COMMUNICATION SYSTEMS I
Chapter VIII
Dr. Cihat ŞEKER
Electrical-Electronics Engineering
2020
Radio Transmitters
Topics Covered in Chapter 8
1. Transmitter Fundamentals
2. Carrier Generators
3. Power Amplifiers
4. Impedance-Matching Networks
5. Typical Transmitter Circuits
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Power Amplifiers
Tuned Output Circuits
All class C amplifiers have
some form of tuned circuit
connected in the collector.
The primary purpose of a
tuned circuit is to form the
complete AC sine-wave
output.
A parallel tuned circuit
rings, or oscillates, at its
resonant frequency
whenever it receives a DC
pulse.
Figure 1. Class C amplifier operation
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Power Amplifiers
The pulse charges a capacitor, which then discharges into an inductor.
The exchange of energy between the inductor and the capacitor is called the flywheel effect and produces a
damped sine wave at the resonant frequency.
Any class C amplifier is capable of performing frequency multiplication if the tuned circuit in the collector
resonates at some integer multiple of the input frequency.
Neutralization
Self-oscillation exists when some of the output voltage finds its way back to the input of the amplifier with the
correct amplitude and phase, and the amplifier oscillates.
When an amplifier circuit oscillates at a higher frequency unrelated to the tuned frequency, the oscillation is
referred to as parasitic oscillation.
Neutralization is a process in which a signal equal in amplitude and 180° out of phase with the signal, is fed back.
The result is that the two signals cancel each other out.
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Power Amplifiers
Switching Power Amplifiers
A switching amplifier is a transistor that is used as a switch and is either conducting or nonconducting.
A class D amplifier uses a pair of transistors to produce a square-wave current in a tuned circuit.
In a class E amplifier, only a single transistor is used. This amplifier uses a low-pass filter and tuned
impedance-matching circuit to achieve a high level of efficiency.
A class F amplifier is a variation of the E amplifier.
It contains an additional resonant network which results in a steeper square waveform.
This waveform produces faster transistor switching and better efficiency.
Class S amplifiers are found primarily in audio applications but have also been used in low- and medium-
frequency RF amplifiers.
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Power Amplifiers
Linear Broadband Power Amplifiers
Newer wireless systems require broader bandwidth than the previously mentioned amplifiers can accommodate.
Two common methods of broad-bandwidth amplification are:
Feedforward amplification
Power Gain orpredistortion
Adaptive Attenuation amplification
dB = 10 log Pout/ Pin
Feedforward Amplification
With this technique, the distortion produced by the power amplifier is isolated and subtracted from the
amplified signal, producing a nearly distortion-free output signal.
The system is inefficient because two power amplifiers are required.
The tradeoff is wide bandwidth and very low distortion.
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Power Amplifiers
Figure 2. Feedforward linear power amplifier.
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Power Amplifiers
Adaptive Predistortion
Amplification
This method uses digital signal
processing (DSP) to predistort the
signal in a way that when
amplified, the amplifier distortion
will offset the predistortion
characteristics.
The result is a a distortion-free
output signal.
The method is complex, but is
more efficient than the
feedforward method because only
one power amplifier is needed.
Figure 3. Concept of adaptive predistortion amplification.
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Impedance-Matching Networks
Matching networks that connect one stage to another are very important parts of any transmitter.
The circuits used to connect one stage to another are known as impedance-matching networks.
Typical networks are LC circuits, transformers, or some combination.
Figure 4. Impedance Matching in RF Circuits
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Impedance-Matching Networks
The main function of a matching network is to provide for an optimum transfer of power through impedance
matching techniques.
Matching networks also provide filtering and selectivity.
Broadband Transmission
Networks
A broadband transmission takes place when a carrier signal is modulated, amplified, and sent to the antenna for
transmission.
There are three basic types of LC impedance-matching networks. They are:
The two most common methods of modulation are:
L Amplitude
network Modulation (AM)
TFrequency
network Modulation (FM)
Another method is called phase modulation (PM), in which the phase angle of the sine wave is varied.
π network
L networks consist of an inductor and a capacitor in various L-shaped configurations.
They are used as low- and high-pass networks.
Low-pass networks are preferred because harmonic frequencies are filtered out.
The L-matching network is designed so that the load impedance is matched to the source impedance.
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Impedance-Matching Networks
T and π Networks
To get better control of the Q, or selectivity of a circuit, matching networks using three reactive elements
can be used.
A π network is designed by using reactive elements in a configuration that resembles the Greek letter π
A T network is designed by using reactive elements in a configuration that resembles the letter T.
Figure 5. L-type impedance-matching network in which ZL < Zi. Figure 6. π network.
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Impedance-Matching Networks
Broadband Transmission
Frequency-shift keying (FSK) takes place when data is converted to frequency-varying tones.
takes place in the receiver when the original baseband (e.g. audio) signal is extracted.
Figure 7. T network.
Transformers and Baluns
One of the best impedance-matching components is the transformer.
Iron-core transformers are widely used at lower frequencies to match impedances.
Any load impedance can be made to look like the desired load impedance by selecting the correct value of
transformer turns ratio.
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Impedance-Matching Networks
A transformer used to connect a balanced source to an unbalanced load or vice versa, is called a balun
(balanced-unbalanced).
Although air-core transformers are used widely at RFs, they are less efficient than iron-core transformers.
The most widely used type of core for RF transformers is the toroid.
A toroid is a circular, doughnut-shaped core, usually made of a special type of powdered iron.
Single-winding tapped coils called autotransformers are also used for impedance matching between RF stages.
Toroid transformers cause the magnetic field produced by the primary to be completely contained within the
core itself.
This has two important advantages:
A toroid does not radiate RF energy.
Most of the magnetic field produced by the primary cuts the turns of the secondary winding.
Thus, the basic turns ratio, input-output voltage, and impedance formulas for low-frequency transformers
apply to high-frequency toroid transformers.
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Impedance-Matching Networks
Transmission Line Transformers and Baluns
A transmission line or broadband transformer is a unique type of transformer widely used in power amplifiers for
coupling between stages and impedance matching.
It is usually constructed by winding two parallel wires (or a twisted pair) on a toroid.
Figure 8. A toroid transformer. Figure 9. A transmission line transformer.
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Typical Transmitter Circuits
Many transmitters used in recent equipment designs are a combination of ICs and discrete component circuits.
Two examples are:
Low-Power FM Transmitter
Short-Range Wireless Transmitter
Low-Power FM Transmitter
A typical circuit might be made up of:
A transmitter chip
Power amplifier
IC voltage regulator
Voltage source.
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Typical Transmitter Circuits
Low-Power FM Transmitter
The heart of the circuit is the transmitter chip.
It contains a microphone amplifier with clipping
diodes; an RF oscillator, which is usually crystal-
controlled with an external crystal; and a buffer
amplifier.
Frequency modulation is produced by a variable
reactance circuit connected to the oscillator.
It also contains two free transistors that can be
connected with external components as buffer
amplifiers or as multipliers and low-level power
amplifiers.
This chip is useful up to about 60 to 70 MHz, and is
widely used in cordless telephones. Figure 10. Freescale MC 2833 IC FM VHF transmitter chip.
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Typical Transmitter Circuits
Short-Range Wireless Transmitter
There are many short-range wireless applications
that require a transmitter to send data or control
signals to a nearby receiver.
Examples include:
Remote keyless entry (RKE) devices used to
open car doors
Tire pressure sensors
Remote-control lights and ceiling fans
Garage door openers
Such transmitters are unlicensed, use very low
power, and operate in the FCC’s industrial-
scientific-medical (ISM) bands. Figure 11. Schematic of sections of the E-Comm transceiver.
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Typical Transmitter Circuits
A typical transmitter
circuit might be
composed of:
PLL used as a
frequency
multiplier
Output power
amplifier
Figure 12. The Freescale MC 33493D UHF ISM transmitter IC.
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