leech, typical examples of bisexual animals that possess both male and female
reproductive organs, are hermaphrodites. Cockroach is an example of a unisexual species.

Cell division during gamete formation: Gametes in all heterogametic species are of two types
namely, male and female. Gametes are haploid though the parent plant body from which they arise
may be either haploid or diploid. A haploid parent produces gametes by mitotic division.
Several organisms belonging to monera, fungi, algae and bryophytes have haploid plant body, but
in organisms belonging to pteridophytes, gymnosperms, angiosperms and most of the animals
including human beings, the parental body is diploid. It is obvious that meiosis, the reduction
division, has to occur if a diploid body has to produce haploid gametes. In diploid organisms,
specialized cells called meiocytes (gamete mother cell) undergo meiosis. At the end of meiosis,
only one set of chromosomes gets incorporated into each gamete.

Gamete Transfer
After their formation, male and female gametes must be physically brought together to facilitate
fusion (fertilization). Have you ever wondered how the gametes meet? In a majority of organisms,
male gamete is motile and the female gamete is stationary. Exceptions are a few fungi and algae
in which both types of gametes are motile. There is a need for a medium through which the male
gametes move. In several simple plants like algae, bryophytes and pteridophytes, water is the
medium through which this gamete transfer takes place. A large number of the male gametes,
however, fail to reach the female gametes. To compensate this loss of male gametes during
transport, the number of male gametes produced is several thousand times the number of female
gametes produced.
In seed plants, pollen grains are the carriers of male gametes and ovule have the egg. Pollen grains
produced in anthers therefore, have to be transferred to the stigma before it can lead to fertilization
in bisexual, self-fertilizing plants, e.g., peas, transfer of pollen grains to the stigma is relatively
easy as anthers and stigma are located close to each other; pollen grains soon after they are shed,
come in contact with the stigma. But in cross pollinating plants (including dioecious plants), a
specialized event called pollination facilitates transfer of pollen grains to the stigma. Pollen grains
germinate on the stigma and the pollen tubes carrying the male gametes reach the ovule and
discharge male gametes near the egg. In dioecious animals, since male and female gametes are
formed in different individuals, the organism must evolve a special mechanism for gamete transfer.
Successful transfer and coming together of gametes are essential for the most critical event in
sexual reproduction, the fertilization.
Fertilization
The most vital event of sexual reproduction is perhaps the fusion of gametes. This process called
syngamy results in the formation of a diploid zygote. The term fertilization is also often used for
this process. The terms syngamy and fertilization are frequently used though, interchangeably.
What would happen if syngamy does not occur? However, it has to be mentioned here that in some
organisms like rotifers, honeybees and even some lizards and birds (turkey), the female gamete
undergoes development to form new organisms without fertilization. This phenomenon is called
parthenogenesis.
Where does syngamy occur? In most aquatic organisms, such as a majority of algae and fishes as
well as amphibians, syngamy occurs in the external medium (water), i.e., outside the body of the
organism. This type of gametic fusion is called external fertilization. Organisms exhibiting
external fertilization show great synchrony between the sexes and release a large number of
gametes into the surrounding medium (water) in order to enhance the chances of syngamy. This
happens in the bony fishes and frogs where a large number of offspring are produced. A major
disadvantage is that the offspring are extremely vulnerable to predators threatening their survival
up to adulthood.
In many terrestrial organisms, belonging to fungi, higher animals such as reptiles, birds, mammals
and in a majority of plants (bryophytes, pteridophytes, gymnosperms and angiosperms), syngamy
occurs inside the body of the organism, hence the process is called internal fertilization. In all these
organisms, egg is formed inside the female body where they fuse with the male gamete. In
organisms exhibiting internal fertilization, the male gamete is motile and has to reach the egg in
order to fuse with it. In these even though the number of sperms produced is very large, there
is a significant reduction in the number of eggs produced. In seed plants, however, the non-motile
male gametes are carried to female gamete by pollen tubes.

Post-fertilization Events
Events in sexual reproduction after the formation of zygote are called post-fertilization events.

The Zygote
Formation of the diploid zygote is universal in all sexually reproducing organisms. In organisms
with external fertilization, zygote is formed in the external medium (usually water), whereas in
those exhibiting internal fertilization, zygote is formed inside the body of the organism. Further
development of the zygote depends on the type of life cycle the organism has and the environment
it is exposed to. In organisms belonging to fungi and algae, zygote develops a thick wall that is
resistant to desiccation and damage. It undergoes a period of rest before germination. In organisms
with haplontic life cycle, zygote divides by meiosis to form haploid spores that grow into haploid
individuals. Zygote is the vital link that ensures continuity of species between organisms of one
generation and the next. Every sexually reproducing organism, including human beings begin life
as a single cell–the zygote.

Embryogenesis
Embryogenesis refers to the process of development of embryo from the zygote. During
embryogenesis, zygote undergoes cell division (mitosis) and cell differentiation. While cell
divisions increase the number of cells in the developing embryo; cell differentiation helps groups
of cells to undergo certain modifications to form specialized tissues and organs to form an
organism.
Animals are categorized into oviparous and viviparous based on whether the development of the
zygote takes place outside the body of the female parent or inside, i.e., whether they lay
fertilized/unfertilized eggs or give birth to young ones. In oviparous animals like reptiles and birds,
the fertilized eggs covered by hard calcareous shell are laid in a safe place in the environment;
after a period of incubation young ones hatch out. On the other hand, in viviparous animals
(majority of mammals including human beings), the zygote develops into a young one inside the
body of the female organism. After attaining a certain stage of growth, the young ones are delivered
out of the body of the female organism. Because of proper embryonic care and protection, the
chances of survival of young ones is greater in viviparous organisms. In flowering plants, the
zygote is formed inside the ovule. After fertilization the sepals, petals and stamens of the flower
wither and fall off. The pistil however, remains attached to the plant. The zygote develops into the
embryo and the ovules develop into the seed. The ovary develops into the fruit which develops a
thick wall called pericarp that is protective in function. After dispersal, seeds germinate under
favourable conditions to produce new plants.

HEREDITY AND EVOLUTION

Genetics
This is the branch of Biology that studies the origin of biological variations, the organization of
variation and how these variations are transmitted from generations to successive generations or
from parents to offspring. It can also be defined as the scientific study of heredity and variation in
living things.
Heredity or inheritance is defined as the transmission and expression of characters or traits in
organisms from parents to their offspring. It is the passing of phenotypic traits from parents to their
offspring, either through asexual or sexual reproduction. It is observed that offspring of man and
other animals and plants usually resemble their parents and also resemble one another. This is
because the offspring inherits characters or traits from their parents.

Variations
Variation is defined as the differences which exist between parents and offspring as well as among
the offspring. The variations exhibited by individuals can accumulate and cause species to evolve
through the natural selection of specific phenotypic traits. Though offspring may resemble their
parents, they can differ also from them and from one another. For example; all human beings have
human features but each differs from the other, hence each person can be distinctly recognized.
These differences between individuals of the same species are called variation.
There are two types of variation, i.e., heritable and non - heritable variations.
Heritable Variations
Heritable variation refers to differences among individuals which can be passed from parents to
their progeny (offspring). Hereditary variations: Among the sexually reproducing organisms no
two individuals have the same heredity. The difference in the hereditary makeup of individuals of
a species is known as hereditary or genetical variations.
Biological variations can arise as a result of attributes passed down from parent to offspring
through the germ lines such as sperm and eggs. It may also be through the attributes passed down
through the soma such as leaves, stems, roots, that occasionally serves as reproductive units. In
these examples, the variation that exist in the parents and are passed down on to the offspring, are
said to be heritable. Biological variations can be divided into two:
1. Morphological variation i.e. the physical appearance of individuals.
Examples are: Body structure or shape, Shape of head, nose and ear, Size of head, nose
and ear, Colour of the skin, hair and eye

2. Physiological variations i.e. difference in functioning of a particular structure in an animal.

Examples are: Ability to roll the tongue, Ability to taste phenyl-thiocarbamide (PTC).

Each offspring inherits a different combination of characteristics from parents. Plants and animals
have heritable characters.

Heritable characters in human beings include:

i. Body structure or shape

ii. Shape of head, nose and ear
iii. Size of head, nose and ear
iv. Colour of skin, hair and eye
v. Intelligence
vi. Blood group
vii. Tongue rolling
viii. Sickle cell anaemia
ix. Height

Heritable characters in plants include:

i. Height of plants
ii. Size or weight of fruits
iii. Size of leaf
iv. Taste of fruits
v. Food contents of fruits
vi. Colour of leaf, flowers, fruits and seeds
vii. Resistance to environmental factors like diseases, pest and drought.
viii. Shape of leaf, fruits and flower
ix. Leaf texture
x. Life span or habits of growth
Non-Heritable Variations
These are variations which are not inherited, they are due to development errors that do not involve
the germ line but can be manifested in the parents but are not in general transmissible to the
offspring. Such errors will include:
• Twinning in plants i.e. the production of two ovaries where one should exist.
• Postnatal accidents like amputation of limbs or blindness that results from accidents.
• A weight lifter or blacksmith develops extra muscles but this muscle cannot be passed to
the offspring unless the offspring is subject to the same physical exercise.
Environmental variations are variations which are not inherited but are due to the effects of light,
temperature, food, or other environmental factors on the development of the individuals.
Examples: the differences between a well-nourished and a malnourished person are environmental
because these are caused by the food factor. Lack of green pigmentation in seedlings when raised
in the dark is an example of environmentally induced variation.
Cultural traits such as language and mannerisms are also passed from parents to offspring.
However, unlike heritable traits, cultural traits depend on cultural environment rather than
parentage. Examples are children born by Yoruba parents in Ibadan who grow up to speak Yoruba.
If however the same children after birth are adopted by Hausa parents and raised in the northern
part of Nigeria, such children, although born of Yoruba parents will grow up speaking flawless
Hausa and practicing the Hausa culture.

MENDEL’S WORK IN GENETICS

Gregor Mendel, an Austrian monk, is generally given credit for having discovered the basic
principles of genetics. He did this through keen observation as he raised peas in the garden. These
principles have become the foundation of modern genetics. They are summarized as follows:

1. In every living thing there is a pair of genes in every cell that controls the appearance of
every trait in that individual. A gene is a unit of hereditary material located on a chromosome.
A chromosome is the rod like carrier for genes.
2. Individuals receive one gene for each trait from each parent.
3. Genes are transmitted from parent to offspring as an unchanging unit.
4. In the production of reproductive cell, gene-pairs separate and only one gene for each trait
is contained in each gamete. A gamete is a reproductive cell.
5. When an individual has different gene for a trait, one usually shows while the other does not.

Terminologies Associated with Genetics and Heredity

▪ Gene: unit of material which determines a particular character.
▪ Alleles: Alternate forms in which gene exist (e.g TT and Tt)
▪ Homozygous: two members of alleles that are the same (TT, AA, tt, aa, etc).
▪ Heterozygous: two members of alleles that are not the same (Tt, Aa, etc).
▪ Dominant: gene which is expressed phenotypically in a single dose (TT).
▪ Recessive: expressed only in double dose or in homozygous condition (aa).
▪ Genotype: the total genetic constitution of a cell which may or may not be expressed
physically.
 ▪ Phenotype: observable physical characteristics of an organism.
The garden pea (Pisum sativum) was used as experimental material by Gregor Mendel due to
the following reasons:
1. It has one-year life cycle which is short enough to collect data from several generations.
2. The plants are easy to cultivate
3. It has clear cut characters
4. It undergoes Self pollination
5. Flower construction allows for artificial pollination.

MENDEL’S FIRST THREE POSTULATES OF INHERITANCE

Mendel derived the following three principles of inheritance from his experiment
UNIT FACTORS IN PAIRS
Genetic characters are controlled by unit factors that exist in pairs of individual organisms
Verification: In monohybrid crosses involving tall and dwarf stem, a specific ‘unit factor’ exist
for each trait, because the factors occur in pairs. Three combinations are possible: two factors for
tallness, two factors for dwarfness or one factor for traits (TT, Tt, tt). Every individual contains
one of these three combinations which determine the stem height.

DOMINANCE/RECESSIVENESS
When two unlike unit factors responsible for a single character are present in a single individual,
one unit factor is dominant to the other which is said to be recessive. For height or tallness, T is
dominant over t.
SEGREGATION
During the formation of gametes, the pair unit factors separate or segregate randomly so that each
gamete receives one or the other with equal likelihood. If an individual combines a pair of like
unit factor e.g. both specific for tall, then all gametes receive one tall unit factor. If an individual
contains unlike unit factors e.g. one for tall and another for dwarf (Tt), Then each gametes has a
50% probability of receiving either the tall or the dwarf unit factor.

MENDEL’S THEORIES
Monohybrid Cross
Monohybrid crosses are those which involve a single character that are controlled by one gene
with at least two alleles i.e. it involves one character with two traits, one trait being dominant to
the other.
Mendel started his work by using a pair of contrasted characters in the pea
Parents Red × White
F1 Red
F2 Red and White
5,474 : 1,850
2.96 : 1
3 : 1
The deduction from this experiment is that each of the plant has its factor of inheritance which it
passed to the offspring.
In the F1 the white colour was masked while it appeared in the F2 generations i.e. in the F1 the red
overshadows the white.
It means that for each contrasted character there must be two factors. So, gene can be said to control
a pair of contrasted characters.

Parents RR × rr
Gametes R r
F Rr × Rr
R R
R RR Rr
R Rr rr
RR, Rr, Rr = Red 3
rr = White 1
This deduction led him to his first law.

Law of segregation:
This law states that during gametes production factors become separated and are distributed as unit
to each gamete.
Dihybrid Cross
In dihybrid cross, the inheritance of two allelomorphic characters is studied. Mendel looked at two
contrasted characters.

1) Yellow pod with round seeds

2) Green pod with wrinkled seeds

Parents YYRR × yyrr

Gametes Y, R y, r
F1 YyRr

(yellow pod round seed)

After this generation, Mendel assumed that:
1) If the factor for pod colour is the same as the factor for seed structure then inheritance
will follow as in the monohybrid experiment 3:1.
2) If separate factors are responsible for each pair of contrasted characters then, the F2 will
give not only the F1 types but also classes which combine characters from both
parents.

F1 YyRr × YyRr
Gamete Y,y,R,r Y,y,R,r
YR,Yr,yR,yr

YR Yr Yr Yr
YR YYRR* YYRr* YyRR* YyRr*
Yr YYRr* YYrr∆ YyRr* Yyrr∆
Yr YyRR* YyRr* yyRR○ yyRr○
Yr YyRr* Yyrr∆ yyRr○ yyrr◊
* Yellow pod round seed - 9
∆ Yellow pod wrinkled seed - 3
○ Green pod round seed - 3
◊ Green pod round seed - 1

Hence, Mendel arrived at his 2nd law called Law of independent assortment of characters.
It states that: In a cross involving two or more characters, the factor will separate and move
independently to each gamete.
 INRODUCTION TO EVOLUTION

What is Evolution ?
The formation of complex organisms through ‘gradual change’ from simple ancestral types over
the course of geological time is termed Evolution or Organic Evolution.
According to the Theory of Organic Evolution
❖ The various present day organisms were not created in the same form in which they exist today,
but have gradually evolved from much simple ancestral forms from a common ancestor.
❖ The characteristics of organisms had been changing in the past; they are changing even today,
and will continue to do so in the future as well. This is due to the fact that the environment in
which organisms live also changes and organisms need to adapt to the changed environment
in order to survive.
❖ Several living organisms of the past have become extinct.
❖ The origin of the various forms (species) found on earth has been a gradual and extremely slow
process, requiring hundreds or even thousands of years. However, the evolution of black
peppered moth or polyploid varieties of some crops or pesticide resistant mosquitoes happened
in much shorter periods of time.
This process of slow and gradual change is called Organic Evolution.
The theory of organic evolution states that “All living things on earth are here as a result of descent,
with modifications from a common ancestor”.
Evidences of organic evolution
The evidences supporting organic evolution are derived from a number of fields of
Biology. Those discussed here are:
1. Morphological evidences
2.Embryological evidences
3. Palaeontological evidences
4. Molecular evidences
1. Evidences from Morphology
Though organisms of different species and groups are quite different from each other, they still
retain certain common features. Morphological evidences for evolution are derived from -
(i) Homologous and analogous organs (Fig. 1.4 and Fig. 1.5)
(ii) Vestigial organs
(iii) Connecting links
The comparative study of various organs in different groups of vertebrates exhibit common
features which show that they evolved from a common ancestor. Take for example the heart of the
vertebrates (Fig. 1.4).
1. Homologous Organs
Homologous organs are the organs which are similar in structure and origin but may look very
different and perform different functions.
❖ Forelimbs of vertebrates are a good example of homologous organs. They are built on the
same fundamental plan yet they appear different and perform different functions (Fig. 1.5).
❖ In each case the forelimb consists of humerus, radius and ulna, carpals, metacarpals and
phalanges. This basic similarity in the structure of the apparently different forelimbs of
different kinds of vertebrates is due to the fact that all these limbs have evolved from a
common type called the pentadactyl (five-fingered) limb.

The homologous organs, therefore, prove that different kinds of organisms came into existence
through evolution.
2. Analogous organs
The structures which are functionally similar but structurally different are called analogous
organs.
The wing of an insect, and that of a bird or bat or pterodactyl are examples of
analogous organs (Fig. 1.6). The function of the wing is the same (for flying) but the insect
wing has no structural resemblance with that of the vertebrates.

3. Vestigial Organs

Vestigial organ is any small degenerate or imperfectly developed (non-functional) organ or part
which may have been complete and functional in some ancestor.

The only rational explanation for the presence of these non-functional organs is that they have
been inherited from ancestors in which they were functional. Fig. 1.7 shows some of the vestigial
structures in the human body.
4. Connecting Links
The animals or plants which possess characters of two different groups of organisms are known
as connecting links. The connecting links establish continuity in the series of organisms by
proving that one group has evolved from the other. A good example is that of a fossil bird
Archaeopteryx, which was a connecting link between reptiles and birds. This bird had a beak
with teeth and a long tail (with bones) like the lizards. It had feathers on the wings and on the
body like the birds. (Fig. 1.8)
2. Evidences from Embryology
Embryology is the study of development of an organism. The aspects of embryology which
support the doctrine of organic evolution are:
❖ similar stages of early development (morula, blastula or gastrula) in all the animals;
❖ the embryos of all vertebrates are similar in shape and structure in their early stages.
This resemblance is so close that it is difficult to tell them apart (Fig. 1.9).
❖ All the vertebrates start their life from a single cell, the zygote.
❖ All of them during their life history, pass through two-layered blastula and three layered
gastrula stage and then through fish like stage with gill-slits. All the different aspects of
embryology strongly support the fact that the different classes of vertebrates had common
ancestors.
3. Evidences from Paleontology
Paleontology is the study of fossils. Fossils are the remains or traces of animal and plant life of
the past, found embedded in rock either as petrified hard parts or as moulds, casts or tracks.
The fossils of the earliest era in the geological time scale were those of bacteria, then invertebrates
and then successively of fishes, amphibians, reptiles and lastly of birds and mammals and among
mammals primitive fossils of humans are the most recent.
 The discovered fossils of the horse, elephant, camels, and humans provide their ancestral history
(Fig. 1.10). The number of toes decreased for greater speed, size gradually increased and teeth
adapted to eat grass.

4. Molecular Evidence of Evolution

All organisms have cell as the basic unit of life. The cell is made of biomolecules common to
all organisms.
 ❖ Ribosomes, the cellular organelles are of universal occurrence in organisms.
❖ DNA is the hereditary material of all organisms, except for some viruses.
❖ ATP is the molecule which stores and releases energy for biological processes.
❖ The same 22 amino acids form the constituents of proteins of almost all organisms.
❖ The genetic code is universal (exceptions are very few).
❖ The central dogma which deals with the transfer of genetic information in cells is the same.
❖ The basic steps of transcription and translation for protein synthesis are similar in all
organisms.
❖ The sequence of nucleotides such as that for the promoter gene (TATA box) is common to
all organisms. However, organisms sharing same chemical characteristics show closer
evolutionary relationships. For example (i) human blood proteins are most similar to those
of the chimpanzee among all apes, or (ii) only plants and some algae have chlorophyll so
they are more closely related. Similarity in chemical constituents between organisms is
termed molecular homology or biochemical homology and are used in recent times, to
establish evolutionary relationships and form the basis of systematics.

Mechanism of Evolution
Various theories about the mechanism of evolution have been proposed; some of them such as
Lamarck’s theory of “Inheritance of acquired characters” and De Vries’ theory of ‘mutation’ are
now of historical importance only. Darwin’s theory of Natural selection still holds ground but
was modified with progress in genetics and developed into the Modern synthetic theory which
is regarded as the most valid theory of evolution.
Darwin’s Theory of Natural Selection
An English Scientist, Charles Darwin (1809-1882) explained the mechanism of evolution through
his theory of natural selection. He is still regarded as ‘the father of evolution’ because of two very
significant contributions. He suggested (i) that all kind of organisms are related through ancestry
and (ii) he suggested a mechanism for evolution and named it natural selection. According to
Darwin, organisms produce more offspring than can survive. Because environmental resources are
limited there ensues struggle for existence. Organisms with advantageous variations are protected
and allowed to reproduce while the disadvantageous variants are eliminated from nature. This is
what was termed natural selection by Darwin. According to Darwin when the environment
changes, new adaptations get selected in nature and after many generations sufficient
characteristics will have been changed so as to alter the species into a new one (origin of species).
Darwin talked about variation but did not know about the sources of variation. With progress in
genetics the sources of variation were discovered and Darwin’s original theory of Natural Selection
modified. This new theory was termed Neo-Darwinism or Modern Synthetic Theory.
According to this theory:
1. The unit of evolution is ‘population’ which has its own gene pool. Gene pool is the group of all
different genes of a population.
2. Heritable genetic changes appear in the individuals of a population. These heritable changes or
variations occur due to small mutations in the genes or in the chromosomes and their
recombinations.
3. Natural selection selects the variations which helps in adapting to the environment.
4. A change in the genetic constitution of a population selected by natural selection is responsible
for evolution of a new species, since through interaction of variation and Natural Selection
more offsprings with favourable genetic changes are born. This is called ‘differential
reproduction.
5. Once evolved, Reproductive Isolation helps in keeping species distinct.