Notes:

Chapter 4
Biodiversity refers to the variety and variability among all groups of living organisms
and the ecosystem complexes in which they occur.

In the Convention of Biological diversity (1992) biodiversity has been

defined as the variability among living organisms from all sources
including inter alia, terrestrial, marine and other aquatic ecosystems and
the ecological complexes of which they are a part.

GENETIC DIVERSITY
It is the primary source of biodiversity.
Genes are passed from parents to children, and generation-to-generation transfer of
genes cause changes in genes. This change is the reason behind diversity.

Species individuals can have different color, size and shape based on diversity. Example:
Skin color, hair color, eye color and height.

SPECIES DIVERSITY
This is the variability found within the population of a species or between different
species of a community. It represents broadly the species richness and their availability
in a community. Example: Cats, mice, eagles in a certain region.
popular indices of measuring species diversity known as
● the Shannon-Wiener index
● Simpson index.

ECOSYSTEM DIVERSITY
variations in ecological niches, trophic structure, food-webs, nutrient cycling etc.
variations with respect to physical parameters like moisture, temperature, altitude,
precipitation.
Example: different types of forests, tropical and dry.

BIOGEOGRAPHICAL CLASSIFICATION OF INDIA

India has different types of climate in different parts of the country and these variations
have induced enormous variability in flora and fauna.
Biogeography comprising of phytogeography and zoogeography deals with these
aspects of plants and animals. To understand how animals and plants are distributed
among different regions.

VALUE OF BIODIVERSITY
Humans depend on biodiversity in regards of production, consumption, maintenance of
bio products
Consumptive use value: Direct consumption of products

1. Food: A large number of wild plants are consumed by human beings as food.
About 80,000 edible plant species have been reported from wild. About 90% of
present day food crops have been domesticated from wild tropical plants

2. Drugs and medicines: About 75% of the world’s population depends upon
plants or plant extracts for medicines.
Examples:
● Penicillin used as an antibiotic is derived from a fungus called Penicillium.
● Tetracyclin from a bacterium
● Quinine, the cure for malaria is obtained from the bark of Cinchona tree
● Digitalin is obtained from foxglove (Digitalis) which is an effective cure for heart
ailments

3. Fuel: Fossilised biodiversity is reason for fossil fuel

Productive use values: These are the commercially usable values where the product
is marketed and sold.
Example:
● Silk production
● Wool production
● Culturing bacteria in lab

For the productive value animals and plants are often smuggled within countries, to
squeez financial and medicinal benefit.

Social Value: These are the values associated with the social life, customs, religion and
psycho-spiritual aspects of the people. Worshiping or dmonising plants and animals.
Example:
● Tulsi
● Peepal
● Cow
Ethical value: It is also sometimes known as existence value. It involves ethical issues
like “all life must be preserved”. It is based on the concept of “Live and Let Live”.

Aesthetic value: Beauty of nature is appreciated among human communities and it

promotes tourism to biologically diverse region.
People from far and wide spend a lot of time and money to visit wilderness areas where
they can enjoy the aesthetic value of biodiversity and this type of tourism is now known
as eco-tourism.
The “Willingness to pay” concept on such eco-tourism gives us even a monetary
estimate for aesthetic value of biodiversity.

Option values: These values include the potentials of biodiversity that are presently
unknown and need to be explored. There is a possibility that we may have some
potential cure for AIDS or cancer existing within the depths of a marine ecosystem, or a
tropical rainforest.

Ecosystem service value:

It refers to the services provided by ecosystems like prevention of soil erosion,
prevention of floods, maintenance of soil fertility, cycling of nutrients, fixation of
nitrogen, cycling of water, their role as carbon sinks, pollutant absorption and reduction
of the threat of global warming etc

1992 “Earth Summit” at Rio de Janeiro

GLOBAL BIODIVERSITY
Terrestrial biodiversity of the earth is best described as biomes, which are the
largest ecological units present in different geographic areas and are named after the
dominant vegetation e.g. the tropical rainforests, tall grass prairies, savannas, desert,
tundra.

indian Biodiversity

India ranks 10th among the plant rich countries of the world, 11th in terms of number of
endemic species of higher vertebrates and 6th among the centers of diversity and origin
of agricultural crops.
The total number of living species identified in our country is 150,000.
Out of a total of 25 biodiversity hot-spots in the world, India possesses two, one in the
north-east region and one in the western ghats.
Total 12 mega-biodiversity countries in the world
Local or regional biodiversity: 4 group classifications of species
1. Point richness refers to the number of species that can be found at a single point
in a given space.
2. Alpha (α-) richness refers to the number of species found in a small
homogeneous area
3. Beta (β-) richness refers to the rate of change in species composition across
different habitats.
4. Gamma (γ-) richness refers to the rate of change across large landscape
gradients.

INDIA AS A MEGA-DIVERSITY NATION

Endemism: Species which are restricted only to a particular area are known as
endemic. Ex: ligards
Center of origin: A large number of species are known to have originated in India.
Nearly 5000 species of flowering plants had their origin in India.
Marine diversity: Along 7500 km long coastline of our country in the mangroves,
estuaries, coral reefs, back waters etc. there exists a rich biodiversity. More than 340
species of corals of the world are found here. The marine diversity is rich in mollusks,
crustaceans (crabs etc.), polychaetes and corals.

Hot spot:
Areas which exhibit high species richness as well as high species endemism are termed
as hot spots of biodiversity. The term was introduced by Myers (1988).
There are 25 such hot spots of biodiversity on a global level out of which two are present
in India, namely the Eastern Himalayas and Western Ghats.

a) Eastern Himalayas: They display an ultra-varied topography that fosters species

diversity and endemism. There are numerous deep and semi-isolated valleys in
Sikkim which are extremely rich in endemic plant species. In an area of 7298
Km2 of Sikkim about 4250 plant species are found of which 60% are endemic.

b) Western Ghats: It extends along a 17,000 Km2 strip of forests in Maharashtra,

Karnataka, Tamil Nadu and Kerala and has 40% of the total endemic plant
species. 62% amphibians and 50% lizards are endemic to Western Ghats.
The major centers of diversity are Agastyamalai Hills and Silent
Valley—the New Amambalam Reserve Basin.

THREATS TO BIODIVERSITY
Extinction or elimination of a species is a natural process of evolution.
But due to human interruption, extinction rate has been increasing.
One of the estimates by the noted ecologist, E.O. Wilson puts the figure of
extinction at 10,000 species per year or 27 per day.

Destruction and loss of natural habitat is the single largest cause of biodiversity loss.
Wild fire, deforestation, pollution in rivers etc.
Loss of habitat in small steps so that the habitat is divided into small and scattered
patches, a phenomenon known as habitat fragmentation.

Poaching: Illegal trade of wildlife products by killing prohibited endangered animals is

another threat to wildlife.

The cost of elephant tusks can go upto $ 100 per kg; the leopard fur coat is sold at $
100,000 in Japan while bird catchers can fetch upto $ 10,000 for a rare hyacinth
macaw, a beautiful coloured bird, from Brazil.

Man-animal conflicts:
Cause:
1. Shrinking forests, hence overlapping of residence of human with animal habitats.
2. Humans are easy targets for weak or injured animals.
3. Food shortage for animals in forest
4. Aggressive practices by humans, like electric fences.

Solution:
Remedial Measures to Curb(limit or control) the Conflict:
(i) Tiger Conservation Project (TCP) has made provisions for making available vehicles,
tranquillizer guns, binoculars and radio sets etc. to tactfully deal with any imminent
danger.
(ii) Adequate crop compensation and cattle compensation scheme must be started,
along with substantial cash compensation for loss of human life.
(iii) Solar powered fencing should be provided along with electric current proof
trenches to prevent the animals from straying into fields.
(iv) Cropping pattern should be changed near the forest borders and adequate fodder,
fruit and water should be made available for the elephants within forest zones.
(v) Wild life corridors should be provided for mass migration of big animals during
unfavorable periods.

WWF-TCP initiative to curb(limit) this ritual of “Akhand Shikar” in Orissa.

ENDANGERED SPECIES OF INDIA
The International Union for Conservation of Nature and Natural Resources (IUCN)
publishes the Red Data Book which includes the list of endangered species of plants and
animals.
Endangered: likely to go extinct if not preserved.
In India, nearly 450 plant species have been identified in the categories of endangered,
threatened or rare. Existence of about 150 mammals and 150 species of birds is
estimated to be threatened while an unknown number of species of insects are
endangered.

A species is said to be extinct when it is not seen in the wild for 50 years at a stretch
A species is said to be endangered when its number has been reduced to a critical level
or whose habitats, have been drastically reduced
A species is said to be in vulnerable category if its population is facing continuous
decline due to overexploitation or habitat destruction.

CONSERVATION OF BIODIVERSITY
a) In situ conservation (within habitat): This is achieved by protection of wild flora and
fauna in nature itself. e.g. Biosphere Reserves, National Parks, Sanctuaries, Reserve
Forests etc.
Modes:
The Biosphere Reserves conserve some representative ecosystems as a whole for
long-term in situ conservation. In India we have Nanda Devi (U.P.), Nokrek
(Meghalaya), Manas (Assam), Sunderbans (West Bengal)
A National Park is an area dedicated for the conservation of wildlife along with its
environment. It is also meant for enjoyment through tourism but without impairing the
environment.
Wildlife sanctuaries are also protected areas where killing, hunting, shooting or
capturing of wildlife is prohibited except under the control of highest authority.
Private ownership is permissible.

b) Ex situ conservation (outside habitats) This is done by establishment of gene banks,

seed banks, zoos, botanical gardens, culture collections etc.
Agencies:
National Bureau of Plant Genetic Resources (NBPGR)
National Bureau of Animal Genetic Resources (NBAGR)
Chapter 5
Environmental pollution can be defined as any undesirable change in the physical,
chemical or biological characteristics of any component of the environment (air, water,
soil), which can cause harmful effects on various forms of life or property.
Pollutant: polution causing agent

AIR POLLUTION
Gaseous pollutants include oxides of sulphur (mostly SO2, SO3) oxides of nitrogen
(mostly NO and NO2 or NOx ), carbon monoxide (CO)

Natural Sources: The natural sources of air pollution are volcanic eruptions, forest fires,
sea salt sprays.
Man-made: Man made sources include thermal power plants, industrial units, vehicular
emissions, fossil fuel burning, agricultural activities etc.

Indoor Air Pollution

Radon gas and its radioactive daughters are responsible for a large number of lung
cancer deaths each year. Radon can be emitted from building materials like bricks,
concrete, tiles etc. which are derived from soil containing radium.

Effects on human: lung diseases.

Effects on plants: Damage to leaf structure causes necrosis (dead areas of leaf), chlorosis
(loss or reduction of chlorophyll causing yellowing of leaf) or epinasty (downward
curling of leaf), and abscission (dropping of leaves).

Effects on aquatic life: increase in pH of water lakes.

Controlling air pollution:

● l Using mass transport system, bicycles etc.
● Shifting to less polluting fuels (hydrogen gas).
● Using non-conventional sources of energy.
● Using biological filters and bio-scrubbers.
● Planting more trees.

NOISE POLLUTION

Sound pressure described as frequency expressed in Hertz (Hz) and is equal to the
number of cycles per second.
Decibel scale is a measure of loudness. The Central Pollution Control Board (CPCB)
committee has recommended permissible noise level.

Sources of Noise Pollution: The main sources of noise are various modes of
transportation (like air, road, rail-transportation), industrial operations, construction
activities and celebrations

Effects:
Physiological and Psychological changes
Communication interference
Hearing damage

noise generated by various firecrackers is beyond the permissible noise levels of 125
decibels as per the Environmental (Protection) (Second Amendment) Rules,
1999.

Water pollution
Surface water pollution: The major sources of surface water pollution are:
1. Sewage: Pouring the drains and sewers in fresh water bodies causes water pollution.
The problem is severe in cities.
2. Industrial effluents: Industrial wastes containing toxic chemicals, acids, alkalis,
metallic salts, phenols, cyanides, ammonia, radioactive substances, etc. are sources of
water pollution. They also cause thermal (heat) pollution of water.
3. Synthetic detergents: Synthetic detergents used in washing and cleaning produce
foam and pollute water.
4. Agrochemicals: Agrochemicals like fertilizers (containing nitrates and phosphates)
and pesticides (insecticides, fungicides, herbicides etc.) washed by rain-water and
surface run-off pollute water.
5. Oil: Oil spillage into sea-water during drilling and shipment pollute it.

Nitrate when present in excess in drinking water causes blue baby syndrome or
methaemoglobinemia
Excess of fluoride in drinking water causes defects in teeth and bones called fluorosis.