Lecture 4
Frequency Domain Analysis and
Fourier Transform
Peter Y K Cheung
Dyson School of Design Engineering
Imperial College London
URL: www.ee.ic.ac.uk/pcheung/teaching/DE2_EE/
E-mail: p.cheung@imperial.ac.uk
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 1
Relationship between exponentials and sinusoids
Euler’s formula:
𝑒 !"#
= cos 𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛(𝜔𝑡) 𝑒 !"# + 𝑒 $!"#
cos 𝜔𝑡 =
2
𝑒 $!"# = cos −𝜔𝑡 + 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 −𝜔𝑡 𝑒 !"# − 𝑒 $!"#
sin 𝜔𝑡 =
= cos 𝜔𝑡 − 𝑗𝑠𝑖𝑛 𝜔𝑡 2𝑗
Therefore, in signal analysis, we usual regard “frequency” to be w in the
exponential vector:
The frequency spectrum is therefore a plot of the amplitude (and phase)
jω t
projected onto exponential components e for different w.
|A|
0.5 0.5
ω = 2π f
rad/sec
-w 0 +1.5 +w
cos(ω t)
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 2
Fourier Series in three forms
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝑎% + ∑)
&'( 𝑎& cos 𝑛𝜔% 𝑡 + 𝑏& sin 𝑛𝜔% 𝑡
#! #!
2 2
𝑎! = % 𝑥 𝑡 cos 𝑛𝜔" 𝑡 𝑑𝑡 𝑏! = % 𝑥 𝑡 sin 𝑛𝜔" 𝑡 𝑑𝑡
𝑇" 𝑇"
" "
"
𝐶# = 𝑎#. + 𝑏#.
𝑥 𝑡 = 𝐶+ + ) 𝐶# cos(𝑛𝜔+ 𝑡 + 𝜃# )
#,- !-
𝑏#
𝜃# = 𝑡𝑎𝑛
𝑎#
*!/#
1
𝑥 𝑡 = ∑"
!" 𝐷# 𝑒 $(#&, '( )- ) 𝐷& =
𝑇%
: 𝑥 𝑡 𝑒 $!&+$# 𝑑𝑡
$*!/#
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 3
Definition of Fourier Transform
The forward and inverse Fourier Transform are defined for aperiodic
signal as:
Fourier series is used for periodic signals.
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 4
Define three useful functions
A unit rectangular window function rect(x):
The unit impulse function d(t) (Dirac impulse):
Interpolation function sinc(x):
or
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 5
More about sinc(x) function
sinc(x) is an even function of x.
sinc(x) = 0 when sin(x) = 0
except when x=0, i.e. x = ±p,
±2p, ±3p…..
sinc(0) = 1 (derived with
L’Hôpital’s rule)
sinc(x) is the product of an
oscillating signal sin(x) and a
monotonically decreasing
function 1/x. Therefore it is a
damping oscillation with period
of 2p with amplitude decreasing
as 1/x.
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 6
Fourier Transform of x(t) = rect(t/t)
Evaluation:
Since rect(t/t) = 1 for -t/2 < t < t/2 and 0 otherwise
Bandwidth » 2p/t
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 7
Fourier Transform of unit impulse x(t) = d(t)
Using the sampling property of the impulse, we get:
IMPORTANT – Unit impulse contains COMPONENT AT EVERY
FREQUENCY.
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 8
Inverse Fourier Transform of d(w)
Using the sampling property of the impulse, we get:
Spectrum of a constant (i.e. d.c.) signal x(t) = 1 is an impulse 2pd(w).
or
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 9
Inverse Fourier Transform of d(w - w0)
Using the sampling property of the impulse, we get:
Spectrum of an everlasting exponential ejw0t is a single impulse at w=w0.
or
and
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 10
Fourier Transform of everlasting sinusoid cos w0t
Remember Euler’s formula:
Use results from previous slide, we get:
Spectrum of cosine signal has two impulses at positive and negative
frequencies.
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 11
Fourier Transform of any periodic signal
Fourier series of a periodic signal x(t) with period T0 is given by:
Take Fourier transform of both sides, we get:
This is rather obvious!
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 12
Fourier Transform of a unit impulse train
¥
Consider an impulse train d T (t ) = å d (t - nT0 )
0
-¥
The Fourier series of this impulse train can be shown to be:
¥
2p 1
dT (t ) = å Dn e jnw0t
where w0 = and Dn =
0
-¥ T0 T0
Therefore using results from the last slide (slide 11), we get:
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 13
Fourier Transform Table (1)
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 14
Fourier Transform Table (2)
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 15
Fourier Transform Table (3)
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 16
Three Big Ideas
1. Euler formula provides an alternative way to represent sine and cosine
functions in terms of 𝑒 !"# and 𝑒 $!"# .
𝑒 !"# + 𝑒 $!"# 𝑒 !"# − 𝑒 $!"#
cos 𝜔𝑡 = sin 𝜔𝑡 =
2 2𝑗
2. Extracting a portion of a signal x(t) for -t/2 ≤ t ≤ t /2 can be modelled by
multiplying x(t) by the rectangular function.
3. The Fourier Transform of an infinite train of unit impulses is again an infinite
train of unit impulses.
PYKC 16 Jan 2023 DESE50002 - Electronics 2 Lecture 4 Slide 17
